扭动微动磨损机理研究
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摘要
根据接触副间相对运动的不同,球／平面接触条件下的微动可分为切向、径向、转动和扭动4种基本模式,目前的研究主要集中在切向微动模式。扭动微动是在交变载荷下接触副发生的往复微幅相对扭动,在很多回转部件中较常见,如球窝关节、球阀、车辆心盘等。虽然扭动微动现象十分普遍,但至今相关研究较少。开展扭动微动的研究,不仅深化和丰富微动摩擦学的基本理论,具有探索未知的科学意义,而且对抗工业微动损伤有重要的指导意义。
本研究基于低速高精度转动台和六维传感器(x、y、z方向的力和扭矩),成功研制了新型扭动微动试验装置,真实模拟了球／平面接触条件下的扭动微动。该装置具有同轴度高、扭转角位移幅值范围广的特点,试验结果有很好的可比性和重现性。配置可控气氛系统,可实现不同气氛和湿度的试验模拟。
本文在不同载荷水平、角位移幅值和循环周次下,对几种典型金属材料、高聚物和牛天然活性软骨进行了扭动微动试验。通过动力学分析,以及利用表面轮廓仪、光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、电子能谱(EDX)、光电子能谱(XPS)和HE染色法等进行微观分析,系统地研究了扭动微动的运行机理与损伤机制。利用有限元方法,建立球／面接触模型,对扭动微动进行数值模拟,并将计算结果和实验结果进行比较。完成的主要工作和取得的主要结论如下：
(一)金属材料的扭动微动运行和损伤机理
针对Fe-C合金(工业纯铁、20#钢、LZ50钢)和7075铝合金,系统研究了扭动微动运行和损伤行为。总结归纳了扭动微动的三种动力学特性曲线(摩擦扭矩～角位移幅值曲线,T～θ曲线),即直线型、椭圆型和平行四边形型；研究揭示可以利用T-θ曲线、扭矩时变曲线、摩擦耗散能(Ed)、平均变形刚度(k)和粘着区比例(i)等参数表征扭动微动磨损的动力学特性；研究结果显示,随着角位移幅值的增加,扭动微动依次运行于部分滑移区(PSR)、混合区(MFR)和滑移区(SR)；研究建立了不同材料扭动微动的运行工况微动图(RCFM)和材料响应微动图(MRFM),发现与其它微动模式不同,扭动微动的混合区具有特殊性,即在混合区,磨痕黏着区随着循环周次的增加而减小直至消失；结果显示扭动微动磨损强烈地依赖于法向载荷、角位移幅值、循环周次和材料性质,研究建立了扭动微动磨损的物理模型；金属材料在不同微动区域的特征总结如下：
a)部分滑移区：磨痕呈环状,接触中心黏着且无损伤,微滑发生在接触边缘的圆环内,磨损轻微；磨损主要表现为磨粒磨损和轻微氧化磨损；此时微动白层已形成。
b)混合区：随着循环周次的增加,粘着区逐渐缩小,并最终消失,接触状态由部分滑移转变为完全滑移；混合区磨痕轮廓呈“W”型,磨损发生在微滑区内,是磨粒磨损、氧化磨损和剥层共同作用的结果；Fe-C合金中含碳量增加,以剥层机制发生材料剥落的倾向增加；横向裂纹在微动白层与塑性变形层的界面形成,颗粒剥落是横向裂纹与垂向裂纹沟通的结果；剖面可观察到向基体内扩展的倾斜裂纹,表明该区域的局部疲劳裂纹扩展速率大于磨损速率。
c)滑移区：磨损发生在整个接触区,典型的磨痕轮廓呈“U”型,损伤较严重；与混合区一样,滑移区的磨损机制主要表现为磨粒磨损、氧化磨损和剥层；在剖面未发现倾斜裂纹,表明该区的局部磨损速率大于疲劳裂纹的扩展速率。
(二)扭动微动接触界面的氧化行为
在可控气氛条件下,研究了金属材料在不同气氛(工业纯氮、工业纯氧和大气)和相对湿度(10%RH、60%RH和90%RH)下的扭动微动运行和损伤行为,重点分析了微动界面的摩擦氧化机理。研究结果显示：
(a)气氛中含氧量增加,混合区和滑移区向小角位移幅值方向移动。在氮气气氛下的扭动微动磨损机制为磨粒磨损和剥层,对于含氧气氛(工业纯氧和大气),磨损机制还包括氧化磨损。
(b)较高的相对湿度明显降低了摩擦扭矩和磨损；随着相对湿度的增加,混合区的范围逐渐缩小,混合区和滑移区向小角位移幅值方向移动。
(c)XPS的结果表明潮湿气氛中的水分促进摩擦过程中氧化反应的发生,氧化产物起到了类似固体润滑剂的作用,减轻了磨损。摩擦氧化增加了界面滑移,产生的氧化磨屑不易排出接触区,并有利于减少磨损。
(三)高聚物的不同摩擦配副的影响
分别研究了PMMA和UHMWPE在不同摩擦配副条件下的扭动微动运行和损伤行为,发现高聚物的扭动微动特性随摩擦配副的不同而不同。研究结果表明：
(a) PMMA和UHMWPE具有与金属材料一致的扭动微动运行规律。研究讨论了法向载荷、角位移幅值对扭动微动运行区域和损伤行为的影响。
(b)与PMMA板对GCr15钢球配副相比,PMMA板对PMMA球配副的扭动微动混合区和滑移区向大角位移方向移动；在相同试验条件下,磨痕深度和宽度后者(PMMA/PMMA)均比前者(PMMA/GCr15)要大,即磨损更严重；对于PMMA/GCr15摩擦副,磨损主要由产生银纹的疲劳磨损机制控制,而对于PMMA/PMMA摩擦副,磨损则主要由形成犁沟的磨粒磨损机制控制。
(c)与UHMWPE板对TC4钛合金球配副相比,UHMWPE板对Al2O3陶瓷球配副的扭动微动混合区和滑移区向小角位移方向移动；在相同试验条件下,磨痕深度和宽度后者(UHMWPE/Al2O3)均比前者(UHMWPE/TC4)要大；然而，UHMWPE/TC4摩擦副的表面损伤更明显,其磨损受磨粒磨损和疲劳磨损控制；对于UHMWPE/Al2O3摩擦副,扭动微动磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损。
(四)牛天然活性软骨的扭动微动运行和损伤行为
对牛的天然活性软骨／Al2O3陶瓷球在Ringer's溶液中的扭动微动磨损研究发现：软骨表现出与金属材料和高聚物不同的动力学特性,例如增加法向载荷,接触界面的相对滑移增加,摩擦扭矩的演变过程与其它材料不同；软骨特殊的动力学行为可能与软骨挤出物的润滑作用有关；SEM观察结合HE染色法分析表明软骨的扭动微动磨损主要表现为疲劳磨损,并建立了其损伤的物理模型。
(五)扭动微动接触的有限元分析
使用ANSYS软件,建立了球-平面接触条件下的扭动微动有限元模型。在弹性变形范围内,考察了循环周次、角位移幅值、接触界面摩擦系数对接触应力分布和黏滑状态的影响。总之,数值模拟结果和试验研究结果有很好的一致性。
According to the directions of relative motions, the fretting can be defined as four basic modes under a contact configuration of ball-on-flat:i.e. tangential, radial, rotational and torsional fretting. Presently, the absolute majority of researches have been focused on tangential fretting mode. The torsional fretting can be defined as a relative angular motion which was induced by reciprocating torsion in an oscillatory vibratory environment. It occurred in many rotary components, such as ball and socket joints, ball valves, center plates of vehicles, and so on. Although the torsion fretting phenomena are very common, much little related research focuses on it up to now. Study on torsional fretting not only has science significance of exploring the unknown to deepen and enrich the fundamental theory of fretting, but also have important guidance to palliate fretting damages in industry.
Based on a rotary device with low speed and high precision and a six dimensional sensor (forces and torques of x, y and z directions), a new torsional fretting tester has been developed in this study to factually simulate the case of torsional fretting under a contact of ball-on-flat. This tester presents high coaxiality and a wide range of angular displacement amplitude, and its test results showed a better comparable characteristics and repeatability. To layout a controlled atmosphere system, the experimental simulation of various atmospheres and relative humidity environments can be realized.
Torsional fretting tests for several typical metallic materials, polymers and natural active cartilage of bovine have been carried out under different load levels, angular displacement amplitudes and number of cycles. Dynamic analyses in combination with the microscopic examinations through profilometer, optical microscope, scanning electrical microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscope (EDX), x-ray photoelectron spectroscope (XPS) and Hematoxylin-Eosin staining method, have been performed to study the running and damage mechanisms of the torsional fretting in detail. Using the finite element method (FEM) to establish the ball/contact model of torsional fretting. The comparison analysis of numerical simulation results and the experimental results were done. The main research works and obtained conclusions in this dissertation are as follows:
(1) The running and damage mechanisms of torsional fretting for the metallic materials
For Fe-C alloys (industrial pure iron,1020 steel and LZ50 steel) and 7075 aluminum alloy, the running and damage behaviors of torsional fretting have been studied systematically. Three kinetics characteristics curves (the friction torque vs. angular displacement amplitude curves, T-0 curves) for the torsional fretting:i.e. the linear, elliptic and parallelogram loops, were summarized. The research revealed that the kinetics characteristics of torsional fretting can be characterized by the T-0 curves, torque curves as function of time, friction dissipated energy (Ed), average deformation rigidity (k) and ratio of sticking zone (i). The results showed that the torsional fretting run in the partial slip regime (PSR), mixed fretting regime (MFR) and slip regime (SR) one by one with the increase of the angular displacement amplitudes. The running condition fretting maps (RCFMs) and material response fretting maps (MRFMs) of torsional fretting for different materials were established, respectively. It was found that the MFR of torsional fretting presented a particularity different from other fretting modes, i.e. the sticking zone of the MFR reduced until it disappeared with the increase of the number of cycles. The research results also showed that the torsional fretting was strongly dependent upon the normal loads, angular displacement amplitudes, number of cycles and material properties. A physical model of torsional fretting wear has been set up. The damage features for the metallic materials in the different fretting regimes are outlined as follows:
(a) In the PSR:The wear scar appeared in shape of annularity, and its centre was stuck with free damage. The micro-slip occurred in the ring at the contact boundary zone, corresponding with slight wear. The wear mechanisms mainly were abrasive wear and slight oxidative wear. In this regime, fretting white layer has been formed.
(b) In the MFR:The sticking zone gradually reduced until it disappeared with the increase of the number of cycles, while the contact state transformed from the partial slip to the gross slip. The profile of the wear scar of the MFR presented type of "W". The wear took place in the micro-slip zone, which was the result of combined action by the abrasive wear, oxidative wear and delamination. For the Fe-C alloys, the tendency of detachment of material by the mechanism delamination increased with the increase of the carbon content. The lateral cracks initiated at the interface between the white layer of fretting and the plastic deformation zone, and the detachment of particles was the result induced by the encounter of the lateral cracks and vertical cracks. At the cross-section, some titled cracks propagated to the base alloy were observed. It indicated that the growth rate of the local fatigue crack was more than the wear rate in the MFR.
(c) In the SR:The wear occurred at the whole contact zone, and the profile of wear scar presented typical "U" type, corresponding with severe damage. Same to the MFR, the wear mechanisms mainly were abrasive wear, oxidative wear and delamination in the SR. No titled crack can be observed at the cross-section, which indicated that the local wear rate was more than the growth rate of the fatigue crack in this regime.
(2) The oxidative behaviors of contact interfaces of torsional fretting
In the controlled atmosphere environment, he behaviors of the running and damage mechanism of torsional fretting for metallic materials have been studied under varied atmosphere (industrial pure nitrogen, pure oxygen and open air) and relative humidity (10%RH,60%RH and 90%RH). The tribo-oxidation mechanism was analyzed particularly. The research results showed that:
(a) The MFR and SR shifted to the direction of low angular displacement amplitude with the increase of the oxygen content of atmosphere. In nitrogen, the wear mechanisms of torsional fretting were abrasive wear and delamination. For the atmosphere contained oxygen (industrial pure oxygen and open air), the oxidative wear was also included.
(b) The friction torques and wear were reduced obviously by higher relative humidity. With the increase of the relative humidity, the range of MFR reduced, and the MFR and SR shifted to the direction of small angular displacement amplitude.
(c) The XPS results indicated that the oxidative reaction during the friction process was promoted by water in moist atmosphere. The product of oxidation played a role as alike solid lubricant to alleviate wear. The slip between the contact interfaces was enhanced by the tribo-oxidation. Oxidative debris formed from the tribo-oxidation was difficult to remove out of the contact area, and was good to reduce wear.
(3) The influence of varied counter-pairs of polymers
The running and damage behaviors of torsional fretting under varied counter-pairs for the PMMA and UHMWPE have been investigated, respectively. It found that the characteristics of torsional fretting were different with the variation of counter-pairs. The research results showed that:
(a) The running rules of torsional fretting for the PMMA and UHMWPE were consistent with that of metallic materials. The effect of normal loads and angular displacement amplitude on the behaviors of the running and damage of torsional fretting was discussed in detail.
(b) To compare the counter-pair of PMMA flat against GCr15 steel ball, the MFR and SR were shifted to the direction of high angular displacement amplitude by the counter-pair of PMMA flat against PMMA ball. Under the same test conditions, the depths and widths of the wear scars of the latter (PMMA/PMMA) were much higher than those of the former (PMMA/GCrl5), i.e. much severer wear occurred. For the PMMA/GCr15 counter-pair, the wear was controlled by the fatigue wear mechanism which induced the crazes. However, for the PMMA/PMMA counter-pair, the wear was controlled by the abrasive wear mechanism which generated the ploughs.
(c) To compare the counter-pair of UHMWPE flat against TC4 titanium alloy ball, the MFR and SR were shifted to the direction of low angular displacement amplitude by the counter-pair of UHMWPE flat against Al2O3 ceramic ball. Under the same test conditions, the depths and widths of the wear scars of the latter (UHMWPE/Al2O3) were much higher than those of the former (UHMWPE/TC4). However, the surface damage of UHMWPE/TC4 counter-pair appeared a much severer damage, which was controlled by the wear mechanisms of fatigue and abrasive wear. And for the UHMWPE/Al2O3 counter-pair, the wear mechanism of torsional fretting was mainly abrasive wear.
(4) The running and damage behaviors of torsional fretting for the natural active cartilage of bovine
The torsional fretting behaviors of the natural active cartilage of bovine against Al2O3 ceramic ball in the Ringer's solution have been studied. It was found that the cartilage presented different kinetics characteristics from the metallic materials and polymers. For example, the relative slip between the contact interfaces was enhanced with the increase of the normal loads; the evolution of friction torques appeared a different process from other materials. The special kinetics characteristics of the cartilage were probably related to the lubrication action induced by the extrudate come from the cartilage. SEM observation combined with the analysis of HE staining method indicated that the wear mechanism of torsional fretting of the cartilage was mainly fatigue wear. A damage physical model of the cartilage was set up.
(5) The finite element analyses of the contact of torsional fretting
A finite element model for torsional fretting under a ball-on-flat contact configuration was built up by using ANSYS software. In the range of elastic deformation, the effect of the number of cycles, angular displacement amplitudes and friction coefficients of contact interfaces on the contact stress distribution and the motion state of sticking/slip were analyzed in detail. In a word, the results of numerical simulation were well consistent with the experimental results.
本研究基于低速高精度转动台和六维传感器(x、y、z方向的力和扭矩),成功研制了新型扭动微动试验装置,真实模拟了球／平面接触条件下的扭动微动。该装置具有同轴度高、扭转角位移幅值范围广的特点,试验结果有很好的可比性和重现性。配置可控气氛系统,可实现不同气氛和湿度的试验模拟。
本文在不同载荷水平、角位移幅值和循环周次下,对几种典型金属材料、高聚物和牛天然活性软骨进行了扭动微动试验。通过动力学分析,以及利用表面轮廓仪、光学显微镜、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、电子能谱(EDX)、光电子能谱(XPS)和HE染色法等进行微观分析,系统地研究了扭动微动的运行机理与损伤机制。利用有限元方法,建立球／面接触模型,对扭动微动进行数值模拟,并将计算结果和实验结果进行比较。完成的主要工作和取得的主要结论如下：
(一)金属材料的扭动微动运行和损伤机理
针对Fe-C合金(工业纯铁、20#钢、LZ50钢)和7075铝合金,系统研究了扭动微动运行和损伤行为。总结归纳了扭动微动的三种动力学特性曲线(摩擦扭矩～角位移幅值曲线,T～θ曲线),即直线型、椭圆型和平行四边形型；研究揭示可以利用T-θ曲线、扭矩时变曲线、摩擦耗散能(Ed)、平均变形刚度(k)和粘着区比例(i)等参数表征扭动微动磨损的动力学特性；研究结果显示,随着角位移幅值的增加,扭动微动依次运行于部分滑移区(PSR)、混合区(MFR)和滑移区(SR)；研究建立了不同材料扭动微动的运行工况微动图(RCFM)和材料响应微动图(MRFM),发现与其它微动模式不同,扭动微动的混合区具有特殊性,即在混合区,磨痕黏着区随着循环周次的增加而减小直至消失；结果显示扭动微动磨损强烈地依赖于法向载荷、角位移幅值、循环周次和材料性质,研究建立了扭动微动磨损的物理模型；金属材料在不同微动区域的特征总结如下：
a)部分滑移区：磨痕呈环状,接触中心黏着且无损伤,微滑发生在接触边缘的圆环内,磨损轻微；磨损主要表现为磨粒磨损和轻微氧化磨损；此时微动白层已形成。
b)混合区：随着循环周次的增加,粘着区逐渐缩小,并最终消失,接触状态由部分滑移转变为完全滑移；混合区磨痕轮廓呈“W”型,磨损发生在微滑区内,是磨粒磨损、氧化磨损和剥层共同作用的结果；Fe-C合金中含碳量增加,以剥层机制发生材料剥落的倾向增加；横向裂纹在微动白层与塑性变形层的界面形成,颗粒剥落是横向裂纹与垂向裂纹沟通的结果；剖面可观察到向基体内扩展的倾斜裂纹,表明该区域的局部疲劳裂纹扩展速率大于磨损速率。
c)滑移区：磨损发生在整个接触区,典型的磨痕轮廓呈“U”型,损伤较严重；与混合区一样,滑移区的磨损机制主要表现为磨粒磨损、氧化磨损和剥层；在剖面未发现倾斜裂纹,表明该区的局部磨损速率大于疲劳裂纹的扩展速率。
(二)扭动微动接触界面的氧化行为
在可控气氛条件下,研究了金属材料在不同气氛(工业纯氮、工业纯氧和大气)和相对湿度(10%RH、60%RH和90%RH)下的扭动微动运行和损伤行为,重点分析了微动界面的摩擦氧化机理。研究结果显示：
(a)气氛中含氧量增加,混合区和滑移区向小角位移幅值方向移动。在氮气气氛下的扭动微动磨损机制为磨粒磨损和剥层,对于含氧气氛(工业纯氧和大气),磨损机制还包括氧化磨损。
(b)较高的相对湿度明显降低了摩擦扭矩和磨损；随着相对湿度的增加,混合区的范围逐渐缩小,混合区和滑移区向小角位移幅值方向移动。
(c)XPS的结果表明潮湿气氛中的水分促进摩擦过程中氧化反应的发生,氧化产物起到了类似固体润滑剂的作用,减轻了磨损。摩擦氧化增加了界面滑移,产生的氧化磨屑不易排出接触区,并有利于减少磨损。
(三)高聚物的不同摩擦配副的影响
分别研究了PMMA和UHMWPE在不同摩擦配副条件下的扭动微动运行和损伤行为,发现高聚物的扭动微动特性随摩擦配副的不同而不同。研究结果表明：
(a) PMMA和UHMWPE具有与金属材料一致的扭动微动运行规律。研究讨论了法向载荷、角位移幅值对扭动微动运行区域和损伤行为的影响。
(b)与PMMA板对GCr15钢球配副相比,PMMA板对PMMA球配副的扭动微动混合区和滑移区向大角位移方向移动；在相同试验条件下,磨痕深度和宽度后者(PMMA/PMMA)均比前者(PMMA/GCr15)要大,即磨损更严重；对于PMMA/GCr15摩擦副,磨损主要由产生银纹的疲劳磨损机制控制,而对于PMMA/PMMA摩擦副,磨损则主要由形成犁沟的磨粒磨损机制控制。
(c)与UHMWPE板对TC4钛合金球配副相比,UHMWPE板对Al2O3陶瓷球配副的扭动微动混合区和滑移区向小角位移方向移动；在相同试验条件下,磨痕深度和宽度后者(UHMWPE/Al2O3)均比前者(UHMWPE/TC4)要大；然而，UHMWPE/TC4摩擦副的表面损伤更明显,其磨损受磨粒磨损和疲劳磨损控制；对于UHMWPE/Al2O3摩擦副,扭动微动磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损。
(四)牛天然活性软骨的扭动微动运行和损伤行为
对牛的天然活性软骨／Al2O3陶瓷球在Ringer's溶液中的扭动微动磨损研究发现：软骨表现出与金属材料和高聚物不同的动力学特性,例如增加法向载荷,接触界面的相对滑移增加,摩擦扭矩的演变过程与其它材料不同；软骨特殊的动力学行为可能与软骨挤出物的润滑作用有关；SEM观察结合HE染色法分析表明软骨的扭动微动磨损主要表现为疲劳磨损,并建立了其损伤的物理模型。
(五)扭动微动接触的有限元分析
使用ANSYS软件,建立了球-平面接触条件下的扭动微动有限元模型。在弹性变形范围内,考察了循环周次、角位移幅值、接触界面摩擦系数对接触应力分布和黏滑状态的影响。总之,数值模拟结果和试验研究结果有很好的一致性。
According to the directions of relative motions, the fretting can be defined as four basic modes under a contact configuration of ball-on-flat:i.e. tangential, radial, rotational and torsional fretting. Presently, the absolute majority of researches have been focused on tangential fretting mode. The torsional fretting can be defined as a relative angular motion which was induced by reciprocating torsion in an oscillatory vibratory environment. It occurred in many rotary components, such as ball and socket joints, ball valves, center plates of vehicles, and so on. Although the torsion fretting phenomena are very common, much little related research focuses on it up to now. Study on torsional fretting not only has science significance of exploring the unknown to deepen and enrich the fundamental theory of fretting, but also have important guidance to palliate fretting damages in industry.
Based on a rotary device with low speed and high precision and a six dimensional sensor (forces and torques of x, y and z directions), a new torsional fretting tester has been developed in this study to factually simulate the case of torsional fretting under a contact of ball-on-flat. This tester presents high coaxiality and a wide range of angular displacement amplitude, and its test results showed a better comparable characteristics and repeatability. To layout a controlled atmosphere system, the experimental simulation of various atmospheres and relative humidity environments can be realized.
Torsional fretting tests for several typical metallic materials, polymers and natural active cartilage of bovine have been carried out under different load levels, angular displacement amplitudes and number of cycles. Dynamic analyses in combination with the microscopic examinations through profilometer, optical microscope, scanning electrical microscope (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscope (EDX), x-ray photoelectron spectroscope (XPS) and Hematoxylin-Eosin staining method, have been performed to study the running and damage mechanisms of the torsional fretting in detail. Using the finite element method (FEM) to establish the ball/contact model of torsional fretting. The comparison analysis of numerical simulation results and the experimental results were done. The main research works and obtained conclusions in this dissertation are as follows:
(1) The running and damage mechanisms of torsional fretting for the metallic materials
For Fe-C alloys (industrial pure iron,1020 steel and LZ50 steel) and 7075 aluminum alloy, the running and damage behaviors of torsional fretting have been studied systematically. Three kinetics characteristics curves (the friction torque vs. angular displacement amplitude curves, T-0 curves) for the torsional fretting:i.e. the linear, elliptic and parallelogram loops, were summarized. The research revealed that the kinetics characteristics of torsional fretting can be characterized by the T-0 curves, torque curves as function of time, friction dissipated energy (Ed), average deformation rigidity (k) and ratio of sticking zone (i). The results showed that the torsional fretting run in the partial slip regime (PSR), mixed fretting regime (MFR) and slip regime (SR) one by one with the increase of the angular displacement amplitudes. The running condition fretting maps (RCFMs) and material response fretting maps (MRFMs) of torsional fretting for different materials were established, respectively. It was found that the MFR of torsional fretting presented a particularity different from other fretting modes, i.e. the sticking zone of the MFR reduced until it disappeared with the increase of the number of cycles. The research results also showed that the torsional fretting was strongly dependent upon the normal loads, angular displacement amplitudes, number of cycles and material properties. A physical model of torsional fretting wear has been set up. The damage features for the metallic materials in the different fretting regimes are outlined as follows:
(a) In the PSR:The wear scar appeared in shape of annularity, and its centre was stuck with free damage. The micro-slip occurred in the ring at the contact boundary zone, corresponding with slight wear. The wear mechanisms mainly were abrasive wear and slight oxidative wear. In this regime, fretting white layer has been formed.
(b) In the MFR:The sticking zone gradually reduced until it disappeared with the increase of the number of cycles, while the contact state transformed from the partial slip to the gross slip. The profile of the wear scar of the MFR presented type of "W". The wear took place in the micro-slip zone, which was the result of combined action by the abrasive wear, oxidative wear and delamination. For the Fe-C alloys, the tendency of detachment of material by the mechanism delamination increased with the increase of the carbon content. The lateral cracks initiated at the interface between the white layer of fretting and the plastic deformation zone, and the detachment of particles was the result induced by the encounter of the lateral cracks and vertical cracks. At the cross-section, some titled cracks propagated to the base alloy were observed. It indicated that the growth rate of the local fatigue crack was more than the wear rate in the MFR.
(c) In the SR:The wear occurred at the whole contact zone, and the profile of wear scar presented typical "U" type, corresponding with severe damage. Same to the MFR, the wear mechanisms mainly were abrasive wear, oxidative wear and delamination in the SR. No titled crack can be observed at the cross-section, which indicated that the local wear rate was more than the growth rate of the fatigue crack in this regime.
(2) The oxidative behaviors of contact interfaces of torsional fretting
In the controlled atmosphere environment, he behaviors of the running and damage mechanism of torsional fretting for metallic materials have been studied under varied atmosphere (industrial pure nitrogen, pure oxygen and open air) and relative humidity (10%RH,60%RH and 90%RH). The tribo-oxidation mechanism was analyzed particularly. The research results showed that:
(a) The MFR and SR shifted to the direction of low angular displacement amplitude with the increase of the oxygen content of atmosphere. In nitrogen, the wear mechanisms of torsional fretting were abrasive wear and delamination. For the atmosphere contained oxygen (industrial pure oxygen and open air), the oxidative wear was also included.
(b) The friction torques and wear were reduced obviously by higher relative humidity. With the increase of the relative humidity, the range of MFR reduced, and the MFR and SR shifted to the direction of small angular displacement amplitude.
(c) The XPS results indicated that the oxidative reaction during the friction process was promoted by water in moist atmosphere. The product of oxidation played a role as alike solid lubricant to alleviate wear. The slip between the contact interfaces was enhanced by the tribo-oxidation. Oxidative debris formed from the tribo-oxidation was difficult to remove out of the contact area, and was good to reduce wear.
(3) The influence of varied counter-pairs of polymers
The running and damage behaviors of torsional fretting under varied counter-pairs for the PMMA and UHMWPE have been investigated, respectively. It found that the characteristics of torsional fretting were different with the variation of counter-pairs. The research results showed that:
(a) The running rules of torsional fretting for the PMMA and UHMWPE were consistent with that of metallic materials. The effect of normal loads and angular displacement amplitude on the behaviors of the running and damage of torsional fretting was discussed in detail.
(b) To compare the counter-pair of PMMA flat against GCr15 steel ball, the MFR and SR were shifted to the direction of high angular displacement amplitude by the counter-pair of PMMA flat against PMMA ball. Under the same test conditions, the depths and widths of the wear scars of the latter (PMMA/PMMA) were much higher than those of the former (PMMA/GCrl5), i.e. much severer wear occurred. For the PMMA/GCr15 counter-pair, the wear was controlled by the fatigue wear mechanism which induced the crazes. However, for the PMMA/PMMA counter-pair, the wear was controlled by the abrasive wear mechanism which generated the ploughs.
(c) To compare the counter-pair of UHMWPE flat against TC4 titanium alloy ball, the MFR and SR were shifted to the direction of low angular displacement amplitude by the counter-pair of UHMWPE flat against Al2O3 ceramic ball. Under the same test conditions, the depths and widths of the wear scars of the latter (UHMWPE/Al2O3) were much higher than those of the former (UHMWPE/TC4). However, the surface damage of UHMWPE/TC4 counter-pair appeared a much severer damage, which was controlled by the wear mechanisms of fatigue and abrasive wear. And for the UHMWPE/Al2O3 counter-pair, the wear mechanism of torsional fretting was mainly abrasive wear.
(4) The running and damage behaviors of torsional fretting for the natural active cartilage of bovine
The torsional fretting behaviors of the natural active cartilage of bovine against Al2O3 ceramic ball in the Ringer's solution have been studied. It was found that the cartilage presented different kinetics characteristics from the metallic materials and polymers. For example, the relative slip between the contact interfaces was enhanced with the increase of the normal loads; the evolution of friction torques appeared a different process from other materials. The special kinetics characteristics of the cartilage were probably related to the lubrication action induced by the extrudate come from the cartilage. SEM observation combined with the analysis of HE staining method indicated that the wear mechanism of torsional fretting of the cartilage was mainly fatigue wear. A damage physical model of the cartilage was set up.
(5) The finite element analyses of the contact of torsional fretting
A finite element model for torsional fretting under a ball-on-flat contact configuration was built up by using ANSYS software. In the range of elastic deformation, the effect of the number of cycles, angular displacement amplitudes and friction coefficients of contact interfaces on the contact stress distribution and the motion state of sticking/slip were analyzed in detail. In a word, the results of numerical simulation were well consistent with the experimental results.
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