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稀疏台网震源参数方法研究
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摘要
准确确定中小地震机制解、深度、位置和强震有限断层破裂运动学过程既是震源物理的核心研究内容,也是地震应急救灾的基础。而地震波形包含了震源和地球结构两部分信息,理论上只有地球介质结构足够清楚后和在足够台站分布的情形下才能获得比较准确的震源参数。但是世界上只有少数地区有足够的台站和可靠的三维模型,因此有必要发展较稀疏台网覆盖、三维速度结构不清楚情形下震源参数准确获取的方法。针对此情形,本文验证、发展了对三维结构依赖性不高的Cut And Paste(CAP)基于波形反演震源参数的方法:(1)验证了在稀疏台网情况下机制解反演的可靠性,并给出适用于少数台站确定机制解和震源质心位置的南加州层析成像模型;(2)用多个一维或二维模型近似不同方位上的三维结构;(3)基于CAPloc方法,利用背景噪声确定面波格林函数,实现少数台站高精度地震定位;(4)改进CAP,发展出适用于远震体波反演机制解的CAPtele方法,并验证地幔衰减t~*、时源函数长度、数据类型等因素对反演的影响(5)发展了近震波形和远震体波联合反演的CAPjoint方法;(6)分析了地幔衰减t~*、断层倾角、破裂速度、最大破裂深度等参数对远震体波确定有限断层破裂过程的影响。
     在本文的第一、二章中我们回顾了震源参数反演方法的发展,并详细介绍了几种主要的反演方法。
     在第三章中我们利用宽频带远震数字地震记录,计算赤峰台下方接收函数,得到了MOHO面深度为34~35km,并结合CRUST2.0模型等前人工作成果得到了赤峰地区的地壳速度结构。我们以此速度结构作为模型,利用中国国家地震台网(CDSN)5个台站的宽频带地震数据,采用CAP方法反演2003年8月16日赤峰地震震源机制解并初步确定震源深度:再利用IRIS 9个台站远震体波数据,通过对比高频(0.7~2.0Hz)理论地震图和观测记录的方法进一步精确确定震源深度并验证反演得到的机制解,得出此次地震矩震级为5.2,震源机制解为:节面I:315°/64°/19°,节面Ⅱ:216°/74°/152°,震源深度为25±2km,已深达下地壳。我们初步讨论了这样的发震深度所对应的可能发震机理和岩石物理特征,认为赤峰地区的下地壳处于相对低温的状态。
     本文第四章中我们对新近发展的CAPloc方法进行了一系列的测试,即在稀疏台网的条件下得到地震的震源机制解,并将其与利用整个TriNet(南加州地震台网)数据反演得到的机制解进行对比,分析了单台和双台反演的稳定行和可靠性。CAPloc方法的基本思想是将地震图分成面波和Pnl波两部分,并分别对其进行拟合。拟合时所需要的格林函数可以从事先算好的格林函数库里直接提取,极大地提高了反演速度,非常适合在应急地震学中的应用。由于在反演过程中对Pnl和面波分别进行拟合,允许两者有不同的时移。在精确地震定位和准确机制解的条件下,我们将TriNet记录到的120个地震相对于一维模型的时移用于面波层析成像反演,得到了南加州地区的一个面波层析成像模型。我们从该模型上切割出一系列二维剖面上计算出理论地震,并与一维模型计算的理论地震图进行比较,发现在绝大多数的基岩台上,两者的低频面波波形十分相似,唯一不同的是面波的到时。与此同时,基岩台上记录到的实际地震波形可以很好地用一维模型来拟合。运用该模型,我们通过网格搜索的方法同时确定出地震的震源机制解和震源的质心位置。本章我们还测试了单台反演震源机制解的方法,所用的是从1960年开始便有记录的PAS和(或)GSC台,并将结果和用TriNet数据得到的机制解进行对比。我们发现,单台法可以得到的机制解约占台网机制解总数的80%,当同时使用两个台站的时候,得到的机制解更为准确可靠。与此同时,除了在一些复杂的路径上的地震,如经过盆地和山脊,CAPloc也可以得到很好的结果。
     格林函数信息的获取可以通过传统的地震——台站波形拟合的方法,也可以利用同一块大陆上两个台站的噪音记录做互相关。传统方法可以在宽频带的范围内获得格林函数,但是需要分离震源过程和三维结构造成的影响。新近发展的一些方法可以可以在某种程度上解决这一困难,例如:back-projection,adjoint方法等。另一种方法则是利用Cut-And-Paste(CAP)技术,这种方法允许理论地震图和实际地震图之间存在时移来对齐地震图,降低了反演对结构的敏感性,进而可以更好地获得震源的信息。这些相对于某一模型的时移一旦获得,就可以用于生成一个面波走时时移地图。同时,我们还将CAP方法运用至基于三维模型计算的理论地震数据上,获取了三维模型和一维模型计算的低频面波走时的差别。与其相对的,我们还利用环境噪音互相关的方法获取了面波的格林函数。该方法不存在这种震源信息未知的问题,因为两个台站的位置都是精确知道的,因此这种方法获得的结构信息是独立于所谓的震源,完全是对结构的反映。在第四章中我们以2008/07/29发生的Chino Hills地震为例,研究这三种方法在获取震源位置和机制解上的应用。我们的目的在于在近实时地获取地震的质心位置以及震源机制解。
     在本文的第六章,我们对2007年6月2日云南宁洱Mw6.1级地震进行了震源参数反演的研究,首先使用中国国家地震台网(CDSN)4个宽频带地震数据,采用CAP方法反演得出,Mw=6.0,深度5km,节面Ⅰ:断层走向150°、倾角75°,滑动角140°;节面Ⅱ:断层走向252°、倾角52°、滑动角40°。同时,利用远震27组P/SH波记录,对我们发展的CAPtele方法进行了一系列测试,以确定出使用远震体波反演宁洱地震的适当参数,得出:P波衰减因子t_p~*=1,t_(sh)~*/t_p~*=5,最佳时源函数长度为3.5s,以这些参数为基础,利用速度记录获得的机制解为:节面Ⅰ:155°/59°/147°,节面Ⅱ:258°/70°/33°,Mw=6.2,震源深度2km;利用远震位移记录获得的机制解为:节面Ⅰ:146°/49°/134°,节面Ⅱ:259°/66°/46°,Mw=6.26,深度2km。和近震方法确定的解不同,远震体波反演在5km深度上存在另一个局部极小值解,为进一步确定机制解和深度,我们综合利用近震和远震记录,使用CAPjoint方法联合反演所获得的解为:节面Ⅰ:149°/65°/151°,节面Ⅱ;254°/60°/29°,Mw=6.1,深度为6km。最后,我们使用远震体波记录在联合反演得到的两个节面上进行了震源有限破裂过程反演,初步确认了地震发生的实际断层面为:走向149°,倾角65°,和地震的烈度分布相吻合,但实际的地震破裂过程还需要更细致的研究。
     在第七章中,我们利用远震P和SH波反演得到2008年5月12日的汶川大地震(Mw=7.9)的一系列有限破裂模型。使用的是一种基于小波变换的模拟退火非线性反演方法,我们将主断层划分成若干个小的子断层,在反演时同时确定每个子断层上的滑移量、滑动角、上升时间(rise time)以及平均破裂速度。我们首先根据一个假定的破裂模型生成理论地震图,将该理论地震数据作为输入进行反演,对该有限破裂反演方法进行了一系列的测试,以验证反演对断层倾角、平均破裂速度、最大破裂深度等参数的敏感性。然后我们采用4个不同倾角的断层面来对汶川地震记录进行反演,结果表明,若对只在一个断层面上模拟该地震,30°倾角是个较为合适的值。反演的结果还表明,此次地震有两个主要的能量释放区域,并且主断层面存在倾角变化的可能性。同时,我们也对伊朗2005年2月22日Zarand地震进行了一系列震源有限破裂反演。首先我们结合InSAR和地表破裂观测资料约束了地震的平均破裂速度;其次用网格搜索的方法,初步确定出最佳的震中位置位于距断层东侧约5km、深10km处。我们还测试了t_p~*,t_(sh)~*对矩震级的影响以及增加SH波对反演结果的影响,得出:当t_p~*从1.0减小至0.7时,对应的矩震级从6.5越小至6.4;同时使用P和SH波约束更全面,更有利于获取正确的破裂模型.所有的反演结果均显示,Zarand地震的发震断层存在2个或3个“凹凸体”,其中最主要的“凹凸体”位于震中的东侧,深度约为9km。在将来的研究中,我们可以结合GPS,InSAR测地学以及强震等数据,来对强震、尤其是M6.0~6.5级地震的破裂过程做更细致的研究。
Accurate source mechanism,depth and horizontal location of small to middle size earthquakes and reasonable finite fault solutions of meca-earthquakes is not only the basis topic of seismology but also important in earthquake mitigation.Seismogram of earthquakes are composed by source and structure information,theoretically,people can obtain accurate mechanism of earthquakes only when we have a better understanding of structure and enough station coverage.However,there are a few regions in the world have dense station coverage and reliable 3D model.Thus it is necessary to develop methods to obtain accurate source mechanism of earthquakes in regions with sparse network and poor understanding of 3D structure.Base on this background,we test and develop the Cut-And-Paste(CAP) method which inverses source mechanism by waveform modeling and is relative insensitive to 3D structure in following aspects:(1) We test stability and reliability of obtaining source parameters by sparse network and present a crustal tomography model of Southern California which is appropriate for sparse network full parameter inversion;(2) We use different 1D models to approximate 3D structure in different azimuth;(3) We achieve high accuracy source centroid location by combining Ambient Seismic Noise (ASN) technique which can extract Greens' Function of surface wave by cross-correlating noise records and CAPloc method;(4) We develop CAPtele method which can inverse for source parameters basing on teleseismic body waves by improving CAP method,and make sensitivity tests for mantle attenuation factor t*, length of source time function and types of record;(5) We develop CAPjoint method which can use both local and teleseismic records for source parameter inversion;(6) We make sensitivity tests for t*,dip angle,rupture velocity,and maximum rupture depth for finite fault inversion of teleseismic body waves.
     In chapter 1,we used broadband teleseismic data of ChingFeng station to calculate the Receiver Functions,then obtained a velocity model with H-K stacking method in combination with Crust2.0 and other previous work.With this velocity model and broadband records from 5 CDSN stations,we inverted focal mechanisms of ChiFeng earthquake on August 16th,2003 with the "Cut and Paste"(CAP) method. Then we confirmed the focal depth and source mechanisms by comparing synthetic teleseismic P waves at with broadband records of 9 IRIS stations.Our result shows that the best double couple solution of this Mw5.2 event is 315°,64°and 19°for strike,dip and slip angles respectively,the second nodal plane solution is 214°,74°, and 152°.The focal depth is 25±2km,suggesting that this quake occurred in the lower crust which is much deeper than most continental earthquakes.This lower crust earthquake requires that the rock should be colder than expected.We proposed generation mechanism of this deep earthquake and its implications in rock strength and thermal state.
     In chapter 2,we first determine source mechanism of YunNan earthquake by local broadband data,and then compare it with teleseismic inversion result.Tests of record type(displacement or velocity),source duration,attenuation factors of P and S body waves are made for sensitivity study of moment magnitude.After weighting regional data and teleseismic data properly according to their amplitudes,they can be used together in a Cut and Past(CAP) inversion process.Fault geometry(strike,dip and rake),moment,depth and duration are determined in a grid search manner.At the end we discuss the distributed slip of this event.
     In chapter 3,we conduct a detailed test of a recently developed technique, CAPloc,in recovering source parameters from a few stations against results from a large broadband network in Southern California.The method uses a library of 1D Green's functions which are broken into segments and matched to waveform observations with adjustable timing shifts.These shifts can be established by calibration against a distribution of well-located earthquakes and assembled in tomographic images for predicting various phase-delays.Synthetics generated from 2D cross-sections through these models indicates that 1D synthetic waveforms are sufficient in modeling but simply shifted in time for most hard-rock sites.This simplification allows the source inversion for both mechanism and location to easily obtain by grid search.We test one-station mechanisms for 160 events against the array for both PAS and GSC which have data since 1960.While individual solutions work well for mechanism(about 80%),joint solutions using these two stations produce more reliable and defensible results.Inverting for both mechanism and location also works well except for certain complex paths across deep basins and along mountain ridges.
     Recent waveform modeling methods have been developed to retrieve local Green's functions based on the cross-correlation of ambient seismic noise(ASN) involving station-to-station and convention(source-to-station) inversions.The latter methods provide the most broadband results but require the separation of the source description from the 3D structure.Several new methods overcome this trade-off by iteration involving back-projections,i.e.,the adjoint method.An alternative approach, the cut-and-paste(CAP) technique,allows adjustments in timing between seismic phases(path corrections) making it possible to match waveform data and recover source parameters.These shifts or delays can be estimated from previous earthquakes, phase delay mapping,or they can be generated directly from CAP analysis of 3D synthetics.In contrast,1D Green's functions generated by ASN does not have this inherit source location-origin time issue and can provide excellent independent delay calibrations.Here,we compare the source parameters including location for the recent Chino Hills earthquake(CA) derived from these three methods.These advances make it possible to locate Centroids of local events in near real time.
     In chapter 6,we inversed source parameters of 2007/06/02 Nin'er Mw6.1 earthquake in Yunnan Province of China.At first,we use four local broadband records of China Digital Seismic Network(CDSN) to inverse for source mechanism of the main event by CAP method,we obtain:Mw=6.0,depth=5.0km,the first nodal plane I is 150°/75°/140°for strike/dip/rake and the second is:252°/52°/40°.And then we use 27 pairs of P/SH teleseismic body waves to make tests for our CAPtele method,which shows that the best t_p~*=1,t_(sh)~*/t_p~*=5 and length of source time function is 3.5s.Base on these parameters we inverse source mechanism by CAPtele method,in which we use velocity records and corresponding source parameters are:Mw=6.2,depth=2km, nodal planeⅠis:155°/59°/147°,nodal planeⅡis:258°/70°/33°.When we use displacement records during inversion,corresponding source mechanism is: Mw=6.26,depth=2km,nodal planeⅠis:146°/49°/134°,nodal planeⅡis: 259°/66°/46°.CAPtele inversions has another local minimum solution at 5km while local CAP inversion has only one minimum solution in depth.We develop CAPjoint method by combining local and teleseismic record to eliminate this ambiguity,and we have the following joint mechanism:Mw=6.1,depth=6km,nodal planeⅠis: 149°/65°/151°,nodal planeⅡis:254°/60°/29°.Finally,we conduct finite fault inversion on these two fault planes,and our prliminary results show that nodal planeⅠ(149°/65°) might be the real fault plane which accords with intensity distribution. However,we need to combine more data for detailed study of finite fault soluion.
     In chapter 7,we present a series of rupture models of the Wenchuan earthquake(Mw7.9),based on inverting P and SH teleseismic body waves.A simulated annealing algorithm is used to determine the finite-fault model that minimizes the objective function described in terms of wavelet coefficients.With this approach,we can simultaneously invert for the slip amplitude,slip direction,rise time and rupture velocity.At the first step,experiments conducted on synthetic data are used to assess the ability to recover rupture slip details and teleseismic body waves. We investigate the resolvability of teleseismic body inversion on dip angle,rupture velocity and maximum rupture depth.Then 4 slip models are obtained for the Wenchuan Earthquake by applying this method on 4 single fault planes which are specified by different dip angle.We analysis the resolvability of finite fault analysis by using telesesimic data and how to choose a reasonable dip angle for the Wenchuan Earthquake.Two asperities are observed on different solutions,likelihood of change dip is discussed.We present a series of finite fault models for 2005/02/22 Zarand Earthquake in Iran.At first,we constrain rupture velocity by InSAR image and free surface observation;then we conduct grid searches for the best hypocenter location, which show that the best hypocenter locates about 5km away from eastern side on the fault plane and has a depth of 10km.We also make sensitivity tests for t_p~* and t_(sh)~*,we find that when t_p~* decrease from 1.0 to 0.7,corresponding Mw change from 6.5 to 6.4. Tests show that it is helpful to use both P and SH waves in finite fault inversion,as SH waves have different sensitivity to kinematic process of earthquakes.All our results prove that Zarand event has 2 or 3 asperities and the biggest asperity locate at eastern side of hypocenter and has a depth of 9km.Incremental improvements in resolving for source complexity will be possible in the near future with more geodetic and near field seismic data combined with space-based observations.
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