我国碳交易价格的影响机制研究
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摘要
随着对气候变化问题研究的不断深入,温室气体减排以及与之相关的政策制定越来越受到各国政府及利益集团的重视。廉价能源时代的结束让世界进入了低碳经济的时代。低碳经济的背后是巨大的经济得失和国际地位的更迭。治理气候变化问题需要各国政府的共同努力,同时也是各国进行经济博弈的新领域。
治理气候变化问题的关键在于建立碳的价格信号和市场,通过构建合适的机制,使其形成的碳价格能够反映企业、个人等行为主体应该承担的外部成本,以及减少碳排放所能带来的经济价值,进而引导企业和个人等行为主体转向低碳的生产和生活。而在发展低碳经济中,要争取获得碳的定价权,实现资源优化配置。
碳交易机制是以“限量-交易”管理模式为基础,运用经济手段实现温室气体减排的方法之一。自我国在哥本哈根会议上提出温室气体减排目标以来,国内对建立碳交易机制的需求十分迫切。一方面是为了获得碳定价权,掌握在低碳经济中进行资源配置的主动权。一方面是为了保障参与碳交易的企业和产业的竞争力,保持长期的经济活力。因而构建碳交易机制要兼顾市场效率和企业竞争力,这就要求由碳交易机制形成的碳价格必须是有效的,能够真实反映碳排放权市场的供求关系,并且制定相关政策时注意对企业和产业竞争力的保护。本文正是基于构建碳交易机制对市场效率和企业竞争力影响的考虑进行分析和研究的。
全文共有五章。第一章是本文展开论述的基础,交代了选题的背景、意义,并在对国内外研究现状的综合阐述的基础上,确定本文的研究内容和研究思路,最后交代本文可能的创新点。第二章和第三章分析了影响碳交易价格(反映碳交易市场效率)的因素以及这些因素的作用方式。其中,第二章从理论角度出发阐述碳交易机制的涵义及我国碳交易机制发展现状,在对中国低碳经济的主要模式的分析中,认为碳配额型交易模式将代替项目型交易模式,基于中国低碳经济模式发展趋势的这一判断,本文对配额型交易模式进行了深入的研究。然后与碳税制度作比较,分析了这两种制度安排的市场效率,最后从理论上得出碳交易机制效率较之于碳税更易于实现的结论。第三章从实践角度首先介绍了我国碳交易市场现状,对我国碳交易市场发展中出现的一些特点进行分析,发现市场结构、特别是市场势力会降低碳交易机制的市场效率,影响碳交易价格的有效性并导致市场规模缩小,而初始分配机制是影响碳交易市场效率的关键,我国现行的对碳排放权进行无偿分配的方式会降低碳交易市场效率,影响碳交易价格的有效性。第四章分析了碳交易价格对企业和产业竞争力的影响机制,从行业类型、行业地位、产业链位置这三个维度和层次步步深入,获得三个基本结论：(1)能源工业行业是碳交易市场的重要参与者,对碳交易价格较为敏感,碳价格直接影响着能源工业行业的运营成本;对于新能源行业、以及对能源的完全消耗系数较低的行业,碳价格基本不会构成其成本,或者相反还会有利于其发展；(2)碳价格对行业地位不同的企业的影响有差异。对行业领导者而言,市场势力、雄厚资本和先进技术等优势能够减少碳价格导致的成本,但是这些企业所特有的一些问题也会弱化这种效果；行业跟随者是碳交易价格的接受者,碳价格将成为这些企业成本的重要组成部分,这些企业的竞争力无疑会受到一定程度的削弱。(3)碳价格升高导致的利润水平的降低较难从产业链的上游行业向产业链的中下游行业传导,碳价格对能源工业产业链上游企业竞争力的影响大于对中下游企业的影响。对于产业链上游行业领导者而言,碳交易价格对其竞争力影响方向不确定,很大程度上取决于企业行动。产业链上游行业跟随者来说,由于企业位于产业链上游,碳交易价格将会构成企业的重要成本,而企业是碳交易市场上的价格接受者,因此碳交易价格将会削弱企业的市场竞争力。第五章在前面三章对碳交易机制与市场效率和产业竞争力的研究基础上,提出我国建立碳交易市场的有关建议。首先是对国际碳市场的简要概括和分析,得出我国进行碳交易市场建设的启示和思路,认为在建立碳交易市场时须要解决三个问题：(1)激发企业参与该交易市场的动力,形成碳交易市场需求；(2)建立碳交易市场运行的统一平台,制定交易标的相关标准；(3)碳交易风险控制以及配套系统支持的构建。第二节开始本文从三个方面提出具体建议。开发市场需求可以综合运用立法手段和经济手段,逐渐形成强制性减排市场,扩大碳交易市场规模,并对我国碳交易市场发展阶段进行简要的判断和划分。然后从制定碳排放权的初始分配方式、制定交易标的标准、建设统一的交易平台、建立碳交易核查机制四个方面提出构建碳市场运行机制的建议。最后从信息系统建设、发展碳金融、推动低碳技术的开发和应用等角度入手构建碳交易机制的配套支持系统。
本文可能的创新点是：(1)本文在对国内碳交易状况的研究基础上,将碳配额制下碳交易市场结构对碳交易价格形成的影响机制以及碳交易价格对不同产业竞争力的影响机制的研究向前推进了一步。(2)在对碳交易价格影响机制的研究中,首次结合市场结构、市场势力、产业类型、能源消耗、产业链等因素进行分析,深入到对碳配额研究的操作层面,为碳交易价格制度的确立提供了切实可行的依据。
国内对碳交易机制各方面的研究都正在进行中,一方面应总结和借鉴国外碳交易机制发展的经验,另一方面也要立足于我国实际的经济、社会和环境情况,探索出适宜我国国情并与能与国际接轨的低碳之路来。
With the constant study of climate change, greenhouse gas emissions and the associated policies won more and more concern among governments and interest groups. The era of cheap energy was replaced by the era of low-carbon economy. Behind the low-carbon economy is the huge economic gains and losses, also changes of international status. It needs joint efforts to combat climate change, but it is also a stage for new economic game among different countries.
The hinge to solve climate change is to establish carbon price signals and markets through building appropriate mechanisms, making the carbon price reflect the external costs the enterprises and individuals should bear and the economic value of carbon emissions reduction, then leading to low carbon production and life. In the development of low-carbon economy, fighting for the pricing power is very important for optimal allocation of resources.
Carbon-trade mechanism, based on "cap and trade" model, is a method to realize the greenhouse gas emission reduction using economic instruments. Since China proposed the greenhouse gas emission reduction targets in Copenhagen, domestic demand for the carbon trade mechanism urges a lot. There are two aims:to obtain the pricing power and the initiative to allocate resources in low-carbon economy; to guarantee the industrial competitiveness and the economic vitality in long term. Therefore, carbon-trade mechanism needs to balance market efficiency and industrial competitiveness, which means that the price formed by the mechanism should be effective, reflecting the market supply and demand exactly, and also to protect industrial competitiveness when making relevant policy.
According to the foundation above, this paper comprises five chapters. Chapter one is the basis to start the discussion, it explained the background and significance of the theme, and then settled down the research mentality in basis of the review in this field, it pointed the possible innovations. Chapter two and three discussed which factors affect carbon-trade price and how they make impacts. Chapter two judged that the carbon quota-based trading mode will replace the project-based trading mode in the main analysis of China's low-carbon economy mode, so this paper studied deeper in quota-based trading model. Then theoretically discussed the market efficiency and believed that carbon-trade is easier to guarantee than carbon-tax. Chapter three proposed some characters of China's carbon-trade market in practical, and made a conclusion that the market structure, especially market power, put an intensive impact on market efficiency and downsizing the carbon-trade market. The initial allocation of carbon is the key of market efficiency, the current carbon emission rights for free distribution carbon in China lowered the market efficiency and the effectiveness of carbon trade price.Chapter four discussed how the carbon-trade mechanism put impact on industrial competitiveness from the type of industry, industry position and industry chain position, and obtained three conclusions:(1) energy industries are important participants in the carbon trading market and more sensitive to carbon price, carbon trade price impacts the energy industry sector operating costs directly, but may be favorable to the others'development. (2)The impact carbon trade price put on different companies is different. Market forces, strong advantages of capital and advanced technology could lower the depression of industry leaders; as a recipient of the price, carbon trade price will be an important part of the cost structure of industry followers, and weaken their competitiveness to some extent. The effect of profit reduction by carbon price increases is more difficult to transmit to the downstream industry chain. The impact carbon trade price put on the industrial competitiveness is greater among upstream energy industry than the downstream. For the industry leaders in upstream, the impact of carbon prices on the competitiveness is uncertain, that depends on the prorate action. For the industry followers in the upstream, carbon trade price will weaken the market competition force because carbon trade price constitute an important cost in the upstream industry chain as a price taker on the market. Chapter 5 proposed some suggestions. According to a brief summary of the international carbon market, this paper was inspired to imply that it needs to solve three problems to establish the carbon trade mechanism:(1) to stimulate enterprises to participate in the trading market momentum and form the market demand of carbon trade; (2) establish a carbon trading market to run a unified platform to develop standards subject of the transaction; (3) carbon trading system to support risk control as well as supporting the construction. Section two of this chapter started to propose recommendations. Legislative measures and economic instruments can be used synthetically to explore the market demand, in order to form the mandatory emission reduction market gradually and expand the carbon trade market, then made a initial judgment and distribution of the stage of the carbon market development. Then it made recommendations to run the carbon trade mechanism through four aspects of initial distribution, transaction subject of standards, building a unified trading platform and a verification mechanism. Finally, it proposed to establish a support system in the way of building information systems, developing carbon finance, promoting applying low carbon technology.
The possible innovations are:(1) based on the study of domestic status of carbon trade, this paper stepped further in the analysis of the impact of the market structure put on the carbon trade price and the impact the carbon trade price put on the competitiveness of different industries. (2) Firstly combined the market structure, market forces, industry type, energy consumption, industrial chain and other factors for a depth research into the carbon credits on the operational level, and provide a practical basis for the carbon trade mechanism.
Domestic researches in carbon trade mechanism are in progress in all aspects, on one hand we should summarize and learn from foreign experiences in the development of carbon trading mechanisms, on the other hand we must explore a low-carbon economic path adapt to domestic conditions of China with international standards based on the actual conditions.
治理气候变化问题的关键在于建立碳的价格信号和市场,通过构建合适的机制,使其形成的碳价格能够反映企业、个人等行为主体应该承担的外部成本,以及减少碳排放所能带来的经济价值,进而引导企业和个人等行为主体转向低碳的生产和生活。而在发展低碳经济中,要争取获得碳的定价权,实现资源优化配置。
碳交易机制是以“限量-交易”管理模式为基础,运用经济手段实现温室气体减排的方法之一。自我国在哥本哈根会议上提出温室气体减排目标以来,国内对建立碳交易机制的需求十分迫切。一方面是为了获得碳定价权,掌握在低碳经济中进行资源配置的主动权。一方面是为了保障参与碳交易的企业和产业的竞争力,保持长期的经济活力。因而构建碳交易机制要兼顾市场效率和企业竞争力,这就要求由碳交易机制形成的碳价格必须是有效的,能够真实反映碳排放权市场的供求关系,并且制定相关政策时注意对企业和产业竞争力的保护。本文正是基于构建碳交易机制对市场效率和企业竞争力影响的考虑进行分析和研究的。
全文共有五章。第一章是本文展开论述的基础,交代了选题的背景、意义,并在对国内外研究现状的综合阐述的基础上,确定本文的研究内容和研究思路,最后交代本文可能的创新点。第二章和第三章分析了影响碳交易价格(反映碳交易市场效率)的因素以及这些因素的作用方式。其中,第二章从理论角度出发阐述碳交易机制的涵义及我国碳交易机制发展现状,在对中国低碳经济的主要模式的分析中,认为碳配额型交易模式将代替项目型交易模式,基于中国低碳经济模式发展趋势的这一判断,本文对配额型交易模式进行了深入的研究。然后与碳税制度作比较,分析了这两种制度安排的市场效率,最后从理论上得出碳交易机制效率较之于碳税更易于实现的结论。第三章从实践角度首先介绍了我国碳交易市场现状,对我国碳交易市场发展中出现的一些特点进行分析,发现市场结构、特别是市场势力会降低碳交易机制的市场效率,影响碳交易价格的有效性并导致市场规模缩小,而初始分配机制是影响碳交易市场效率的关键,我国现行的对碳排放权进行无偿分配的方式会降低碳交易市场效率,影响碳交易价格的有效性。第四章分析了碳交易价格对企业和产业竞争力的影响机制,从行业类型、行业地位、产业链位置这三个维度和层次步步深入,获得三个基本结论：(1)能源工业行业是碳交易市场的重要参与者,对碳交易价格较为敏感,碳价格直接影响着能源工业行业的运营成本;对于新能源行业、以及对能源的完全消耗系数较低的行业,碳价格基本不会构成其成本,或者相反还会有利于其发展；(2)碳价格对行业地位不同的企业的影响有差异。对行业领导者而言,市场势力、雄厚资本和先进技术等优势能够减少碳价格导致的成本,但是这些企业所特有的一些问题也会弱化这种效果；行业跟随者是碳交易价格的接受者,碳价格将成为这些企业成本的重要组成部分,这些企业的竞争力无疑会受到一定程度的削弱。(3)碳价格升高导致的利润水平的降低较难从产业链的上游行业向产业链的中下游行业传导,碳价格对能源工业产业链上游企业竞争力的影响大于对中下游企业的影响。对于产业链上游行业领导者而言,碳交易价格对其竞争力影响方向不确定,很大程度上取决于企业行动。产业链上游行业跟随者来说,由于企业位于产业链上游,碳交易价格将会构成企业的重要成本,而企业是碳交易市场上的价格接受者,因此碳交易价格将会削弱企业的市场竞争力。第五章在前面三章对碳交易机制与市场效率和产业竞争力的研究基础上,提出我国建立碳交易市场的有关建议。首先是对国际碳市场的简要概括和分析,得出我国进行碳交易市场建设的启示和思路,认为在建立碳交易市场时须要解决三个问题：(1)激发企业参与该交易市场的动力,形成碳交易市场需求；(2)建立碳交易市场运行的统一平台,制定交易标的相关标准；(3)碳交易风险控制以及配套系统支持的构建。第二节开始本文从三个方面提出具体建议。开发市场需求可以综合运用立法手段和经济手段,逐渐形成强制性减排市场,扩大碳交易市场规模,并对我国碳交易市场发展阶段进行简要的判断和划分。然后从制定碳排放权的初始分配方式、制定交易标的标准、建设统一的交易平台、建立碳交易核查机制四个方面提出构建碳市场运行机制的建议。最后从信息系统建设、发展碳金融、推动低碳技术的开发和应用等角度入手构建碳交易机制的配套支持系统。
本文可能的创新点是：(1)本文在对国内碳交易状况的研究基础上,将碳配额制下碳交易市场结构对碳交易价格形成的影响机制以及碳交易价格对不同产业竞争力的影响机制的研究向前推进了一步。(2)在对碳交易价格影响机制的研究中,首次结合市场结构、市场势力、产业类型、能源消耗、产业链等因素进行分析,深入到对碳配额研究的操作层面,为碳交易价格制度的确立提供了切实可行的依据。
国内对碳交易机制各方面的研究都正在进行中,一方面应总结和借鉴国外碳交易机制发展的经验,另一方面也要立足于我国实际的经济、社会和环境情况,探索出适宜我国国情并与能与国际接轨的低碳之路来。
With the constant study of climate change, greenhouse gas emissions and the associated policies won more and more concern among governments and interest groups. The era of cheap energy was replaced by the era of low-carbon economy. Behind the low-carbon economy is the huge economic gains and losses, also changes of international status. It needs joint efforts to combat climate change, but it is also a stage for new economic game among different countries.
The hinge to solve climate change is to establish carbon price signals and markets through building appropriate mechanisms, making the carbon price reflect the external costs the enterprises and individuals should bear and the economic value of carbon emissions reduction, then leading to low carbon production and life. In the development of low-carbon economy, fighting for the pricing power is very important for optimal allocation of resources.
Carbon-trade mechanism, based on "cap and trade" model, is a method to realize the greenhouse gas emission reduction using economic instruments. Since China proposed the greenhouse gas emission reduction targets in Copenhagen, domestic demand for the carbon trade mechanism urges a lot. There are two aims:to obtain the pricing power and the initiative to allocate resources in low-carbon economy; to guarantee the industrial competitiveness and the economic vitality in long term. Therefore, carbon-trade mechanism needs to balance market efficiency and industrial competitiveness, which means that the price formed by the mechanism should be effective, reflecting the market supply and demand exactly, and also to protect industrial competitiveness when making relevant policy.
According to the foundation above, this paper comprises five chapters. Chapter one is the basis to start the discussion, it explained the background and significance of the theme, and then settled down the research mentality in basis of the review in this field, it pointed the possible innovations. Chapter two and three discussed which factors affect carbon-trade price and how they make impacts. Chapter two judged that the carbon quota-based trading mode will replace the project-based trading mode in the main analysis of China's low-carbon economy mode, so this paper studied deeper in quota-based trading model. Then theoretically discussed the market efficiency and believed that carbon-trade is easier to guarantee than carbon-tax. Chapter three proposed some characters of China's carbon-trade market in practical, and made a conclusion that the market structure, especially market power, put an intensive impact on market efficiency and downsizing the carbon-trade market. The initial allocation of carbon is the key of market efficiency, the current carbon emission rights for free distribution carbon in China lowered the market efficiency and the effectiveness of carbon trade price.Chapter four discussed how the carbon-trade mechanism put impact on industrial competitiveness from the type of industry, industry position and industry chain position, and obtained three conclusions:(1) energy industries are important participants in the carbon trading market and more sensitive to carbon price, carbon trade price impacts the energy industry sector operating costs directly, but may be favorable to the others'development. (2)The impact carbon trade price put on different companies is different. Market forces, strong advantages of capital and advanced technology could lower the depression of industry leaders; as a recipient of the price, carbon trade price will be an important part of the cost structure of industry followers, and weaken their competitiveness to some extent. The effect of profit reduction by carbon price increases is more difficult to transmit to the downstream industry chain. The impact carbon trade price put on the industrial competitiveness is greater among upstream energy industry than the downstream. For the industry leaders in upstream, the impact of carbon prices on the competitiveness is uncertain, that depends on the prorate action. For the industry followers in the upstream, carbon trade price will weaken the market competition force because carbon trade price constitute an important cost in the upstream industry chain as a price taker on the market. Chapter 5 proposed some suggestions. According to a brief summary of the international carbon market, this paper was inspired to imply that it needs to solve three problems to establish the carbon trade mechanism:(1) to stimulate enterprises to participate in the trading market momentum and form the market demand of carbon trade; (2) establish a carbon trading market to run a unified platform to develop standards subject of the transaction; (3) carbon trading system to support risk control as well as supporting the construction. Section two of this chapter started to propose recommendations. Legislative measures and economic instruments can be used synthetically to explore the market demand, in order to form the mandatory emission reduction market gradually and expand the carbon trade market, then made a initial judgment and distribution of the stage of the carbon market development. Then it made recommendations to run the carbon trade mechanism through four aspects of initial distribution, transaction subject of standards, building a unified trading platform and a verification mechanism. Finally, it proposed to establish a support system in the way of building information systems, developing carbon finance, promoting applying low carbon technology.
The possible innovations are:(1) based on the study of domestic status of carbon trade, this paper stepped further in the analysis of the impact of the market structure put on the carbon trade price and the impact the carbon trade price put on the competitiveness of different industries. (2) Firstly combined the market structure, market forces, industry type, energy consumption, industrial chain and other factors for a depth research into the carbon credits on the operational level, and provide a practical basis for the carbon trade mechanism.
Domestic researches in carbon trade mechanism are in progress in all aspects, on one hand we should summarize and learn from foreign experiences in the development of carbon trading mechanisms, on the other hand we must explore a low-carbon economic path adapt to domestic conditions of China with international standards based on the actual conditions.
引文
[1]世界银行著;中国人民大学气候变化与低碳经济研究所译.世界碳市场发展状况与趋势分析：2003～2009年[M].北京：石油工业出版社,2010年2月.
[2]Stavins·R·N. Transaction Costs and Tradable Permits[J]. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management,1995(29):133-148.
[3]Godby·R. Market Power in Laboratory Emission Permit Markets[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics,2002(23):279-318.
[4]Egteren·H. and M·Weber. Marketable Permits、Market Power and Cheating[J]. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management,1996(30):161-173.
[5]Hahn·R·W. Market Power and Transferable Property Right[J]. Quarterly Journal of Economics,1984(3).
[6]Cramton·P and Kerr. Tradable Carbon Permit Auctions:How and Why to Auction not Grandfather [J]. Energy Policy,2002(30):333-345.
[7]麻省理工学院.天然气的未来[M].2010.6.25.
[8]亚洲结构性主题UBS Investment Research[M].2009.4.28.
[9]郑爽.全球碳市场动态[J].气候变化研究进展,2006年06期.
[10]付玉.我国碳交易市场的建立[D].硕士学位论文,2007.12.21.
[11]谢军安,郝东恒,谢雯.我国发展低碳经济的思路与对策[J].当代经济管理,2008.
[12]魏涛远,格罗姆斯洛德.征收碳税对中国经济与温室气体排放的影响[J].世界经济与政治,2002(08).
[13]京都议定书.第十二条,第十七条,第六条规范.
[14]曾鸣,何深等.我国CDM项目风险分析及低碳发展对策[j].华东电力,2010年3月.
[15]Plott·C. Externalities and corrective policies in experimental markets[J]. Economic Journal,1983(93):106-127.
[16]国际能源署IEA.中国发展低碳经济的若干问题研究.能源技术展望2008：第三章.
[17]乔志林,费方域,秦向东.初始分配与应用市场机制矫正外部效应——一个实验经济学研究[J].当代经济科学,2009年3月,第31卷,第2期.
[18]王家祺,范丹,李寿德.寡头垄断企业操纵排污许可价格分析[J].武汉理工大学学报·信息与管理工程版,2006年9月,第28卷,第9期.
[19]林云华.国际气候合作与排放权交易制度研究,第八章[M].北京：中国经济出版社,2007年9月.
[20]付融冰,张慧.中国能源的现状[J].能源环境保护,2005年2月.
[21]中国能源统计年鉴2010.北京：中国统计出版社.
[22](日本)张宏武.中国的加剧发展与能源和环境问题——多部门、分地区的经济分析[M].北京：气象出版社,2006年11月：195.
[23]中国的能源状况与政策,2007年12月·北京,中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室.
[24]朱耀明,对能源消耗系数计算方法的一些意见,中国能源,1981年第一期.
[25](日本)张宏武.中国的加剧发展与能源和环境问题——多部门、分地区的经济分析[M].北京：气象出版社,2006年11月：178-192.
[26]国家统计局.中国工业经济统计年鉴2010年.北京：中国统计出版社,2010.
[27]国家统计局.中国工业经济统计年鉴2009年.北京：中国统计出版社,2009.
[28]国家统计局.中国能源统计年鉴2000年.北京：中国统计出版社,2000.
[29]国金证券研究所.产业链上的利润转移研究.2010年6月.
[30]世界银行.2010年碳市场交易发展现状与未来发展趋势报告[M].北京：石油工业出版社,2010年.
[31]国家统计局.中国工业经济统计年鉴2006年.北京：中国统计出版社,2006.
[32]李婷李成武何剑锋.国际碳交易市场发展现状及我国碳交易市场展望[J].经济纵横,2010(07).
[33]付允,马永欢刘怡君,牛文元.低碳经济的发展模式研究[J].中国人口·资源与环境.2008(3).
[34]郑良芳.对发展低碳经济与碳金融的研究[J].经济研究参考.2010(38).
[35]任力.国外发展低碳经济的政策及启示[J].发展研究.2009(2).
[36]金乐琴,刘瑞.低碳经济与中国经济发展模式转型[J].经济问题探索.2009(1).
[37]李殿伟,文桂江.我国推进低碳经济发展的路径分析[J].现代经济探讨.2010(7).
[38]吕学都,刘德顺.清洁机制在中国[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2005(1).
[39]森田恒幸,胡秀莲,姜克隽.气候变化综合评价的进展[J].中国能源,1997(12).
[40]李志东等.中国能源环境研究文集[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2000.
[41]滨川奎弘,西川帏一等著,郭成言译.能源环境学[M].北京：科学出版社,2003.
[42]吴德春,董继武.能源经济学[M].北京：中国工人出版社,1991.
[43]姜克隽,胡秀莲,刘强.中国2050年低碳情景和低碳发展之路[J].中外能源.2009(6).
[2]Stavins·R·N. Transaction Costs and Tradable Permits[J]. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management,1995(29):133-148.
[3]Godby·R. Market Power in Laboratory Emission Permit Markets[J]. Environmental and Resource Economics,2002(23):279-318.
[4]Egteren·H. and M·Weber. Marketable Permits、Market Power and Cheating[J]. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management,1996(30):161-173.
[5]Hahn·R·W. Market Power and Transferable Property Right[J]. Quarterly Journal of Economics,1984(3).
[6]Cramton·P and Kerr. Tradable Carbon Permit Auctions:How and Why to Auction not Grandfather [J]. Energy Policy,2002(30):333-345.
[7]麻省理工学院.天然气的未来[M].2010.6.25.
[8]亚洲结构性主题UBS Investment Research[M].2009.4.28.
[9]郑爽.全球碳市场动态[J].气候变化研究进展,2006年06期.
[10]付玉.我国碳交易市场的建立[D].硕士学位论文,2007.12.21.
[11]谢军安,郝东恒,谢雯.我国发展低碳经济的思路与对策[J].当代经济管理,2008.
[12]魏涛远,格罗姆斯洛德.征收碳税对中国经济与温室气体排放的影响[J].世界经济与政治,2002(08).
[13]京都议定书.第十二条,第十七条,第六条规范.
[14]曾鸣,何深等.我国CDM项目风险分析及低碳发展对策[j].华东电力,2010年3月.
[15]Plott·C. Externalities and corrective policies in experimental markets[J]. Economic Journal,1983(93):106-127.
[16]国际能源署IEA.中国发展低碳经济的若干问题研究.能源技术展望2008：第三章.
[17]乔志林,费方域,秦向东.初始分配与应用市场机制矫正外部效应——一个实验经济学研究[J].当代经济科学,2009年3月,第31卷,第2期.
[18]王家祺,范丹,李寿德.寡头垄断企业操纵排污许可价格分析[J].武汉理工大学学报·信息与管理工程版,2006年9月,第28卷,第9期.
[19]林云华.国际气候合作与排放权交易制度研究,第八章[M].北京：中国经济出版社,2007年9月.
[20]付融冰,张慧.中国能源的现状[J].能源环境保护,2005年2月.
[21]中国能源统计年鉴2010.北京：中国统计出版社.
[22](日本)张宏武.中国的加剧发展与能源和环境问题——多部门、分地区的经济分析[M].北京：气象出版社,2006年11月：195.
[23]中国的能源状况与政策,2007年12月·北京,中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室.
[24]朱耀明,对能源消耗系数计算方法的一些意见,中国能源,1981年第一期.
[25](日本)张宏武.中国的加剧发展与能源和环境问题——多部门、分地区的经济分析[M].北京：气象出版社,2006年11月：178-192.
[26]国家统计局.中国工业经济统计年鉴2010年.北京：中国统计出版社,2010.
[27]国家统计局.中国工业经济统计年鉴2009年.北京：中国统计出版社,2009.
[28]国家统计局.中国能源统计年鉴2000年.北京：中国统计出版社,2000.
[29]国金证券研究所.产业链上的利润转移研究.2010年6月.
[30]世界银行.2010年碳市场交易发展现状与未来发展趋势报告[M].北京：石油工业出版社,2010年.
[31]国家统计局.中国工业经济统计年鉴2006年.北京：中国统计出版社,2006.
[32]李婷李成武何剑锋.国际碳交易市场发展现状及我国碳交易市场展望[J].经济纵横,2010(07).
[33]付允,马永欢刘怡君,牛文元.低碳经济的发展模式研究[J].中国人口·资源与环境.2008(3).
[34]郑良芳.对发展低碳经济与碳金融的研究[J].经济研究参考.2010(38).
[35]任力.国外发展低碳经济的政策及启示[J].发展研究.2009(2).
[36]金乐琴,刘瑞.低碳经济与中国经济发展模式转型[J].经济问题探索.2009(1).
[37]李殿伟,文桂江.我国推进低碳经济发展的路径分析[J].现代经济探讨.2010(7).
[38]吕学都,刘德顺.清洁机制在中国[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2005(1).
[39]森田恒幸,胡秀莲,姜克隽.气候变化综合评价的进展[J].中国能源,1997(12).
[40]李志东等.中国能源环境研究文集[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社,2000.
[41]滨川奎弘,西川帏一等著,郭成言译.能源环境学[M].北京：科学出版社,2003.
[42]吴德春,董继武.能源经济学[M].北京：中国工人出版社,1991.
[43]姜克隽,胡秀莲,刘强.中国2050年低碳情景和低碳发展之路[J].中外能源.2009(6).
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