圣安德烈斯断层中是否存在高孔隙压力
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摘要
假设圣安德烈斯断层(加州)中存在高孔隙压力流体,并用其来解释断层的主动性失稳,这或许直接影响着对地震发生机理的认识。但最近在位于加州东部圣安德烈斯断层上的钻探(SAFOD,San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth)中,未发现存在高孔隙压力流体的相关证据[1]。假如没有高孔隙压力普遍存在的证据,这将影响我们对圣安德烈斯断层或其他活断层上地震发生机理的认识。然而,笔者认为圣安德烈斯断层深钻现有的证据,尚不足以否定高孔隙压力流体存在的假说。要充分认识断层中孔隙压力的特征,还需要在圣安德烈斯断层的钻孔上进行长期监测。以上分析结果或许对解释其他活断层钻探项目结果有所帮助。
引文
[1]Zoback M D,Hickman S,Ellsworth W.Scientific drilling into the San Andreas fault zone.Eos,Transactions,American Geophysical Union,2010,91:197-204.doi:10.1029/2010EO220001
[2]Brune J N,Henyey T L,Roy R F.Heat flow,stress,and rate of slip along the San Andreas fault,California.J.Geophys.Res.,1969,74:3 821-3 827.doi:10.1029/JB074i015p03821
[3]Lachenbruch A H,Sass J H.Heat flow and energetics of the San Andreas fault zone.J.Geophys.Res.,1980,85:6 185-6 222.doi:10.1029/JB085iB11p06185
[4]Williams C F,Grubb F V,Galanis S P Jr.Heat flow in the SAFOD pilot hole and implications for the strengthof the San Andreas fault.Geophys.Res.Lett.,2004,31,L15S14.doi:10.1029/2003GL019352
[5]Zoback M D and 12 others.New evidence on the state of stress of the San Andreas fault system.Science,1987,238:1 105-1 111.doi:10.1126/science.238.4830.1105
[6]Mount V S,Suppe J.State of stress near the San Andreas fault:Implications for wrench tectonics.Geology,1987,15:1 143-1 146.doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<1143:SOSNTS>2.0.CO;2
[7]Wu F T,Blatter L,Roberson H.Clay gouges in the San Andreas fault system and their possible implications.Pure and Applied Geophysics,1975,113:87-95.doi:10.1007/BF01592901
[8]Wu F T.Mineralogy and physical nature of clay gouge.Pure and Applied Geophysics,1978,116:655-689.doi:10.1007/BF00876531
[9]Wang C-Y,Lin W,Wu F.Constitution of the San Andreas fault zone at depth.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1978,5:741-744.doi:10.1029/GL005i009p00741
[10]Wang C-Y,Mao N H.Shearing of saturated clays in rock joints at high-confining pressures.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1979,6:825-828.doi:10.1029/GL006i011p00825
[11]Chu C-L,Wang C-Y,Lin W.Permeability and frictional properties of San Andreas fault gouges.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1981,8:565-568.doi:10.1029/GL008i006p00565
[12]Carpenter B M,Marone C,Saffer D M.Weakness of the San Andreas fault revealed by samples from the activefault zone.Nature Geoscience,2011:1-4.doi:10.1038/NGEO1089
[13]Lockner D A,Morrow C,Moore D,et al.Low strength of deep San Andreas fault gouge from SAFOD core.Nature,2011,472:82-85.doi:10.1038/nature09927
[14]Byerlee J D.Friction of rocks.Pure and Applied Geophysics,1978,116:615-626.doi:10.1007/BF00876528
[15]Lachenbruch A H.Frictional heating,fluid pressure,and the resistance to fault motion.J.Geophys.Res.,1980,85:6 097-6 112.doi:10.1029/JB085iB11p06097
[16]Di Toro G D,Han R,Hirose T,et al.Fault lubrication during earthquakes.Nature,2011,471:494-498.doi:10.1038/nature09838
[17]Rice J R.Fault stress states,pore pressure distributions,and the weakness of the San Andreas fault,in EvansB,Wong T-F,eds.Fault Mechanics and Transport Properties of Rocks.San Diego:Academic Press.1992:475-503
[18]Byerlee,J D.Friction,overpressure and faultnormal compression.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1990,17:2109-2 112.doi:10.1029/GL017i012p02109
[19]Wang C-Y.On the constitution of the San Andreas fault.J.Geophys.Res.,1984,89:5858-5866.doi:10.1029/JB089iB07p05858
[20]Liechti R,Zoback M D.Preliminary analysis of clay gouge from a well in the San Andreas fault zone in centralCalifornia.in Proceedings of ConferenceⅧ:Analysis of actual fault zones in bedrock.U.S.Geological SurveyOpen-File Report 79-1239.1979:268-275
[21]Zoback M D,Lachenbruch A H.Introduction to Special Section on the Cajon Pass Scientific Drilling Project.J.Geophys.Res.,1992,97:4 991-4 994.doi:10.1029/91JB03110
[22]Brodsky E,Mori J,Fulton P M.Drilling into faults quickly after earthquakes.Eos,Transactions,AmericanGeophysical Union,2010,91:237-244.doi:10.1029/2010EO270001
[23]Gorman P.Scientists poised to drill into fault.Science/Stuff.co.nz.http:∥www.stuff.co.nz/science/4511807/Scientists-poised-to-drillinto-fault.2011
[24]Zoback M D,Hickman S,Ellsworth W,et al.Scientific drilling into the San Andreas fault zone An over-view of SAFOD’s first five years.Scientific Drilling,2011,11:14-28.doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.11.02.2011
[25]Manning C E,Ingebritsen S E.Permeability of the continental crust:Implications of geothermal data and meta-morphic systems.Reviews of Geophysics,1999,37:127-150.doi:10.1029/1998RG900002
[26]Saar M O,Manga M.Depth dependence of permeability in the Oregon Cascades inferred from hydrogeologic,thermal,seismic,and magmatic modeling constraints.J.Geophys.Res.,2004,109,B04204.doi:10.1029/2003JB002855
[27]Morrow C,Shi L Q,Byerlee J.Permeability of fault gouge under confining pressure and shear stress.J.Geo-phys.Res.,1984,89:3 193-3 200.doi:10.1029/JB089iB05p03193
[28]Rathbun A P,Song I,Saffer D.Permeability of the San Andreas fault zone at depth.Eos,Transactions,A-merican GeophysicalUnion,abs.T41A-2095.2010
[29]Marone C,Carpenter B M,Rathbun A P,et al.Physical properties and mechanical behavior of the active SanAndres fault zone:Insight from laboratory studies.Eos,Transactions,American Geophysical Union,abs.T52B-04.2010
[30]Bett K E,Cappi J B.Effect of pressure on the viscosity of water.Nature,1965,207:620-621.doi:10.1038/207620a0
[31]Germanovich L N,Lowell R P,Astakhov D K.Stress-dependent permeability and the formation of seafloor e-vent plumes.J.Geophys.Res.,2000,105:8 341-8 354.doi:10.1029/1999JB900431
[32]Wang C-Y,Rui F,Yao Y Z,et al.Gravity anomaly and density structure of the San Andreas fault zone.Pureand Applied Geophysics,1986,124:127-140.doi:10.1007/BF00875722
[33]Chu C-L,Wang C-Y.Time-dependent volumetric constitutive relation for fault-gouge and clay at high pres-sure.in Goodman R E,Heuze F E,eds.,Issues in Rock Mechanics.Proceedings,23rd Symposium on RockMechanics.New York:Society of Mining Engineers,1982
[34]Ingebritsen S W,Manning C E.Permeability of the continental crust:Dynamic variations inferred from seis-micity and metamorphism.Geofluids,2010,10:193-205.doi:10.1111/j.1468-8123.2010.00278.x
[35]Carlslaw H S,Jaeger J C.Conduction of heat in solids(second edition).Oxford:Clarendon Press,1959:510
[36]Wiersberg T,Erzinger J.Chemical and isotope composition of drilling mud gas from the San Andreas Fault Ob-servatory at Depth(SAFOD)boreholes:Implications on gas migration and the permeability structure of the SanAndreas fault.Chemical Geology,2011,284:148-159.doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.02.016
[37]Boness N L,Zoback M D.A multiscale study of the mechanisms controlling shear velocity anisotropy in the SanAndreas Fault Observatory at Depth.Geophysics,2006,71:131-146.doi:10.1190/1.2231107
[38]Holdsworth R E,van Diggelen E W E,Spiers C J,et al.,Fault rocks from the SAFOD core samples:Implica-tions for weakening at shallow depths along the San Andreas Fault,California.Journal of Structural Geology,2011,33:132.doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.11.010
[39]Lo T,Coyner K B,Toksoz N.Experimental determination of elastic anisotropy of Berea sandstone,Chicopeeshale,and Chelmsford granite.Geophysics,1986,51:164-171.doi:10.1190/1.1442029
[40]Berryman J G.Exact seismic velocities for transversely isotropic media and extended Thomsen formulas forstronger anisotropies.Geophysics,2008,73:D1-D10.doi:10.1190/1.2813433
[41]Carcione J M,Cavallini F.Poison’s ratio at high pore pressure.Geophysical Prospecting,2002,50:97-106.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2478.2002.00299.x
[2]Brune J N,Henyey T L,Roy R F.Heat flow,stress,and rate of slip along the San Andreas fault,California.J.Geophys.Res.,1969,74:3 821-3 827.doi:10.1029/JB074i015p03821
[3]Lachenbruch A H,Sass J H.Heat flow and energetics of the San Andreas fault zone.J.Geophys.Res.,1980,85:6 185-6 222.doi:10.1029/JB085iB11p06185
[4]Williams C F,Grubb F V,Galanis S P Jr.Heat flow in the SAFOD pilot hole and implications for the strengthof the San Andreas fault.Geophys.Res.Lett.,2004,31,L15S14.doi:10.1029/2003GL019352
[5]Zoback M D and 12 others.New evidence on the state of stress of the San Andreas fault system.Science,1987,238:1 105-1 111.doi:10.1126/science.238.4830.1105
[6]Mount V S,Suppe J.State of stress near the San Andreas fault:Implications for wrench tectonics.Geology,1987,15:1 143-1 146.doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<1143:SOSNTS>2.0.CO;2
[7]Wu F T,Blatter L,Roberson H.Clay gouges in the San Andreas fault system and their possible implications.Pure and Applied Geophysics,1975,113:87-95.doi:10.1007/BF01592901
[8]Wu F T.Mineralogy and physical nature of clay gouge.Pure and Applied Geophysics,1978,116:655-689.doi:10.1007/BF00876531
[9]Wang C-Y,Lin W,Wu F.Constitution of the San Andreas fault zone at depth.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1978,5:741-744.doi:10.1029/GL005i009p00741
[10]Wang C-Y,Mao N H.Shearing of saturated clays in rock joints at high-confining pressures.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1979,6:825-828.doi:10.1029/GL006i011p00825
[11]Chu C-L,Wang C-Y,Lin W.Permeability and frictional properties of San Andreas fault gouges.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1981,8:565-568.doi:10.1029/GL008i006p00565
[12]Carpenter B M,Marone C,Saffer D M.Weakness of the San Andreas fault revealed by samples from the activefault zone.Nature Geoscience,2011:1-4.doi:10.1038/NGEO1089
[13]Lockner D A,Morrow C,Moore D,et al.Low strength of deep San Andreas fault gouge from SAFOD core.Nature,2011,472:82-85.doi:10.1038/nature09927
[14]Byerlee J D.Friction of rocks.Pure and Applied Geophysics,1978,116:615-626.doi:10.1007/BF00876528
[15]Lachenbruch A H.Frictional heating,fluid pressure,and the resistance to fault motion.J.Geophys.Res.,1980,85:6 097-6 112.doi:10.1029/JB085iB11p06097
[16]Di Toro G D,Han R,Hirose T,et al.Fault lubrication during earthquakes.Nature,2011,471:494-498.doi:10.1038/nature09838
[17]Rice J R.Fault stress states,pore pressure distributions,and the weakness of the San Andreas fault,in EvansB,Wong T-F,eds.Fault Mechanics and Transport Properties of Rocks.San Diego:Academic Press.1992:475-503
[18]Byerlee,J D.Friction,overpressure and faultnormal compression.Geophys.Res.Lett.,1990,17:2109-2 112.doi:10.1029/GL017i012p02109
[19]Wang C-Y.On the constitution of the San Andreas fault.J.Geophys.Res.,1984,89:5858-5866.doi:10.1029/JB089iB07p05858
[20]Liechti R,Zoback M D.Preliminary analysis of clay gouge from a well in the San Andreas fault zone in centralCalifornia.in Proceedings of ConferenceⅧ:Analysis of actual fault zones in bedrock.U.S.Geological SurveyOpen-File Report 79-1239.1979:268-275
[21]Zoback M D,Lachenbruch A H.Introduction to Special Section on the Cajon Pass Scientific Drilling Project.J.Geophys.Res.,1992,97:4 991-4 994.doi:10.1029/91JB03110
[22]Brodsky E,Mori J,Fulton P M.Drilling into faults quickly after earthquakes.Eos,Transactions,AmericanGeophysical Union,2010,91:237-244.doi:10.1029/2010EO270001
[23]Gorman P.Scientists poised to drill into fault.Science/Stuff.co.nz.http:∥www.stuff.co.nz/science/4511807/Scientists-poised-to-drillinto-fault.2011
[24]Zoback M D,Hickman S,Ellsworth W,et al.Scientific drilling into the San Andreas fault zone An over-view of SAFOD’s first five years.Scientific Drilling,2011,11:14-28.doi:10.2204/iodp.sd.11.02.2011
[25]Manning C E,Ingebritsen S E.Permeability of the continental crust:Implications of geothermal data and meta-morphic systems.Reviews of Geophysics,1999,37:127-150.doi:10.1029/1998RG900002
[26]Saar M O,Manga M.Depth dependence of permeability in the Oregon Cascades inferred from hydrogeologic,thermal,seismic,and magmatic modeling constraints.J.Geophys.Res.,2004,109,B04204.doi:10.1029/2003JB002855
[27]Morrow C,Shi L Q,Byerlee J.Permeability of fault gouge under confining pressure and shear stress.J.Geo-phys.Res.,1984,89:3 193-3 200.doi:10.1029/JB089iB05p03193
[28]Rathbun A P,Song I,Saffer D.Permeability of the San Andreas fault zone at depth.Eos,Transactions,A-merican GeophysicalUnion,abs.T41A-2095.2010
[29]Marone C,Carpenter B M,Rathbun A P,et al.Physical properties and mechanical behavior of the active SanAndres fault zone:Insight from laboratory studies.Eos,Transactions,American Geophysical Union,abs.T52B-04.2010
[30]Bett K E,Cappi J B.Effect of pressure on the viscosity of water.Nature,1965,207:620-621.doi:10.1038/207620a0
[31]Germanovich L N,Lowell R P,Astakhov D K.Stress-dependent permeability and the formation of seafloor e-vent plumes.J.Geophys.Res.,2000,105:8 341-8 354.doi:10.1029/1999JB900431
[32]Wang C-Y,Rui F,Yao Y Z,et al.Gravity anomaly and density structure of the San Andreas fault zone.Pureand Applied Geophysics,1986,124:127-140.doi:10.1007/BF00875722
[33]Chu C-L,Wang C-Y.Time-dependent volumetric constitutive relation for fault-gouge and clay at high pres-sure.in Goodman R E,Heuze F E,eds.,Issues in Rock Mechanics.Proceedings,23rd Symposium on RockMechanics.New York:Society of Mining Engineers,1982
[34]Ingebritsen S W,Manning C E.Permeability of the continental crust:Dynamic variations inferred from seis-micity and metamorphism.Geofluids,2010,10:193-205.doi:10.1111/j.1468-8123.2010.00278.x
[35]Carlslaw H S,Jaeger J C.Conduction of heat in solids(second edition).Oxford:Clarendon Press,1959:510
[36]Wiersberg T,Erzinger J.Chemical and isotope composition of drilling mud gas from the San Andreas Fault Ob-servatory at Depth(SAFOD)boreholes:Implications on gas migration and the permeability structure of the SanAndreas fault.Chemical Geology,2011,284:148-159.doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.02.016
[37]Boness N L,Zoback M D.A multiscale study of the mechanisms controlling shear velocity anisotropy in the SanAndreas Fault Observatory at Depth.Geophysics,2006,71:131-146.doi:10.1190/1.2231107
[38]Holdsworth R E,van Diggelen E W E,Spiers C J,et al.,Fault rocks from the SAFOD core samples:Implica-tions for weakening at shallow depths along the San Andreas Fault,California.Journal of Structural Geology,2011,33:132.doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.11.010
[39]Lo T,Coyner K B,Toksoz N.Experimental determination of elastic anisotropy of Berea sandstone,Chicopeeshale,and Chelmsford granite.Geophysics,1986,51:164-171.doi:10.1190/1.1442029
[40]Berryman J G.Exact seismic velocities for transversely isotropic media and extended Thomsen formulas forstronger anisotropies.Geophysics,2008,73:D1-D10.doi:10.1190/1.2813433
[41]Carcione J M,Cavallini F.Poison’s ratio at high pore pressure.Geophysical Prospecting,2002,50:97-106.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2478.2002.00299.x
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