通过SKS分裂分析非洲中东部地区地震各向异性
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摘要
利用非洲台阵(Africa Array)最新的地震记录,通过测量远震SKS震相的分裂参数,详细分析了非洲中东部地区地球介质各向异性可能的成因,包括随应力场变化定向排布的裂隙和岩浆透镜体,以及橄榄石晶格的定向排布等.结果表明,现今上地幔流动导致的橄榄石晶格定向排布是其各向异性的主要成因,该结果与250km深度的地幔流动模型一致.对于少数台站出现的异常结果,则尝试用D″各向异性和双层各向异性模型来解释,并在此基础上讨论了D″各向异性的研究意义.
Mid-eastern Africa is a tectonically complex region due to the presence of Tanzania craton,several paleothrust belts and shear zones.The magmatism is active and researchers believe the existence of a mantle plume.Mechanisms and structures controlling the tectonics and geodynamics in mid-eastern Africa remain unclear and the interpretations for origins of anisotropy have not converged.In this paper,by taking advantage of the most recent seismic data of Africa Array,seismic anisotropy beneath mid-eastern Africa is analyzed with teleseismic SKS splitting measurements;we try to explain the sources of anisotropy in a variety of scenarios,such as cracks,magma-filled lenses and LPO(lattice-preferred orientation)of olivine fabrics.Fast polarization patterns at most stations are consistent with tomography based on mantle flow model at the depth of 250 km,inferring that the dominant source of anisotropy beneath this region is LPO of olivine fabrics produced by dislocation creep in the asthenosphere.We attempt to interpret anomalous rose diagrams with D″anisotropy and double-layered anisotropy.We also discuss the significance for the research of D″anisotropy.
Mid-eastern Africa is a tectonically complex region due to the presence of Tanzania craton,several paleothrust belts and shear zones.The magmatism is active and researchers believe the existence of a mantle plume.Mechanisms and structures controlling the tectonics and geodynamics in mid-eastern Africa remain unclear and the interpretations for origins of anisotropy have not converged.In this paper,by taking advantage of the most recent seismic data of Africa Array,seismic anisotropy beneath mid-eastern Africa is analyzed with teleseismic SKS splitting measurements;we try to explain the sources of anisotropy in a variety of scenarios,such as cracks,magma-filled lenses and LPO(lattice-preferred orientation)of olivine fabrics.Fast polarization patterns at most stations are consistent with tomography based on mantle flow model at the depth of 250 km,inferring that the dominant source of anisotropy beneath this region is LPO of olivine fabrics produced by dislocation creep in the asthenosphere.We attempt to interpret anomalous rose diagrams with D″anisotropy and double-layered anisotropy.We also discuss the significance for the research of D″anisotropy.
引文
常利军,王椿镛,丁志峰,周民都,杨建思,徐智强,姜旭东,郑秀芬.2008.青藏高原东北缘上地幔各向异性研究[J].地球物理学报,51(2):431-438.
Chang L J,Wang C Y,Ding Z F,Zhou M D,Yang J S,Xu Z Q,Jiang X D,Zheng X F.2008.Seismic anisotropy of upper mantle in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics,51(2):431-438(in Chinese).
雷军,王培德,姚陈,陈运泰.1997.云南剑川近场横波特征及其与构造的关系[J].地球物理学报,40(6):791-801.
Lei J,Wang P D,Yao C,Chen Y T.1997.The near-field shear wave splitting and its relation with structure in Jianchuan,Yunnan Province[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics,40(6):791-801(in Chinese).
吕庆田.马开义,姜枚,Hirn A,Nercessian A.1996.青藏高原南部下的横波各向异性[J].地震学报,18(2):215-223.
LüQ T,Ma K Y,Jiang M,Hirn A,Nercessian A.1996.Shear wave anisotropy beneath the south part of Tibetan Plateau[J].Acta Seismologica Sinica,18(2):215-223(in Chinese).
王琼,高原,石玉涛,吴晶.2013.青藏高原东北缘上地幔地震各向异性:来自SKS、PKS和SKKS震相分裂的证据[J].地球物理学报,56(3):892-905.doi:10.6038/cj920130318.
Wang Q,Gao Y,Shi Y T,Wu J.2013.Seismic anisotropy in the uppermost mantle beneath the northeastern margin ofQinghai-Tibet Plateau:Evidence from shear wave splitting of SKS,PKS and SKKS[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics,56(3):892-905.doi:10.6038/cj920130318(in Chinese).
郑斯华,高原.1994.中国大陆岩石层的方位各向异性[J].地震学报,16(2):131-140.
Zheng S H,Gao Y.1994.Azimuthal anisotropy of rock layer in China Continent[J].Acta Seismologica Sinica,16(2):131-140(in Chinese).
Abt D L,Fischer K M.2008.Resolving three-dimensional anisotropic structure with shear-wave splitting tomography[J].Geophys J Int,173(3):859-889.
Backus G E.1962.Long-wave elastic anisotropy produced by horizontal layering[J].J Geophys Res,67(11):4427-4440.
Barruol G,Ismail W B.2001.Upper mantle anisotropy beneath the African IRIS and Geoscope stations[J].Geophys JInt,146(2):549-561.
Booth D C,Crampin S,Lovell J H,Chiu J M.1990.Temporal changes in shear wave splitting during an earthquakeswarm in Arkansas[J].J Geophys Res,95(B7):11151-11164.
Cahen L,Snelling N J,Delhal J,Vail J R.1984.The Geochronology and Evolution of Africa[M].New York:OxfordUniversity Press:512.
Chevrot S.2000.Multichannel analysis of shear wave splitting[J].J Geophys Res,105(B9):21579-21590.
Chevrot S.2006.Finite-frequency vectorial tomography:A new method for high resolution imaging of upper mantle anisotropy[J].Geophys J Int,165(2):641-657.
Chevrot S,Monteiller V.2009.Principles of vectorial tomography:The effects of model parameterization and regularization in tomographic imaging of seismic anisotropy[J].Geophys J Int,179(3):1726-1736.
Christensen N I.1984.The magnitude,symmetry,and origin of upper mantle anisotropy based on fabric analysis of ultramafic tectonites[J].Geophys J R astr Soc,76(1):89-111.
Crampin S.1991.Wave propagation through fluid-filled inclusions of various shapes:Interpretation of extensive-dilatancyanisotropy[J].Geophys J Int,104(3):611-623.
Crampin S.1994.The fracture criticality of crustal rocks[J].Geophys J Int,118(2):428-438.
Forte A M,QuéréS,Moucha R,Simmons N A,Grand S P,Mitrovica J X,Rowley D B.2010.Joint seismic-geodynamic-mineral physical modeling of African geodynamics:A reconciliation of deep-mantle convection with surface geophysical constraints[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,295(3/4):329-341.
Gao S,Davis P M,Liu H,Slack P D,Rigor A W,Zorin Y A,Mordvinova V V,Kozhevnikov V M,Logatchev N A.1997.SKS splitting beneath continental rift zones[J].J Geophys Res,102(B10):22781-22797.
Heidbach O,Tingay M,Barth A,Reinecker J,KurfeвD,Müller B.2009.The World Stress Map Based on the Database Release 2008,Equatorial Scale 1:46000000[M].Paris:Commission for the Geological Map of the World.doi:10.1594/GFZ.WSM.Map2009.
Kaneshima S,Ando M,Kimura S.1988.Evidence from shear-wave splitting for the restriction of seismic anisotropy tothe upper crust[J].Nature,335(6191):627-629.
Kaneshima S.1990.Origin of crustal anisotropy:Shear wave splitting studies in Japan[J].J Geophys Res,95(B7):11121-11133.
Katayama I,Hirauchi K I,Michibayashi K,Ando J I.2009.Trench-parallel anisotropy produced by serpentine deformation in the hydrated mantle wedge[J].Nature,461(7267):1114-1117.
Karato S.1995.Effects of water on seismic wave velocities in the upper mantle[J].Proc Japan Acad,71(2):61-66.
Karato S.1998.Some remarks on the origin of seismic anisotropy in the D″layer[J].Earth Planets Space,50(11/12):1019-1028.
Karato S.2008.Deformation of Earth Materials:An Introduction to the Rheology of the Solid Earth[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press:391-407.
Kendall J M.1994.Teleseismic arrivals at a mid-ocean ridge:Effects of mantle melt and anisotropy[J].Geophys ResLett,21(4):301-304.
Kendall J M,Silver P G.1998.Investigating causes of D″anisotropy[G]∥Gurnis M,Wysession M E,Knittle E,BuffettB A eds.The Core-Mantle Boundary Region.Washington:American Geophysical Union:97-118.
Kennett B L N,Engdahl E R.1991.Travel times for global earthquake location and phase identification[J].Geophys JInt,105(2):429-465.
Kumazawa M,Anderson O L.1969.Elastic moduli,pressure derivatives,and temperature derivatives of single-crystalolivine and single-crystal forsterite[J].J Geophys Res,74(25):5961-5972.
Lenoir J L,Liegeois J P,Theunissen K,Klerkx J.1994.The Paleoproterozoic Ubendian shear belt in Tanzania:Geochronology and structure[J].J Afr Earth Sci,19(3):169-184.
Long M D,van der Hilst R D.2005.Upper mantle anisotropy beneath Japan from shear wave splitting[J].Phys EarthPlanet Int,151(3/4):206-222.
Long M D,de Hoop M V,van der Hilst R D.2008.Wave-equation shear wave splitting tomography[J].Geophys J Int,172(1):311-330.
Long M D,Silver P G.2009.Shear wave splitting and mantle anisotropy:Measurements,interpretations,and new directions[J].Surveys in Geophysics,30(4/5):407-461.
Long M D,Becker T W.2010.Mantle dynamics and seismic anisotropy[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,297(3/4):341-354.
Lynner C,Long M D.2012.Evaluating contributions to SK(K)S splitting from lower mantle anisotropy:A case studyfrom station DBIC,Cte D’Ivoire[J].Bull Seismol Soc Am,102(3):1030-1040.
Mainprice D,Silver P G.1993.Interpretation of SKS-waves using samples from the subcontinental lithosphere[J].PhysEarth Planet Inter,78(3/4):257-280.
Marson-Pidgeon K,Savage M K.1997.Frequency dependent anisotropy in Wellington,New Zealand[J].Geophys ResLett,24(24):3297-3300.
McKenzie D.1979.Finite deformation during fluid flow[J].Geophys J R astr Soc,58(3):689-715.
McNamara D E,Owens T J,Silver P G,Wu F T.1994.Shear wave anisotropy beneath the Tibetan Plateau[J].J Geophys Res,99(B7):13655-13665.
Nicolas A,Poirier J P.1976.Crystalline Plasticity and Solid State Flow in Metamorphic Rocks[M].New York:JohnWiley:p444.
Nicolas A,Christensen N I.1987.Formation of anisotropy in upper mantle peridotites:A review[G]∥Fuchs K,Froidevaux C eds.Composition,Structure and Dynamics of the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere System.Washington:AGU,16:111-123.
Nyblade A A,Robinson S W.1994.The African superswell[J].Geophys Res Lett,21(9):765-768.
Obrebski M,Kiselev S,Vinnik L,Montagner J P.2010.Anisotropic stratification beneath Africa from joint inversion ofSKS and P receiver functions[J].J Geophys Res,115:B09313.doi:10.1029/2009JB006923.
zalabey S,Chen W P.1999.Frequency-dependent analysis of SKS/SKKS waveforms observed in Australia:Evidencefor null birefringence[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,114(3/4):197-210.
Ribe N M,Yu Y.1991.A theory for plastic deformation and textural evolution of olivine polycrystals[J].J GeophysRes,96(B5):8325-8335.
Ribe N M.1992.On the relation between seismic anisotropy and finite strain[J].J Geophys Res,97(B6):8737-8747.
Saltzer R L,Gaherty J,Jordan T H.2000.How are vertical shear wave splitting measurements affected by variations inthe orientation of azimuthal anisotropy with depth?[J].Geophys J Int,141(2):374-390.
Shih X R,Meyer R P.1990.Observation of shear wave splitting from natural events:South moat of Long Valley Caldera,California,June 29to August 12,1982[J].J Geophys Res,95(B7):11179-11195.
Silver P G,Chan W W.1991.Shear wave splitting and subcontinental mantle deformation[J].J Geophys Res,96(B10):16429-16454.
Silver P G,Savage M K.1994.The interpretation of shear-wave splitting parameters in the presence of two anisotropiclayers[J].Geophys J Int,119(3):949-963.
Silver P G,Holt W E.2002.The mantle flow field beneath western North America[J].Science,295(5557):1054-1057.
Sleep N H,Ebinger C J,Kendall J M.2004.Deflection of mantle plume material by cratonic keels[G]∥Fowler C M R,Ebinger C J,Hawkesworth C J eds.The Early Earth:Physical,Chemical and Biological Development,GeologicalSociety Special Publication.London:Geological Society of London,199:135-150.
Vauchez A,Barruol G,Nicolas A.1999.Comment on“SKS splitting beneath continental rift zones”'by Gao et al[J].JGeophys Res,104(B5):10787-10789.
Vecsey L,PlomerovJ,Babuka V.2008.Shear-wave splitting measurements:Problems and solutions[J].Tectonophysics,462(1/2/3/4):178-196.
Vinnik L P,Kosarev G L,Makeyeva L I.1984.Lithospheric anisotropy as indicated by SKS and SKKS waves[J].Doklady Earth Sci Sect,278:39-43.
Walker K T,Nyblade A A,Klemperer S L,Bokelmann G H R,Owens T J.2004.On the relationship between extension and anisotropy:Constraints from shear wave splitting across the East African Plateau[J].J Geophys Res,109:B08302.doi:10.1029/2003JB002866.
Weeraratne D S,Forsyth D W,Fischer K M,Nyblade A A.2003.Evidence for an upper mantle plume beneath theTanzanian craton from Rayleigh wave tomography[J].J Geophys Res,108(B9):2427.doi:10.1029/2002JB002273.
Wenk H R,Bennett K,Canova G R,Molinari A.1991.Modeling plastic deformation of peridotite with the self-consistent theory[J].J Geophys Res,96(B5):8337-8349.
Wirth E,Long M D.2010.Frequency-dependent shear wave splitting beneath the Japan and Izu-Bonin subduction zones[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,181(3/4):141-154.
Wüstefeld A,Bokelmann G.2007.Null detection in shear-wave splitting measurements[J].Bull Seismol Soc Am,97(4):1204-1211.
Wüstefeld A,Bokelmann G,Barruol G,Zaroli C.2007.Splitlab:A shear-wave splitting environment in Matlab[J].Comp Geosci,34(5):515-528.doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2007.1008.1002.
Chang L J,Wang C Y,Ding Z F,Zhou M D,Yang J S,Xu Z Q,Jiang X D,Zheng X F.2008.Seismic anisotropy of upper mantle in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics,51(2):431-438(in Chinese).
雷军,王培德,姚陈,陈运泰.1997.云南剑川近场横波特征及其与构造的关系[J].地球物理学报,40(6):791-801.
Lei J,Wang P D,Yao C,Chen Y T.1997.The near-field shear wave splitting and its relation with structure in Jianchuan,Yunnan Province[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics,40(6):791-801(in Chinese).
吕庆田.马开义,姜枚,Hirn A,Nercessian A.1996.青藏高原南部下的横波各向异性[J].地震学报,18(2):215-223.
LüQ T,Ma K Y,Jiang M,Hirn A,Nercessian A.1996.Shear wave anisotropy beneath the south part of Tibetan Plateau[J].Acta Seismologica Sinica,18(2):215-223(in Chinese).
王琼,高原,石玉涛,吴晶.2013.青藏高原东北缘上地幔地震各向异性:来自SKS、PKS和SKKS震相分裂的证据[J].地球物理学报,56(3):892-905.doi:10.6038/cj920130318.
Wang Q,Gao Y,Shi Y T,Wu J.2013.Seismic anisotropy in the uppermost mantle beneath the northeastern margin ofQinghai-Tibet Plateau:Evidence from shear wave splitting of SKS,PKS and SKKS[J].Chinese Journal of Geophysics,56(3):892-905.doi:10.6038/cj920130318(in Chinese).
郑斯华,高原.1994.中国大陆岩石层的方位各向异性[J].地震学报,16(2):131-140.
Zheng S H,Gao Y.1994.Azimuthal anisotropy of rock layer in China Continent[J].Acta Seismologica Sinica,16(2):131-140(in Chinese).
Abt D L,Fischer K M.2008.Resolving three-dimensional anisotropic structure with shear-wave splitting tomography[J].Geophys J Int,173(3):859-889.
Backus G E.1962.Long-wave elastic anisotropy produced by horizontal layering[J].J Geophys Res,67(11):4427-4440.
Barruol G,Ismail W B.2001.Upper mantle anisotropy beneath the African IRIS and Geoscope stations[J].Geophys JInt,146(2):549-561.
Booth D C,Crampin S,Lovell J H,Chiu J M.1990.Temporal changes in shear wave splitting during an earthquakeswarm in Arkansas[J].J Geophys Res,95(B7):11151-11164.
Cahen L,Snelling N J,Delhal J,Vail J R.1984.The Geochronology and Evolution of Africa[M].New York:OxfordUniversity Press:512.
Chevrot S.2000.Multichannel analysis of shear wave splitting[J].J Geophys Res,105(B9):21579-21590.
Chevrot S.2006.Finite-frequency vectorial tomography:A new method for high resolution imaging of upper mantle anisotropy[J].Geophys J Int,165(2):641-657.
Chevrot S,Monteiller V.2009.Principles of vectorial tomography:The effects of model parameterization and regularization in tomographic imaging of seismic anisotropy[J].Geophys J Int,179(3):1726-1736.
Christensen N I.1984.The magnitude,symmetry,and origin of upper mantle anisotropy based on fabric analysis of ultramafic tectonites[J].Geophys J R astr Soc,76(1):89-111.
Crampin S.1991.Wave propagation through fluid-filled inclusions of various shapes:Interpretation of extensive-dilatancyanisotropy[J].Geophys J Int,104(3):611-623.
Crampin S.1994.The fracture criticality of crustal rocks[J].Geophys J Int,118(2):428-438.
Forte A M,QuéréS,Moucha R,Simmons N A,Grand S P,Mitrovica J X,Rowley D B.2010.Joint seismic-geodynamic-mineral physical modeling of African geodynamics:A reconciliation of deep-mantle convection with surface geophysical constraints[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,295(3/4):329-341.
Gao S,Davis P M,Liu H,Slack P D,Rigor A W,Zorin Y A,Mordvinova V V,Kozhevnikov V M,Logatchev N A.1997.SKS splitting beneath continental rift zones[J].J Geophys Res,102(B10):22781-22797.
Heidbach O,Tingay M,Barth A,Reinecker J,KurfeвD,Müller B.2009.The World Stress Map Based on the Database Release 2008,Equatorial Scale 1:46000000[M].Paris:Commission for the Geological Map of the World.doi:10.1594/GFZ.WSM.Map2009.
Kaneshima S,Ando M,Kimura S.1988.Evidence from shear-wave splitting for the restriction of seismic anisotropy tothe upper crust[J].Nature,335(6191):627-629.
Kaneshima S.1990.Origin of crustal anisotropy:Shear wave splitting studies in Japan[J].J Geophys Res,95(B7):11121-11133.
Katayama I,Hirauchi K I,Michibayashi K,Ando J I.2009.Trench-parallel anisotropy produced by serpentine deformation in the hydrated mantle wedge[J].Nature,461(7267):1114-1117.
Karato S.1995.Effects of water on seismic wave velocities in the upper mantle[J].Proc Japan Acad,71(2):61-66.
Karato S.1998.Some remarks on the origin of seismic anisotropy in the D″layer[J].Earth Planets Space,50(11/12):1019-1028.
Karato S.2008.Deformation of Earth Materials:An Introduction to the Rheology of the Solid Earth[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press:391-407.
Kendall J M.1994.Teleseismic arrivals at a mid-ocean ridge:Effects of mantle melt and anisotropy[J].Geophys ResLett,21(4):301-304.
Kendall J M,Silver P G.1998.Investigating causes of D″anisotropy[G]∥Gurnis M,Wysession M E,Knittle E,BuffettB A eds.The Core-Mantle Boundary Region.Washington:American Geophysical Union:97-118.
Kennett B L N,Engdahl E R.1991.Travel times for global earthquake location and phase identification[J].Geophys JInt,105(2):429-465.
Kumazawa M,Anderson O L.1969.Elastic moduli,pressure derivatives,and temperature derivatives of single-crystalolivine and single-crystal forsterite[J].J Geophys Res,74(25):5961-5972.
Lenoir J L,Liegeois J P,Theunissen K,Klerkx J.1994.The Paleoproterozoic Ubendian shear belt in Tanzania:Geochronology and structure[J].J Afr Earth Sci,19(3):169-184.
Long M D,van der Hilst R D.2005.Upper mantle anisotropy beneath Japan from shear wave splitting[J].Phys EarthPlanet Int,151(3/4):206-222.
Long M D,de Hoop M V,van der Hilst R D.2008.Wave-equation shear wave splitting tomography[J].Geophys J Int,172(1):311-330.
Long M D,Silver P G.2009.Shear wave splitting and mantle anisotropy:Measurements,interpretations,and new directions[J].Surveys in Geophysics,30(4/5):407-461.
Long M D,Becker T W.2010.Mantle dynamics and seismic anisotropy[J].Earth Planet Sci Lett,297(3/4):341-354.
Lynner C,Long M D.2012.Evaluating contributions to SK(K)S splitting from lower mantle anisotropy:A case studyfrom station DBIC,Cte D’Ivoire[J].Bull Seismol Soc Am,102(3):1030-1040.
Mainprice D,Silver P G.1993.Interpretation of SKS-waves using samples from the subcontinental lithosphere[J].PhysEarth Planet Inter,78(3/4):257-280.
Marson-Pidgeon K,Savage M K.1997.Frequency dependent anisotropy in Wellington,New Zealand[J].Geophys ResLett,24(24):3297-3300.
McKenzie D.1979.Finite deformation during fluid flow[J].Geophys J R astr Soc,58(3):689-715.
McNamara D E,Owens T J,Silver P G,Wu F T.1994.Shear wave anisotropy beneath the Tibetan Plateau[J].J Geophys Res,99(B7):13655-13665.
Nicolas A,Poirier J P.1976.Crystalline Plasticity and Solid State Flow in Metamorphic Rocks[M].New York:JohnWiley:p444.
Nicolas A,Christensen N I.1987.Formation of anisotropy in upper mantle peridotites:A review[G]∥Fuchs K,Froidevaux C eds.Composition,Structure and Dynamics of the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere System.Washington:AGU,16:111-123.
Nyblade A A,Robinson S W.1994.The African superswell[J].Geophys Res Lett,21(9):765-768.
Obrebski M,Kiselev S,Vinnik L,Montagner J P.2010.Anisotropic stratification beneath Africa from joint inversion ofSKS and P receiver functions[J].J Geophys Res,115:B09313.doi:10.1029/2009JB006923.
zalabey S,Chen W P.1999.Frequency-dependent analysis of SKS/SKKS waveforms observed in Australia:Evidencefor null birefringence[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,114(3/4):197-210.
Ribe N M,Yu Y.1991.A theory for plastic deformation and textural evolution of olivine polycrystals[J].J GeophysRes,96(B5):8325-8335.
Ribe N M.1992.On the relation between seismic anisotropy and finite strain[J].J Geophys Res,97(B6):8737-8747.
Saltzer R L,Gaherty J,Jordan T H.2000.How are vertical shear wave splitting measurements affected by variations inthe orientation of azimuthal anisotropy with depth?[J].Geophys J Int,141(2):374-390.
Shih X R,Meyer R P.1990.Observation of shear wave splitting from natural events:South moat of Long Valley Caldera,California,June 29to August 12,1982[J].J Geophys Res,95(B7):11179-11195.
Silver P G,Chan W W.1991.Shear wave splitting and subcontinental mantle deformation[J].J Geophys Res,96(B10):16429-16454.
Silver P G,Savage M K.1994.The interpretation of shear-wave splitting parameters in the presence of two anisotropiclayers[J].Geophys J Int,119(3):949-963.
Silver P G,Holt W E.2002.The mantle flow field beneath western North America[J].Science,295(5557):1054-1057.
Sleep N H,Ebinger C J,Kendall J M.2004.Deflection of mantle plume material by cratonic keels[G]∥Fowler C M R,Ebinger C J,Hawkesworth C J eds.The Early Earth:Physical,Chemical and Biological Development,GeologicalSociety Special Publication.London:Geological Society of London,199:135-150.
Vauchez A,Barruol G,Nicolas A.1999.Comment on“SKS splitting beneath continental rift zones”'by Gao et al[J].JGeophys Res,104(B5):10787-10789.
Vecsey L,PlomerovJ,Babuka V.2008.Shear-wave splitting measurements:Problems and solutions[J].Tectonophysics,462(1/2/3/4):178-196.
Vinnik L P,Kosarev G L,Makeyeva L I.1984.Lithospheric anisotropy as indicated by SKS and SKKS waves[J].Doklady Earth Sci Sect,278:39-43.
Walker K T,Nyblade A A,Klemperer S L,Bokelmann G H R,Owens T J.2004.On the relationship between extension and anisotropy:Constraints from shear wave splitting across the East African Plateau[J].J Geophys Res,109:B08302.doi:10.1029/2003JB002866.
Weeraratne D S,Forsyth D W,Fischer K M,Nyblade A A.2003.Evidence for an upper mantle plume beneath theTanzanian craton from Rayleigh wave tomography[J].J Geophys Res,108(B9):2427.doi:10.1029/2002JB002273.
Wenk H R,Bennett K,Canova G R,Molinari A.1991.Modeling plastic deformation of peridotite with the self-consistent theory[J].J Geophys Res,96(B5):8337-8349.
Wirth E,Long M D.2010.Frequency-dependent shear wave splitting beneath the Japan and Izu-Bonin subduction zones[J].Phys Earth Planet Inter,181(3/4):141-154.
Wüstefeld A,Bokelmann G.2007.Null detection in shear-wave splitting measurements[J].Bull Seismol Soc Am,97(4):1204-1211.
Wüstefeld A,Bokelmann G,Barruol G,Zaroli C.2007.Splitlab:A shear-wave splitting environment in Matlab[J].Comp Geosci,34(5):515-528.doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2007.1008.1002.
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