地球深部的水
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摘要
地球内部水的分布与循环对了解地球内部的物理化学性质、地球动力学和地球的演化起着重要的作用.本文综述了地球内部水含量的探索方法、存在状态、地球各个层圈水的储存能力、高温高压下矿物中的溶解度以及地球物理观测(大地电磁和地震波)结果等方面的研究进展.研究结果表明,地球内部储存的水可能超过了地球表面大洋水的数倍.微量的水能够引起地震波速度的降低和电导率的显著增加.
Distributions and circulars of water play an important role in understanding the physical and chemical properties of earth interior,geodynamical process,and evolution of earth. This paper reviews the various aspects of water in the earth's interior,including the exploring method,state,storage capacity,content in the different spheres of earth,solubility in minerals at high temperature and pressure,and some results from geophysical observations. The amount of water content in the earth's interior may be several times larger than that at the earth's surface. Trace water can significantly affect the electrical conductivity and velocity of seismic wave.
Distributions and circulars of water play an important role in understanding the physical and chemical properties of earth interior,geodynamical process,and evolution of earth. This paper reviews the various aspects of water in the earth's interior,including the exploring method,state,storage capacity,content in the different spheres of earth,solubility in minerals at high temperature and pressure,and some results from geophysical observations. The amount of water content in the earth's interior may be several times larger than that at the earth's surface. Trace water can significantly affect the electrical conductivity and velocity of seismic wave.
引文
[1]Williams Q,Hemley RJ.Hydrogeninthe deep earth[J].Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci,2001,29:365-418.
[2]Bell D R,Rossman G.Water in Earth s mantle:the role of nominally anhydrous minerals[J].Science,1992,255:1391-1397.
[3]Bolfan-Casanova N.Water inthe Earth s mantle[J].Mineral Mag,2005,69:229-257.
[4]Hirschmann MM,Aubaud C,Withers AC.Storage capacity of H2Oin nominally anhydrous minerals inthe upper mantle[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,2005,236:167-181.
[5]Evans RL,Hirth G,Baba K,et al.Geophysical evidence fromthe MELTarea for compositional control on oceanic plates[J].Nature,2005,437,249-252.
[6]Hauri E H,Gaetai GA,Green TH.Partitioningof water during meltingof the Earth s upper mantle at H2O-undersatureated conditions[J].Earth Plane Sci Lett,2006,248:715-734.
[7]Hier-Majumder S,AndersonI M,Kohlstedt DL.Influence of protons on Fe-Mginter-diffusioninolivine[J].J Geophys Res,2005,110,doi:10.1029/2004JB003292.
[8]Karato S,Jung H.Effects of pressure on high-temperature dislocation creepin olivine polycrystals[J].Phil Mag A,2003,83:401-414.
[9]Karato S,Paterson MS,Fitz Gerald J D.Rheology of synthetic olivine aggregates:influence of grain-size and water[J].J Geophys Res,1986,91:8151-8176.
[10]Karato S.The role of hydrogeninthe electrical conductivity of the upper mantle[J].Nature,1990,347:272-273.
[11]Kushiro I,Syono Y,Akimoto S.Melting of a peridotite nodule at high pressures and high water pressures[J].J Geophys Res,1968,73:6023-6029.
[12]Mei S,Kohlstedt D L.Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates,1.Diffusion creepregime[J].J Geophys Res,2000,105:21457-21469.
[13]Baba K,Chave AD,Evans R L,et al.Mantle dynamics beneath the East Pacific Rise at17uS:Insights fromthe Mantle Electromagnetic and Tomography(MELT)experiments[J].J Geophys Res,2006,111,doi:10.1029/2004JB003598.
[14]Braummiller J,Lee S,Doermann L.Mantel transition zone thickness inthe central south-American subduction zone[J].Geophysical Monograph Series,2006:215-224.
[15]Fukao YT,Koyama T,Obayashi,et al.Trans-pacific temperature field in the mantle transition region derived fromseismic and electromagnetic tomography[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,2004,217:425-434.
[16]Gatzemeier A,Moorkamp M.3D modelling of electrical anisotropy fromelectromagnetic array data:hypothesis testing for different upper mantle conduction mechanisms[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,2005,149:225-242.
[17]Shito A,Karato S,Kyoko N,et al.Towards mappingthe three-dimensional distribution of water inthe upper mantel fromvelocity and attenuation tomography[J].Geophysical Monograph Series,2006:225-236.
[18]Bolfan-Casanova N,Mackwell S,Keppler H,et al.Pressure dependence of Hsolubility in magnesiowustite up to25GPa:Implications for the storage of water inthe Earth s lower mantle[J].Geophys Res Lett,2002,29:1029-1032.
[19]Bromiley G D,Keppler H.An experimental investigation of hydroxyl solubilityinjadeite and Na-rich clinopyroxenes[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,2004,147:189-200.
[20]Bromiley G D,Keppler H,McCammon C,et al.Hydrogen solubility and speciationin natural,gem-quality chromian diopside[J].Am Mineral,2004,89:941-949.
[21]Kohlstedt D L,Keppler H,Rubie D C.Solubility of water intheα、βandγphases of(Mg,Fe)2SiO4[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,1996,123:345-357.
[22]Litasove K,Ohtani E,Langenhorst F,et al.Water solubilityin Mg-perovskites and water storage capacityinthelower mantle[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,211:189-203.
[23]Lu R,Keppler H.Water solubilityin pyrope to100kbar[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,1997,129:35-42.
[24]Aubaud C,Hauri E H,Hirschmann MM.Hydrogen partition coefficients between nominally anhydrous minerals and basaltic melts[J].Geophy Res Lett,2004,31,L20611,doi:10.1029/2004GL021341.
[25]Bromiley G D,Pawley AR.The stability of antigoriteinthe systems MgO-SiO2-H2O(MSH)and MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O(MASH):The effects of Al3+substitution on high-pressure stability[J].Am Mineral,2003,88:99-108.
[26]Kanzaki M.Stability of hydrous magnesiumsilicates inthe mantle transition zone[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,1991,66:307-312.
[27]Karato S.Remote sensing of hydrogenin Earth mantle reviews in mineralogy&geochemistry[C]//Keppler H.Smyth(eds).Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals,Washington DC:G&MSA,2006,62:343-375.
[28]Bell D R,Ihinger P D,Rossman G R.Quantitative analysis of trace OHin garnet and pyroxenes[J].Am Mineral,1995,80:465-474.
[29]Bolfan-Casanova N,Keppler H,Rubie D C.Hydroxyl in MgSiO3akimotoite:Apolarized and high pressure IRstudy[J].Am Mineral,2002,87:603-608.
[30]Johnson E A.Water in nominally anhydrous crustal minerals:speciation,concentration,and geologic significance[C]//Keppler H,Smyth(eds).Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals.Washington DC:G&MSA,2006,62:117-154.
[31]Ringwood AE.Composition and petrology of the Earth s Mantle[M].NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1975.
[32]Anderson D L,Bass J D.Mineralogy and composition of the upper mantle[J].Geophys Res Lett,1984,11:637-640.
[33]Bai Q,Kohlstedt DL.Substantial hydrogen solubilityin olivine andimplications for water storage inthe mantle[J].Nature,1992,357:672-674.
[34]Bai Q,Kohlstedt D L.Effects of chemical environment on the solubility and incorporation mechanismfor hydrogen in olivine[J].Phys Chem Minerals,1993,19:460-471.
[35]Miller G H,Rossman G R,HarlowG E.The natural occurrence of hydroxide in olivine[J].Phys Chem Minerals,1987,14:461-472.
[36]Bell D R,Rossman G R,Maldener J,et al.Hydroxide in olivine:Aquantitative determination of the absolute amount and calibration of the IR spectrum[J].J Geophys Res,2003,108(B2):2105-2113.
[37]Bell D R,Rossman G R,Moore R O.Abundance and partitioning of OHin a high-pressure magmatic system:Megacrysts fromthe Monastery kimberlite,South Africa[J].J Petrol,2004,45:1539-1564.
[38]Matsyuk S S,Langer K.Hydroxyl in olivines frommantle xenoliths in kimberlites of the Siberian platform[J].Contr Mineral Petrol,2004,147:413-437.
[39]Koch-Mller M,Matsyuk S S,Rhede D,et al.Hydroxyl in mantle olivine xenocrysts fromthe Udachnaya kimberlite pipe[J].Phys Chem Minerals,2006,33:276-287.
[40]Peslier A H,Luhr J F,Post J.Lowwater contents in pyroxenes fromspinel-peridotites of the oxidized,sub-arc mantle wedge[J].Earth Plan Sc Lett,2002,201:69-86.
[41]Skogby H,Bell D R,Rossman G R.Hydroxide in pyroxene:Variations inthe natural environment[J].Am Mineral,1990,75:764-774.
[42]Katayama I,Nakashima S.Hydroxyl incorporationfromdeepsubducted crust:Evidencefor H2Otransport intothe mantle[J].AmMineral,2003,88:229-234.
[43]Katayama I,Nakashima S,Yurimoto H.Water content in natural eclogite and implication for water transport into the deep upper mantle[J].Lithos,2005,86:245-259.
[44]Snyder G A,Taylor L A,Jerde E A,et al.Archean mantle heterogeneityandthe originof diamondiferous eclogites,Siberia:Evidencefromstable isotopes and hydroxyl in garnet[J].Am Mineral,1995,80:799-809.
[45]Mosenfelder J L,Deligne NI,AsimowP D,et al.Hydrogenincorporationin olivine from2~12GPa[J].Am Mineral,2005,91:285-294.
[46]Mierdel K,Keppler H.The temperature dependence of water solubilityin enstatite[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,2004,148:305-311.
[47]Inoue T,Yurimoto H,Kudoh Y.Hydrous modified spinel Mg1.75SiH0.5O4——Anewwater reservoir inthe mantle transitionregion[J].Geophys Res Lett,1995,22:117-120.
[48]Yamada A,Inoue T,Irifune T.Melting of enstatite from13to18GPa under hydrous conditions[J].Phys Earth Planet Int,2004,147:45-56.
[49]Stalder R,Skogby.Hydrogenincorporationin enstatite[J].Eur J Mineral,2002,14:1139-1144.
[50]Rauch M,Keppler H.Water solubilityin orthopyroxene[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,2002,143:525-536.
[51]Meade C,Reffner J A,Ito E.Synchrotron infrared absorbance measurements of hydrogen in MgSiO3perovskite[J].Science,1994,264:1558-1560.
[52]Murakami M,Hirose K,Yurimoto H,et al.Water inthe Earth s lower mantle[J].Science,2002,295:1885-1887.
[53]Keppler H,Bolfan-Casanova N.Thermodynamics of water solubility and partitioning[C]//Keppler H,Smyth(eds).Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals.Washington DC:G&MSA,2006,62:193-230.
[54]Suetsugu D,Inoue T,Yamada A,et al.Towards mapping the three-dimensional distribution of water in the transition zone from p-velocity tomographyand660km discontinuity depths[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:237-249.
[55]Kayama T,Hisayoshi Shi Utada H,et al.Water content in the mantle transition zone beneath the north pacific derived fromthe electrical conductivity anomaly[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:171-179.
[56]Courtier A,Revenauh J.Awater-richtransition zone beneaththe Eastern united states and gulf o mexico from multiple ScS reverberations[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:181-193.
[57]Lawrence J,Wysession M.Seismic evidence for subduction-transported water inthe lower mantle[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:251-261.
[58]Lizaralde D,Chave A,Hirth G,et al.Northeastern Pacific mantle conductivity profile fromlong-period magnetotelluric sounding using Hawaii-to California submarine cable data[J].J Geophys Res,1995,100:17837-17854.
[59]Ichiki M,Uyeshima M,Utada H,et al.Upper mantle conductivity structure of the back-arc region beneath northeastern China[J].Geophys Res Lett,2001,28:3773-3776.
[60]Tarits P,Hautot S,Perrier F.Water inthe mantle:Results fromelectrical conductivity beneaththe French Alps[J].Geophys Res Lett,2004,31,doi:10.1029/2003GL019277.
[61]Hirth G,Evans RL,Chave AD.Comparison of continental and oceanic mantle electrical conductivity:Is Archeanlithosphere dry[J]-Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2000,1,doi:10.1029/2000GC000048.
[62]Utada H,Koyama T,Shimizu H,et al.Asemi-global reference model of electrical conductivityinthe mid-mantle beneaththe north Pacific region[J].Geophys Res Lett,2003,30,doi:10.1029/2002GL016092.
[63]Olsen,N.Long-period(30days-1year)electromagnetic sounding andthe electrical conductivity of the lower mantle beneath Europe[J].Geophys J Int,1999,138:179-187.
[64]Simpson F.Intensity and direction of lattice-preferred orientation of olivine:are electrical and seismic anisotropies of the Australian mantle reconcilable[J]-Earth Planet Sci Lett,2002,203:535-547.
[65]Huang X,Xu Y,Karato S.Water contentinthetransitionzonefromelectrical conductivityof wadsleyite andringwoodite[J].Nature,2005,434:746-749.
[66]Wang D,Mookherjee M,Xu Y,et al.The effect of water on electrical conductivity of olivine[J].Nature,2006,443:977-980.
[67]Wang D,Li H,Yi L,et al.The electrical conductivity of upper-mantle rocks:water content inthe upper mantle[J].Phys Chem Minerals,2008,35:157-162.
[68]Jacobsen S,Smyth J.Effect of water onthe sound velocities of ringwoodite inthe transiton zone[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth deep Water Cycle.Washington,DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006:131-145.
[69]Meijde M,Marone F,Giardini,et al.Seismic evidence for water deepin Earth s upper mantle[J].Science,2003,300:1556-1558.
[2]Bell D R,Rossman G.Water in Earth s mantle:the role of nominally anhydrous minerals[J].Science,1992,255:1391-1397.
[3]Bolfan-Casanova N.Water inthe Earth s mantle[J].Mineral Mag,2005,69:229-257.
[4]Hirschmann MM,Aubaud C,Withers AC.Storage capacity of H2Oin nominally anhydrous minerals inthe upper mantle[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,2005,236:167-181.
[5]Evans RL,Hirth G,Baba K,et al.Geophysical evidence fromthe MELTarea for compositional control on oceanic plates[J].Nature,2005,437,249-252.
[6]Hauri E H,Gaetai GA,Green TH.Partitioningof water during meltingof the Earth s upper mantle at H2O-undersatureated conditions[J].Earth Plane Sci Lett,2006,248:715-734.
[7]Hier-Majumder S,AndersonI M,Kohlstedt DL.Influence of protons on Fe-Mginter-diffusioninolivine[J].J Geophys Res,2005,110,doi:10.1029/2004JB003292.
[8]Karato S,Jung H.Effects of pressure on high-temperature dislocation creepin olivine polycrystals[J].Phil Mag A,2003,83:401-414.
[9]Karato S,Paterson MS,Fitz Gerald J D.Rheology of synthetic olivine aggregates:influence of grain-size and water[J].J Geophys Res,1986,91:8151-8176.
[10]Karato S.The role of hydrogeninthe electrical conductivity of the upper mantle[J].Nature,1990,347:272-273.
[11]Kushiro I,Syono Y,Akimoto S.Melting of a peridotite nodule at high pressures and high water pressures[J].J Geophys Res,1968,73:6023-6029.
[12]Mei S,Kohlstedt D L.Influence of water on plastic deformation of olivine aggregates,1.Diffusion creepregime[J].J Geophys Res,2000,105:21457-21469.
[13]Baba K,Chave AD,Evans R L,et al.Mantle dynamics beneath the East Pacific Rise at17uS:Insights fromthe Mantle Electromagnetic and Tomography(MELT)experiments[J].J Geophys Res,2006,111,doi:10.1029/2004JB003598.
[14]Braummiller J,Lee S,Doermann L.Mantel transition zone thickness inthe central south-American subduction zone[J].Geophysical Monograph Series,2006:215-224.
[15]Fukao YT,Koyama T,Obayashi,et al.Trans-pacific temperature field in the mantle transition region derived fromseismic and electromagnetic tomography[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,2004,217:425-434.
[16]Gatzemeier A,Moorkamp M.3D modelling of electrical anisotropy fromelectromagnetic array data:hypothesis testing for different upper mantle conduction mechanisms[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,2005,149:225-242.
[17]Shito A,Karato S,Kyoko N,et al.Towards mappingthe three-dimensional distribution of water inthe upper mantel fromvelocity and attenuation tomography[J].Geophysical Monograph Series,2006:225-236.
[18]Bolfan-Casanova N,Mackwell S,Keppler H,et al.Pressure dependence of Hsolubility in magnesiowustite up to25GPa:Implications for the storage of water inthe Earth s lower mantle[J].Geophys Res Lett,2002,29:1029-1032.
[19]Bromiley G D,Keppler H.An experimental investigation of hydroxyl solubilityinjadeite and Na-rich clinopyroxenes[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,2004,147:189-200.
[20]Bromiley G D,Keppler H,McCammon C,et al.Hydrogen solubility and speciationin natural,gem-quality chromian diopside[J].Am Mineral,2004,89:941-949.
[21]Kohlstedt D L,Keppler H,Rubie D C.Solubility of water intheα、βandγphases of(Mg,Fe)2SiO4[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,1996,123:345-357.
[22]Litasove K,Ohtani E,Langenhorst F,et al.Water solubilityin Mg-perovskites and water storage capacityinthelower mantle[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,211:189-203.
[23]Lu R,Keppler H.Water solubilityin pyrope to100kbar[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,1997,129:35-42.
[24]Aubaud C,Hauri E H,Hirschmann MM.Hydrogen partition coefficients between nominally anhydrous minerals and basaltic melts[J].Geophy Res Lett,2004,31,L20611,doi:10.1029/2004GL021341.
[25]Bromiley G D,Pawley AR.The stability of antigoriteinthe systems MgO-SiO2-H2O(MSH)and MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O(MASH):The effects of Al3+substitution on high-pressure stability[J].Am Mineral,2003,88:99-108.
[26]Kanzaki M.Stability of hydrous magnesiumsilicates inthe mantle transition zone[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,1991,66:307-312.
[27]Karato S.Remote sensing of hydrogenin Earth mantle reviews in mineralogy&geochemistry[C]//Keppler H.Smyth(eds).Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals,Washington DC:G&MSA,2006,62:343-375.
[28]Bell D R,Ihinger P D,Rossman G R.Quantitative analysis of trace OHin garnet and pyroxenes[J].Am Mineral,1995,80:465-474.
[29]Bolfan-Casanova N,Keppler H,Rubie D C.Hydroxyl in MgSiO3akimotoite:Apolarized and high pressure IRstudy[J].Am Mineral,2002,87:603-608.
[30]Johnson E A.Water in nominally anhydrous crustal minerals:speciation,concentration,and geologic significance[C]//Keppler H,Smyth(eds).Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals.Washington DC:G&MSA,2006,62:117-154.
[31]Ringwood AE.Composition and petrology of the Earth s Mantle[M].NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1975.
[32]Anderson D L,Bass J D.Mineralogy and composition of the upper mantle[J].Geophys Res Lett,1984,11:637-640.
[33]Bai Q,Kohlstedt DL.Substantial hydrogen solubilityin olivine andimplications for water storage inthe mantle[J].Nature,1992,357:672-674.
[34]Bai Q,Kohlstedt D L.Effects of chemical environment on the solubility and incorporation mechanismfor hydrogen in olivine[J].Phys Chem Minerals,1993,19:460-471.
[35]Miller G H,Rossman G R,HarlowG E.The natural occurrence of hydroxide in olivine[J].Phys Chem Minerals,1987,14:461-472.
[36]Bell D R,Rossman G R,Maldener J,et al.Hydroxide in olivine:Aquantitative determination of the absolute amount and calibration of the IR spectrum[J].J Geophys Res,2003,108(B2):2105-2113.
[37]Bell D R,Rossman G R,Moore R O.Abundance and partitioning of OHin a high-pressure magmatic system:Megacrysts fromthe Monastery kimberlite,South Africa[J].J Petrol,2004,45:1539-1564.
[38]Matsyuk S S,Langer K.Hydroxyl in olivines frommantle xenoliths in kimberlites of the Siberian platform[J].Contr Mineral Petrol,2004,147:413-437.
[39]Koch-Mller M,Matsyuk S S,Rhede D,et al.Hydroxyl in mantle olivine xenocrysts fromthe Udachnaya kimberlite pipe[J].Phys Chem Minerals,2006,33:276-287.
[40]Peslier A H,Luhr J F,Post J.Lowwater contents in pyroxenes fromspinel-peridotites of the oxidized,sub-arc mantle wedge[J].Earth Plan Sc Lett,2002,201:69-86.
[41]Skogby H,Bell D R,Rossman G R.Hydroxide in pyroxene:Variations inthe natural environment[J].Am Mineral,1990,75:764-774.
[42]Katayama I,Nakashima S.Hydroxyl incorporationfromdeepsubducted crust:Evidencefor H2Otransport intothe mantle[J].AmMineral,2003,88:229-234.
[43]Katayama I,Nakashima S,Yurimoto H.Water content in natural eclogite and implication for water transport into the deep upper mantle[J].Lithos,2005,86:245-259.
[44]Snyder G A,Taylor L A,Jerde E A,et al.Archean mantle heterogeneityandthe originof diamondiferous eclogites,Siberia:Evidencefromstable isotopes and hydroxyl in garnet[J].Am Mineral,1995,80:799-809.
[45]Mosenfelder J L,Deligne NI,AsimowP D,et al.Hydrogenincorporationin olivine from2~12GPa[J].Am Mineral,2005,91:285-294.
[46]Mierdel K,Keppler H.The temperature dependence of water solubilityin enstatite[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,2004,148:305-311.
[47]Inoue T,Yurimoto H,Kudoh Y.Hydrous modified spinel Mg1.75SiH0.5O4——Anewwater reservoir inthe mantle transitionregion[J].Geophys Res Lett,1995,22:117-120.
[48]Yamada A,Inoue T,Irifune T.Melting of enstatite from13to18GPa under hydrous conditions[J].Phys Earth Planet Int,2004,147:45-56.
[49]Stalder R,Skogby.Hydrogenincorporationin enstatite[J].Eur J Mineral,2002,14:1139-1144.
[50]Rauch M,Keppler H.Water solubilityin orthopyroxene[J].Contrib Mineral Petrol,2002,143:525-536.
[51]Meade C,Reffner J A,Ito E.Synchrotron infrared absorbance measurements of hydrogen in MgSiO3perovskite[J].Science,1994,264:1558-1560.
[52]Murakami M,Hirose K,Yurimoto H,et al.Water inthe Earth s lower mantle[J].Science,2002,295:1885-1887.
[53]Keppler H,Bolfan-Casanova N.Thermodynamics of water solubility and partitioning[C]//Keppler H,Smyth(eds).Water in Nominally Anhydrous Minerals.Washington DC:G&MSA,2006,62:193-230.
[54]Suetsugu D,Inoue T,Yamada A,et al.Towards mapping the three-dimensional distribution of water in the transition zone from p-velocity tomographyand660km discontinuity depths[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:237-249.
[55]Kayama T,Hisayoshi Shi Utada H,et al.Water content in the mantle transition zone beneath the north pacific derived fromthe electrical conductivity anomaly[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:171-179.
[56]Courtier A,Revenauh J.Awater-richtransition zone beneaththe Eastern united states and gulf o mexico from multiple ScS reverberations[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:181-193.
[57]Lawrence J,Wysession M.Seismic evidence for subduction-transported water inthe lower mantle[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth Deep Water Cycle.Washington DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006,168:251-261.
[58]Lizaralde D,Chave A,Hirth G,et al.Northeastern Pacific mantle conductivity profile fromlong-period magnetotelluric sounding using Hawaii-to California submarine cable data[J].J Geophys Res,1995,100:17837-17854.
[59]Ichiki M,Uyeshima M,Utada H,et al.Upper mantle conductivity structure of the back-arc region beneath northeastern China[J].Geophys Res Lett,2001,28:3773-3776.
[60]Tarits P,Hautot S,Perrier F.Water inthe mantle:Results fromelectrical conductivity beneaththe French Alps[J].Geophys Res Lett,2004,31,doi:10.1029/2003GL019277.
[61]Hirth G,Evans RL,Chave AD.Comparison of continental and oceanic mantle electrical conductivity:Is Archeanlithosphere dry[J]-Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2000,1,doi:10.1029/2000GC000048.
[62]Utada H,Koyama T,Shimizu H,et al.Asemi-global reference model of electrical conductivityinthe mid-mantle beneaththe north Pacific region[J].Geophys Res Lett,2003,30,doi:10.1029/2002GL016092.
[63]Olsen,N.Long-period(30days-1year)electromagnetic sounding andthe electrical conductivity of the lower mantle beneath Europe[J].Geophys J Int,1999,138:179-187.
[64]Simpson F.Intensity and direction of lattice-preferred orientation of olivine:are electrical and seismic anisotropies of the Australian mantle reconcilable[J]-Earth Planet Sci Lett,2002,203:535-547.
[65]Huang X,Xu Y,Karato S.Water contentinthetransitionzonefromelectrical conductivityof wadsleyite andringwoodite[J].Nature,2005,434:746-749.
[66]Wang D,Mookherjee M,Xu Y,et al.The effect of water on electrical conductivity of olivine[J].Nature,2006,443:977-980.
[67]Wang D,Li H,Yi L,et al.The electrical conductivity of upper-mantle rocks:water content inthe upper mantle[J].Phys Chem Minerals,2008,35:157-162.
[68]Jacobsen S,Smyth J.Effect of water onthe sound velocities of ringwoodite inthe transiton zone[C]//Jacobsen S D,Van der Lee S(eds).Earth deep Water Cycle.Washington,DC:AGU,Geophysical Monograph Series,2006:131-145.
[69]Meijde M,Marone F,Giardini,et al.Seismic evidence for water deepin Earth s upper mantle[J].Science,2003,300:1556-1558.
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