七日谈:大师和工作室的故事
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摘要
人类的建筑活动可以一直追溯到文明诞牛之初2400年前,柏拉图曾明确指出,建筑师是"工匠的指挥者"。而职业建筑师工作室的出现,却是18世纪中叶之后的事情。直到19世纪,建筑才成为一种专门职业。几千年中,"建筑师"、"大师"一再被重新定义。在现代建筑教育出现之前,建筑师都是从其它行业"跨界"从事建筑,其工作室大都为一件具体的作品而存在。本文以"七日谈"的形式,试举现代建筑师工作室之先例七种。从古埃及大祭司印何阗到文艺复兴绘画巨匠拉斐尔,七位大师的故事或要引发当今建筑师对自身实践的思考。
Building activities can be traced all the way back to the beginnings of human civilization.Architects,or master builders,have existed since early recorded history.As Plato points out,the master-builder is "the ruler of workmen".Yet not until after mid-eighteenth century did architectural firms in the modern sense come into being,and it was only in the nineteenth century that architecture began to be practiced as a full-time profession.Over the course of millennia,concepts like "architect" and "master" had been constantly redefined.Before modern architectural education appeared,architects normally came to practice architecture from other fields,and the existence of their workshops often depended upon one major project.Adopting the literary form of the Heptameron,this paper chronicles seven stories from Imhotep to Raphael,presenting their workshops as precedents for modern architectural practice.
Building activities can be traced all the way back to the beginnings of human civilization.Architects,or master builders,have existed since early recorded history.As Plato points out,the master-builder is "the ruler of workmen".Yet not until after mid-eighteenth century did architectural firms in the modern sense come into being,and it was only in the nineteenth century that architecture began to be practiced as a full-time profession.Over the course of millennia,concepts like "architect" and "master" had been constantly redefined.Before modern architectural education appeared,architects normally came to practice architecture from other fields,and the existence of their workshops often depended upon one major project.Adopting the literary form of the Heptameron,this paper chronicles seven stories from Imhotep to Raphael,presenting their workshops as precedents for modern architectural practice.
引文
[1]The Architect:Chapters in the History of the Profession,edited by Spiro Kostof,University of Chicago Press,2000.
[2]Penelope Reed Doob,The Idea of the Labyrinth:From Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages,Cornell University Press,1992.
[3]J.J.Coulton,Ancient Greek Architects at Work,Cornell University Press,1977.
[4]Gisela M.A.Richter,"The Pheidian Zeus at Olympia",Hesperia 35.2(April-June 1966):166-170.
[5]F.E.Brown,"Vitruvius and the Liberal Art of Architecture",Bucknell Review 11(1963):99-107.
[6]J.B.Ward-Perkins,Roman Imperial Architecture,Yale University Press,1970.
[7]G.Downey,"Byzantine Architects,Their Training and Methods",Byzantion 18(1946/48):99-118.
[8]K.D.Matthews,"Roman Aqueducts:Technical Aspects of Their Construction",Expedition 13(1970):2-16.
[9]H.Meeks,"The Architect and His Profession in Byzantium",Royal Institute of British Architects,Journal 59(1952):216-220.
[10]Nicholas Pevsner,"The Term Architect'in the Middle Ages",Speculum 17(1942):549-562.
[11]F.Bucher,"Design in Gothic Architecture:A Preliminary Assessment",Journal of the Society of architectural Historians 27(1968):49-71.
[12]R.Branner,"Villard de Honnecourt,Reims,and the Origin of Gothic Architectural Drawing",Gazette des Beaux-Arts,series 6,vol.61(1963):129-146.
[13]James A.Ackerman,"Architectural Practice in the Italian Renaissance",Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 13(1954):3-11.
[14]John Shearman,"The Organization of Raphael's Workshop",Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies,Vol.10(1983):40-57.
1)古埃及神话里,掌管建筑的是一位身披豹皮、头戴七角星冠的女神塞莎特(Seshat),她也是智慧女神和文书档案的守护神;她的神位有时被鹦首人身的托特(Thoth)取代,有时又与卜塔(Ptah)互换,前者是科学之神,后者是孟菲斯人信仰的造物主,也是工匠、建筑师和艺术家的守护神。从理论到实践,3位神明将整个建筑疆域揽于翼下。
2)古埃及第十八朝女王哈特谢普苏特(Hatshepsut)的御用建筑师塞内穆特(Senenmut)曾这么夸耀自己的特权:"I had access to all the writings of the prophets;there was nothing which I did not know of that which had happened since the beginning."参见文献[1]:5。
3)衙马在《伊利亚特》里最先提到代达罗斯(Homer,Iliad,ⅩⅧ590):他为明眸善舞的克里特岛公主阿里阿德涅(Ariadne)做了一个大舞台,布局精巧,不亚于米诺斯的迷宫。在公主的帮助下.大英雄忒修斯(Theseus)勇闯迷宫,手刃怪物。
4)Pliny the Elder,Natural History,7.198,
5)"…"this is the workshops of Daedalus;and about it are statues,some with forms blocked out,others in a quite complete state in that they are already stepping forward and give promise of walking about.Before the time of Daedalus,you know,the art of making statues had not yet conceived such a thing.Daedalus himself is of the Attic type in that his face suggests great wisdom and that the look of the eye is so intelligent—He sits before the framework of the cow and he uses Cupids as his assistants in the device so as to connect with it something of Aphrodite.Of the Cupids,my boy,those are visible who turn the drill,and those by Zeus that smooth with the adze portions of the cow which are not yet accurately finished,and those that measure off the symmetrical proportions on which craftsmanship depends.But the Cupids that work with the saw surpass all conception and all skill in drawing and color…"Philostratus of Lemnos,Imagines,1.16.
6)代达罗斯后面的6位建筑师经考证皆有其人:位列第二的菲隆(Philon)设计了雅典的水军军械库,并为厄琉息斯的泰勒斯台里昂神庙(Telesterion at Eleusis)修建了门廊;第三名Chersiphron和第五名Iktinos以建造神庙为主业;第四名Menekrates事迹不详。参见文献[3]:25-58。
7)关于希腊建筑师的教育情况我们所知不多。总的来说,建筑属于上层职业,往往以家族为核心。想成为建筑师的年轻人从木工、金工或雕塑等技艺开始,转向建筑之后仍可继续其专长。参见文献[1]。
8)萨摩斯岛的赫拉神庙(Heraion of Samos)前后经历多次修建,第一座神庙建于公元前8世纪,规模较小,公元前570-550年间,塞奥佐罗斯与另一位建筑师合作修建了一座更大的神庙,10年后毁于地震,之后再经重建,规模愈大,但从未完工。今天神庙废墟上只有一根石柱矗立。1992年,赫拉神庙遗址与近旁的毕达哥利翁古城(Pythagoreion)同被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产。
9)语出1世纪希腊演说家Dio Chrysostom,Orations,12.51。黄金和象牙打造的雕像有个专门术语,叫“chryselephantine sculpture”。在擅长这类雕像的艺术家里,菲迪亚斯无可匹敌,如罗马雄辩家昆提利安所说:"Pheidias is regarded as more gifted in his representation of gods than of men,and indeed for chryselephantine statues he is without a peer,as he would in truth be,even if he had produced nothing in this material beyond his Minerva at Athens and his Jupiter at Olympia in Elis,whose beauty is such that it is said to have added something even to the awe with which the god was already regarded:so perfectly did the majesty of the work give the impression of godhead."Quintilian,Institutio Oratoria,Ⅻ.10.9.宙斯神像毁于5世纪,没有任何大理石或青铜的复制品幸存,原初样貌仅可从附近伊利斯城和罗马铜币上仿佛一二。参见文献[4]。
10)"Outside the Altis there is a building called the workshop of Pheidias,where he wrought the image of Zeus piece by piece.In the building is an altar to all the gods in common."Pausanias,Description of Greece,V.15.1。Altis是宙斯神脚附近的朝圣所。
11)公元2世纪著名讽刺作家琉善在寓言小说《公鸡》里借公鸡之口道出了这些秘密,并借题发挥:“I was like those colossal statues,the work of Pheidias,Myron or Praxiteles:they too look extremely well from outside:'tis Poseidon with his trident,Zeus with his thunderbolt,all ivory and gold:but take a peep inside,and what have we?One tangle of bars,bolts,nails,planks wedges,with pitch and mortar and everything that is unsightly;not to mention a possible colony of rats or mice.There you have royalty."Lucian of Samosata,The Cock,小说中的公鸡称自己是毕达哥拉斯转世,他把一个穷铜匠从荣华富贵的大梦中唤醒,赋予他隐形的能力,带他深入豪门,一窥光鲜外表下不为人知的秘密,铜匠终于明白,清贫的生活原来挺好。
12)宙斯神像的年代被确定为公元前435年前后。大部分陶制建筑装饰构件和雕像的陶铸模具现保存在奥林匹亚考古博物馆。
13)参见文献[5]。但在相当程度上,罗马建筑是“后维特鲁威”的。此人基本上是个保守派,对奥古斯都年代之前的建筑创新不置一词,更无法想象其后100多年出现的全新建筑形式。
14)Pliny the Younger,Letters.10.40.3。
15)维特鲁威著作里充斥着希腊人名,几乎是言必称希腊,对本上建筑师倒惜墨如金,等于在夸大种族差异。
16)维特鲁威之后,为尼禄皇帝(Nero)修建金宫的赛维鲁(Severus)和为图密善皇帝(Domitian)修建帕拉丁皇宫的拉毕里乌斯(Rabirius)是代表罗马建筑帝国风格典范的大师,但现存文献中鲜见其具体工作方式的描述。在外省工作的建筑师的情况,我们所知极少,阿波罗多洛斯差不多是维特鲁威与布鲁内莱斯基之间最著名的建筑师了。详见文献[6]:84-95。安提莫斯出身显赫,父亲是当时最有名的医学家,4个兄弟中两个继承了父亲衣钵,其他两个分别是律师和语法学家。安提莫斯曾在当时的文化中心亚历山大港受教育。他最重要的数学成就是一本关于圆锥曲线的著作,在中世纪的阿拉伯和西方数学家中广为流传。详见文献[7]。
17)"The Emperor,disregarding all questions of expense,eagerly pressed an to begin the work of construction,and began to gather all the artisans from the whole world.And Anthemius of Tralles,the most learned man in the skilled craft which is known as the art of building,not only of all his contemporaries,but also when compared with those who had lived long before him,ministered to the Emperor's enthusiasm,duly regulating the tasks of the various artisans,and preparing in advance designs of the future construction.Associated with him was another master-builder,Isidorus by name,born in Miletus,a man who was intelligent and worthy to assist the Emperor,Justinian.Indeed this also was an indication of the honor in which God held the Emperor,that He had already provided the men who would be most serviceable to him in the tasks which were waiting to be carried out.And one might with good reason marvel at the discernment of the Emperor himself,in that out of the whole world he was able to select the men who were most suitable for the most important of his enterprises."Procopius of Caesarea,Buildings of Justinian,1.1.23-26.
18)弗朗提努斯出身贵族,曾担任执政官,军事将领和不列颠行省长官,后参与罗马市政改造工程,有战术和工程勘测方面的论著传世,对罗马帝国的运转起到了弥足轻重的作用。他是维特鲁威所倡导的通才教育的践行者,亦曾在《水渠》一书中提到“建筑师”维特鲁威在水利工程领域的成就。参见文献[8]。
19)"…fifty master craftsmen with their people were building the right-hand side,and the other fifty were likewise building the left-hand side,so that the work would proceed quickly,in competition and haste."Narratio de S.Sophia,7.
20)伊斯兰文明黄金时代,建筑思想的跨文化传播也结出硕果:1120年,欧几里德《几何原本》的第一个拉丁文版本由早期流传的阿拉伯文版译出。无论潮流动向,伊斯兰与西方中世纪建筑里都潜藏着几何学奥妙。直到14世纪晚期。突尼斯的穆斯林学者伊本·赫勒敦(Ibn Khaldun)仍提到几何对建筑师的重要意义。亦有杰出穆斯林数学家和占星家从事建筑实践之例。
[2]Penelope Reed Doob,The Idea of the Labyrinth:From Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages,Cornell University Press,1992.
[3]J.J.Coulton,Ancient Greek Architects at Work,Cornell University Press,1977.
[4]Gisela M.A.Richter,"The Pheidian Zeus at Olympia",Hesperia 35.2(April-June 1966):166-170.
[5]F.E.Brown,"Vitruvius and the Liberal Art of Architecture",Bucknell Review 11(1963):99-107.
[6]J.B.Ward-Perkins,Roman Imperial Architecture,Yale University Press,1970.
[7]G.Downey,"Byzantine Architects,Their Training and Methods",Byzantion 18(1946/48):99-118.
[8]K.D.Matthews,"Roman Aqueducts:Technical Aspects of Their Construction",Expedition 13(1970):2-16.
[9]H.Meeks,"The Architect and His Profession in Byzantium",Royal Institute of British Architects,Journal 59(1952):216-220.
[10]Nicholas Pevsner,"The Term Architect'in the Middle Ages",Speculum 17(1942):549-562.
[11]F.Bucher,"Design in Gothic Architecture:A Preliminary Assessment",Journal of the Society of architectural Historians 27(1968):49-71.
[12]R.Branner,"Villard de Honnecourt,Reims,and the Origin of Gothic Architectural Drawing",Gazette des Beaux-Arts,series 6,vol.61(1963):129-146.
[13]James A.Ackerman,"Architectural Practice in the Italian Renaissance",Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 13(1954):3-11.
[14]John Shearman,"The Organization of Raphael's Workshop",Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies,Vol.10(1983):40-57.
1)古埃及神话里,掌管建筑的是一位身披豹皮、头戴七角星冠的女神塞莎特(Seshat),她也是智慧女神和文书档案的守护神;她的神位有时被鹦首人身的托特(Thoth)取代,有时又与卜塔(Ptah)互换,前者是科学之神,后者是孟菲斯人信仰的造物主,也是工匠、建筑师和艺术家的守护神。从理论到实践,3位神明将整个建筑疆域揽于翼下。
2)古埃及第十八朝女王哈特谢普苏特(Hatshepsut)的御用建筑师塞内穆特(Senenmut)曾这么夸耀自己的特权:"I had access to all the writings of the prophets;there was nothing which I did not know of that which had happened since the beginning."参见文献[1]:5。
3)衙马在《伊利亚特》里最先提到代达罗斯(Homer,Iliad,ⅩⅧ590):他为明眸善舞的克里特岛公主阿里阿德涅(Ariadne)做了一个大舞台,布局精巧,不亚于米诺斯的迷宫。在公主的帮助下.大英雄忒修斯(Theseus)勇闯迷宫,手刃怪物。
4)Pliny the Elder,Natural History,7.198,
5)"…"this is the workshops of Daedalus;and about it are statues,some with forms blocked out,others in a quite complete state in that they are already stepping forward and give promise of walking about.Before the time of Daedalus,you know,the art of making statues had not yet conceived such a thing.Daedalus himself is of the Attic type in that his face suggests great wisdom and that the look of the eye is so intelligent—He sits before the framework of the cow and he uses Cupids as his assistants in the device so as to connect with it something of Aphrodite.Of the Cupids,my boy,those are visible who turn the drill,and those by Zeus that smooth with the adze portions of the cow which are not yet accurately finished,and those that measure off the symmetrical proportions on which craftsmanship depends.But the Cupids that work with the saw surpass all conception and all skill in drawing and color…"Philostratus of Lemnos,Imagines,1.16.
6)代达罗斯后面的6位建筑师经考证皆有其人:位列第二的菲隆(Philon)设计了雅典的水军军械库,并为厄琉息斯的泰勒斯台里昂神庙(Telesterion at Eleusis)修建了门廊;第三名Chersiphron和第五名Iktinos以建造神庙为主业;第四名Menekrates事迹不详。参见文献[3]:25-58。
7)关于希腊建筑师的教育情况我们所知不多。总的来说,建筑属于上层职业,往往以家族为核心。想成为建筑师的年轻人从木工、金工或雕塑等技艺开始,转向建筑之后仍可继续其专长。参见文献[1]。
8)萨摩斯岛的赫拉神庙(Heraion of Samos)前后经历多次修建,第一座神庙建于公元前8世纪,规模较小,公元前570-550年间,塞奥佐罗斯与另一位建筑师合作修建了一座更大的神庙,10年后毁于地震,之后再经重建,规模愈大,但从未完工。今天神庙废墟上只有一根石柱矗立。1992年,赫拉神庙遗址与近旁的毕达哥利翁古城(Pythagoreion)同被联合国教科文组织列为世界遗产。
9)语出1世纪希腊演说家Dio Chrysostom,Orations,12.51。黄金和象牙打造的雕像有个专门术语,叫“chryselephantine sculpture”。在擅长这类雕像的艺术家里,菲迪亚斯无可匹敌,如罗马雄辩家昆提利安所说:"Pheidias is regarded as more gifted in his representation of gods than of men,and indeed for chryselephantine statues he is without a peer,as he would in truth be,even if he had produced nothing in this material beyond his Minerva at Athens and his Jupiter at Olympia in Elis,whose beauty is such that it is said to have added something even to the awe with which the god was already regarded:so perfectly did the majesty of the work give the impression of godhead."Quintilian,Institutio Oratoria,Ⅻ.10.9.宙斯神像毁于5世纪,没有任何大理石或青铜的复制品幸存,原初样貌仅可从附近伊利斯城和罗马铜币上仿佛一二。参见文献[4]。
10)"Outside the Altis there is a building called the workshop of Pheidias,where he wrought the image of Zeus piece by piece.In the building is an altar to all the gods in common."Pausanias,Description of Greece,V.15.1。Altis是宙斯神脚附近的朝圣所。
11)公元2世纪著名讽刺作家琉善在寓言小说《公鸡》里借公鸡之口道出了这些秘密,并借题发挥:“I was like those colossal statues,the work of Pheidias,Myron or Praxiteles:they too look extremely well from outside:'tis Poseidon with his trident,Zeus with his thunderbolt,all ivory and gold:but take a peep inside,and what have we?One tangle of bars,bolts,nails,planks wedges,with pitch and mortar and everything that is unsightly;not to mention a possible colony of rats or mice.There you have royalty."Lucian of Samosata,The Cock,小说中的公鸡称自己是毕达哥拉斯转世,他把一个穷铜匠从荣华富贵的大梦中唤醒,赋予他隐形的能力,带他深入豪门,一窥光鲜外表下不为人知的秘密,铜匠终于明白,清贫的生活原来挺好。
12)宙斯神像的年代被确定为公元前435年前后。大部分陶制建筑装饰构件和雕像的陶铸模具现保存在奥林匹亚考古博物馆。
13)参见文献[5]。但在相当程度上,罗马建筑是“后维特鲁威”的。此人基本上是个保守派,对奥古斯都年代之前的建筑创新不置一词,更无法想象其后100多年出现的全新建筑形式。
14)Pliny the Younger,Letters.10.40.3。
15)维特鲁威著作里充斥着希腊人名,几乎是言必称希腊,对本上建筑师倒惜墨如金,等于在夸大种族差异。
16)维特鲁威之后,为尼禄皇帝(Nero)修建金宫的赛维鲁(Severus)和为图密善皇帝(Domitian)修建帕拉丁皇宫的拉毕里乌斯(Rabirius)是代表罗马建筑帝国风格典范的大师,但现存文献中鲜见其具体工作方式的描述。在外省工作的建筑师的情况,我们所知极少,阿波罗多洛斯差不多是维特鲁威与布鲁内莱斯基之间最著名的建筑师了。详见文献[6]:84-95。安提莫斯出身显赫,父亲是当时最有名的医学家,4个兄弟中两个继承了父亲衣钵,其他两个分别是律师和语法学家。安提莫斯曾在当时的文化中心亚历山大港受教育。他最重要的数学成就是一本关于圆锥曲线的著作,在中世纪的阿拉伯和西方数学家中广为流传。详见文献[7]。
17)"The Emperor,disregarding all questions of expense,eagerly pressed an to begin the work of construction,and began to gather all the artisans from the whole world.And Anthemius of Tralles,the most learned man in the skilled craft which is known as the art of building,not only of all his contemporaries,but also when compared with those who had lived long before him,ministered to the Emperor's enthusiasm,duly regulating the tasks of the various artisans,and preparing in advance designs of the future construction.Associated with him was another master-builder,Isidorus by name,born in Miletus,a man who was intelligent and worthy to assist the Emperor,Justinian.Indeed this also was an indication of the honor in which God held the Emperor,that He had already provided the men who would be most serviceable to him in the tasks which were waiting to be carried out.And one might with good reason marvel at the discernment of the Emperor himself,in that out of the whole world he was able to select the men who were most suitable for the most important of his enterprises."Procopius of Caesarea,Buildings of Justinian,1.1.23-26.
18)弗朗提努斯出身贵族,曾担任执政官,军事将领和不列颠行省长官,后参与罗马市政改造工程,有战术和工程勘测方面的论著传世,对罗马帝国的运转起到了弥足轻重的作用。他是维特鲁威所倡导的通才教育的践行者,亦曾在《水渠》一书中提到“建筑师”维特鲁威在水利工程领域的成就。参见文献[8]。
19)"…fifty master craftsmen with their people were building the right-hand side,and the other fifty were likewise building the left-hand side,so that the work would proceed quickly,in competition and haste."Narratio de S.Sophia,7.
20)伊斯兰文明黄金时代,建筑思想的跨文化传播也结出硕果:1120年,欧几里德《几何原本》的第一个拉丁文版本由早期流传的阿拉伯文版译出。无论潮流动向,伊斯兰与西方中世纪建筑里都潜藏着几何学奥妙。直到14世纪晚期。突尼斯的穆斯林学者伊本·赫勒敦(Ibn Khaldun)仍提到几何对建筑师的重要意义。亦有杰出穆斯林数学家和占星家从事建筑实践之例。
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