核酸适配子在生化检测中的应用及基因突变位点识别新方法研究
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摘要
核酸适配子(核酸适体, Aptamer)是人工合成的核酸序列,能以高的亲合力同各种靶分子(小分子、蛋白质,甚至整个细胞)特异性结合。它们是从含大量自由序列的核酸文库中通过体外筛选分离出来的。含有富guanine (G)-片段的某些核酸适配子,例如,具有生物活性的抗增生性、抗艾滋病与抗血凝固的核酸适配子[1],能够通过氢键作用组成四元G平面,这种四元G平面能彼此重叠堆积,形成G-四股螺旋。这种四股螺旋能使核酸适配子具有特定的活性。某些物质分子就是通过与G-四股螺旋的特异性结合来实现它们治疗与调节基因功能活性的作用[2]。在生化分析领域,由于核酸适配子,包括富G-核酸序列,具有高的目标结合特异性与强的亲和作用力,生物活性稳定而易于保存,在活体组织中能快速渗透,而且易于合成,已经被视为一种富有应用潜力的探针,与抗体相媲美。目前,核酸适配子已经被应用于各种蛋白质检测系统的构建中,为免疫检测方法与免疫传感器的研究提供了一个新的平台[3]。尽管如此,相对于传统的抗体技术,核酸适配子的研究尚处于起始阶段[4]。在用核酸适配子构建靶物质检测体系的过程中,关键的一步是将靶物质分子与核酸适配子的结合作用成功地转换成可检测的响应信号。
单核苷多形态(SNPs)是指基因组中特定位置的碱基发生突变的现象,是遗传变异中一种最为普遍的形式。由于氨基酸的替代、基因表达的更改与基因拼接的变化,SNP能够影响基因组的功能,进而导致各种疾病的发生与药物代谢的个体差异[5]。虽然目前用于基因突变检测的方法已有不少报道,多数体系需要对目标序列进行放大,比如,PCR放大。为了灵敏、准确、快速而低消耗地识别突变位点,需要继续发展一些较为通用的检测方法[6]。
基于以上考虑,综合文献报道,本论文利用普通序列与富G-序列(这种序列可以形成分子内或者分子间四股螺旋结构)核酸适配子发展了一序列的生物检测体系,研究了富G-DNA衍生纳米颗粒的团聚行为;此外,利用核苷酸杂交作用发展了DNA序列检测与点突变识别的新型电化学与光学生物传感技术。具体细节如下:
1.基于核酸适配子的生物检测体系
A)富G-DNA衍生纳米金的团聚行为与基于G-四股螺旋结构的电化学传感器。
基于核酸适配子构型转换,利用腺苷做目标分析物,第2章构建了可再生、电化学传感平台,用于小分子物质的灵敏检测。首先在金电极表面修饰酪胺聚合膜和纳米金层,再通过硫-金键的强亲合力将巯基衍生的固定探针组装在电极表面;特异性识别腺苷的二茂铁-适配子探针与固定探针杂交后即完成传感器的制备。腺苷的存在使二茂铁标记的适配子探针从电极表面脱落而导致氧化还原峰电流下降。峰电流的降低幅度与腺苷含量成正比。此传感界面可提供较宽的线性响应范围和较低的检测下限,此外,还具有较高的选择性、良好的重现性、稳定性及再生性等优点。回收试验证实了此电化学传感系统用于腺苷检测的可行性。
第3章考察了末端碱基为四个鸟嘌呤、含27个碱基的DNA序列修饰的金纳米颗粒的团聚行为。研究发现,某种程度上,纳米颗粒间的G-四股螺旋促进了纳米金的团聚。另一方面,金属离子络合的现象发生部分钝化:富G-DNA衍生纳米颗粒的稳定性比普通DNA衍生纳米颗粒稍低;衍生纳米颗粒团聚过程中的金属选择性被有效抑制。据此,本章提出了富G-DNA衍生纳米颗粒可能的团聚机理。
基于富G-DNA的构型转换,第4章构建了开/关型纳米电子器件。巯基化、氨基修饰的富G-DNA固定于金电极表面,然后标记电化学活性物质二茂铁(Fc)。表面限定的DNA序列能够在刚性四元G-四股螺旋与弹性单链结构间相互转换。这种较大的形态改变使得DNA序列能够象尺蠖一样做伸―缩运动,产生了电流变化。因钾离子能够与G-四股螺旋发生特异性结合,使用这种无试剂的电化学传感界面,不需任何额外的检测试剂,就可实现对钾离子的简便、快速、选择性检测。
第5章利用分子间的G-四股螺旋结构,不需任何信号增强试剂,构建了高灵敏的电化学DNA生物传感器。为了获得传感界面,通过巯-金键作用将捕获探针(巯基DNA序列)组装到金电极表面;用具有电化学活性的二茂铁分子衍生末端富G-片段的DNA序列,作为信号报道探针,这条探针设计成能够形成分子间的四股螺旋,且与捕获探针序列相匹配。信号探针与表面限定捕获探针的杂交能使电极产生氧化还原峰电流。少量的目标DNA与捕获探针的预先杂交能够使电极的峰电流发生显著变化,产生电化学响应信号。用这种竞争杂交型的电化学检测方法,获得的浓度响应范围为9.92×10-14到9.92×10-10 M,检测限为2.48×10?19 mol。相对于普通序列探针构建的传感界面,该传感界面具有较高的灵敏度。此外,本检测体系操作简便、快速、消耗低,而且回避了信号扩大过程中可能产生的各种问题。B)为了进一步说明核酸适配子在生化分析中的优越性,本部分内容以IgE为待测目标物质、核酸适配子为识别探针,构建了生物检测体系,考察了核酸适配子检测体系的分析性能。
在第6章,以含抗-IgE适配子标准序列片段、能形成发夹型结构的核酸分子为识别探针,构建了IgE的电化学检测平台。没有目标IgE时,由于双臂末端的杂交作用,电极表面限定的核酸适配子可以形成大的发夹型结构,溶液中的电化学活性分子能产生氧化还原峰电流;有待测物质IgE时,目标蛋白质的结合不但能使电极表面介电层增厚,而且导致核酸适配子形态发生较大的改变:发夹结构的打开将生物分子层与溶液的界面推离电极表面,电子传递距离增大,传递效率被有效抑制,产生增强的检测信号。
基于核酸适配子对IgE的特异性识别作用,并借助短序列杂交反应,第7章提出了IgE荧光增强均相检测体系。用与核酸适配子匹配的德克萨斯红标记的DNA (T-DNA)作为信号探针,在形成IgE/aptamer/T-DNA的三元复合物后,其荧光明显增强;以4′-(4′-二甲基氨基叠氮苯)苯甲酸(DABCYL,猝灭基团)标记的另一条DNA (Q-DNA)为猝灭探针,这条DNA序列能与核酸适配子序列中同信号探针相邻的另一片段发生杂交反应,由于猝灭基团与荧光基团之间发生能量转移而有效降低荧光背景。用这种方法检测IgE取得的动力学响应浓度范围为9.2×10~(-11)到3.7×10~(-8) M,检测限为5.7×10~(-11) M.
2. DNA杂交检测与单核苷多形态识别方法研究
通过反转分子信标与DNA连接酶的联合使用,第8章提出了一种DNA检测与点突变识别的新策略。用5'端磷酸化、3'端修饰二茂铁的DNA为信号探针,这条探针在目标序列与连接酶存在时能被连接到表面限定的捕获探针上,产生氧化还原电流;洗脱目标DNA后,连接生成物可以形成发夹型结构,电流响应强度进一步增大。利用这种检测方法,在3.4×10~(-12)到1.4×10~(-7) M浓度范围内的目标DNA序列能被定量检测,检测限为1.0×10~(-12) M。
以纳米金作为DNA捕获探针的富集基体和检测探针的荧光猝灭剂,第9章研究了一种新型的荧光淬灭DNA杂交均相检测系统。以5'端修饰纳米金的DNA作为捕获探针,3'端修饰羧基四甲基罗丹名(TAMRA)的DNA作为信号探针,溶液中加入匹配DNA后,由于杂交反应,TAMRA接近纳米金表面而发生荧光淬灭;荧光淬灭效率随着目标DNA浓度的增大而增强,因此适合于DNA的定量测量。检测线性范围为1.4～92 nM。
第10章报道了5'-单磷酸腺苷(AMP),一种带负电荷分子,可导致纳米金强烈团聚的现象。据此,研发出一种基于切割碎片诱导纳米金团聚、用于核酸序列检测的均相非标记比色检测技术。这种比色检测技术用于DNA序列检测,通过目视比色法和UV/vis分光光度法,均可获得较为理想的响应性能(如灵敏度,选择性和线性范围)。
Aptamers are synthetic oligonucleotides with high binding affinity for a broad range of targets, including small molecules, proteins, or even whole cells. They are isolated from random-sequence nucleic acid libraries by“in vitro selection”. Some aptamers with guanine (G)-rich segments, biologically active RNA and DNA sequences including anti-proliferative, anti-HIV and anti-coagulation aptamers[1], can assemble into G-quartets, planar structures of four H-bonded Gs, which stack on top of each other to form G-quadruplexes that are essential for nucleotide fuctions. Some species that bind to G-quadruplexes can find significant applications as therapeutics or as probes for gene function[2]. In biochemical analysis, aptamers, including G-rich oligonucleotides, rival antibodies as highly promising tools due to the specificity, the easy storage, the fast tissue penetration, the high binding affinity and simplicity of in vitro selection. Aptamers have been used for the preparation of numerous sensing atrageies for the detection of various proteins and provide a interesting alternative to immunoassays and immunosensors[3]. Nevertheless, aptamer research is still in its infancy compared with the bellwether antibody technology[4]. The key in the development of aptamer-based sensing systems is to transducer successfully aptamer recognition events to detectable signals.
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are point mutations that occur at specific positions in a genome and constitute the most common form of genetic variation. SNP may affect gene function resulting from amino acid substitution, modification of gene expression or alteration of gene splicing and are closely associated with various common diseases and individual differences in drug metabolism[5]. Although numerous technologies for the point mutation detection have been reported to date, most of these approaches require target amplification, typically with PCR. Additional efforts are thus needed to explore more broadly applicable methods for the sensitive, accurate, rapid, and low-cost SNP identification[6]. In this doctoral thesis, several bioassay systems have been developed based on aptamers with the common sequences and those with with G-rich segments that can form the intramolecular or intermolecular G-quadruplex structures; the aggregation behavior of G-rich DNA-modified nanoparticles has been inveastigatedd; electrochemical sensing interfaces as well as optical methods for the detection of DNA hybridization and the screening of SNPs. The details are summarized as follows:
1. Aptamer–based bioassay systems
A) The aggregation behavior of gold nanoparticles modified with G-rich DNA sequences and electrochemical biosensors based on G-quadruplex structures.
(1) In chapter 2, a reusable electrochemical sensing platform based on structure-switching signaling aptamers for highly sensitive detection of small molecules is developed using adenosine as a model analyte. A gold electrode is firstly modified with polytyramine (Pty) and gold nanoparticles (GNPs). Then, thiolated-capture probe is assembled onto the modified electrode surface via sulfur-gold affinity. Ferrocene (Fc)-labeled aptamer probe, which is designed to hybridize with capture DNA sequence and specifically recognize adenosine, is immobilized on electrode surface by hybridization reaction. The introduction of adenosine triggers structure switching of aptamer. As a result, Fc-labeled aptamer probe is forced to dissociate from the sensing interface, resulting in a decrease in redox current. The decrement of peak current is proportional to the amount of adenosine. The present sensing system could provide both a wide linear dynamic range and a low detection limit. In addition, high selectivity, good reproducibility, stability and reusability are achieved. The recovery test demonstrates the feasibility of the designed sensing system for adenosine assay.
(2) In chapter 3, the aggregation behavior of the nanoparticles, which are functionalized with four-guanine-terminated 27-base sequences, is investigated. To some extent, the guanine-quadruplex structures between gold nanoparticles (GNPs) promote the nanoparticle aggregation. However, the coordination site of the metal ion on the nanoparticle surfaces is partly passivated: the stability of guanine-rich DNA-GNPs is slightly lower than that of the common DNA-GNPs, and the metal-ion specificity of nanoparticle assembly is substantially decreased. Accordingly, a mechanism for the aggregation of guanine-rich sequence-modified GNPs is proposed.
In chapter 4, a novel on/off electronic nanoswitch is described based on the conformational change of DNA sequence possessing a single guanine (G)-rich stretch. A thiolated, amine-containing G-rich DNA sequence is immobilized on the surface of gold electrode and is then labeled with redox-active ferrocene molecules. The surface-confined DNA sequence is able to change its configuration between rigid tetramolecular G-quadruplex and flexible single-stranded structures. The large conformational change enables the probes to perform an inchworm like extending-shrinking motion, which is reflected by the fluctuation in current intensity. Since potassium ion can specifically bind to G-quadruplex, using this reagentless reusable electrochemical sensing platform, the simple, rapid and selective detection of potassium ion can be accomplished without the use of exogenous reagents.
In chapter 5, a highly sensitive electrochemical DNA biosensor without any signal amplifier has been reported by employing an intermolecular tetrameric guanine (G)-quadruplex structure. To fabricate a sensing interface, thiolated DNA sequence (capture DNA) is assembled onto the surface of a gold electrode through the covalent thiol-gold binding. Redox-active ferrocene (Fc)-conjugated DNAs with single guanine (G)-rich stretches are used as signaling probes, which can form intermolecular G-quadruplexes and are complementary sequences of capture DNAs. The introduction of signaling probes onto the sensing interface can lead to a redox current. A marked current response is observed even if small amounts of target DNA are prehybridized with the surface-confined capture DNA. Target sequences can be detected in a competition setup in the concentration range from 9.92×10-14 to 9.92×10-10 M with a detection limit of 2.48×10?19 mol, indicating a substantial improvement in the sensitivity compared with a common signaling probe-based scheme. The present strategy exhibits other advantages of simplicity, rapidity, low cost and circumvents various problems associated with the additional signal amplifiers. B) To demonstrate that aptamers can provide several advantages over the corresponding antibodies, we have developed biosensing systems using IgE and aptamers as the model analyte and probe molecules, respectively, and investigated their analytical characteristic by comparison.
In chapter 6, an aptamer-based electrochemical sensing platform for the direct protein detection has been developed using immunoglobulin E (IgE) and a specifically designed oligonucleotide strand with hairpin structure that has the standard aptamer segment as the model analyte and probe sequence, respectively. In the absence of IgE, the aptamer immobilized on an electrode surface forms a large hairpin due to the hybridization of the two complementary arm sequences, and peak currents of redox species dissolved in solution can be achieved. However, the target protein-binding can not only cause the increase of the dielectric layer but also trigger the significant conformational switching of the aptamer due to the opening of the designed hairpin structure that pushes the biomolecule layer/electrolyte interface away from the electrode surface, suppressing substantially the electron transfer (eT) and resulting in a strong detection signal.
In chapter 7, we demonstrate a fluorescence immunoglobulin E (IgE) assay sensor based on DNA aptamer. A Texas red labeled short DNA strand (T-DNA) complementary with part of the IgE aptamer sequence was used to produce the enhanced fluorescence upon the binding of IgE to the aptamer. Another short DNA strand labeled with dabcyl quencher (Q-DNA) complementary with part of aptamer sequence nearby the T-DNA location was used to lower the background fluorescence. The IgE can be detected in the concentration range from 9.2×10~(-11) to 3.7×10~(-8) mol·L~(-1) with a detection limit of 5.7×10~(-11) mol? L~(-1).
2. The methods for the detection of DNA hybridization and the identification of SNPs.
In chapter 8, a novel strategy is described for highly sensitive DNA detection and point mutation identification based on the combination of reverse molecular beacon with DNA ligase. A 5'-phosphorylated and 3'-ferrocene terminated DNA sequence is used as detection probe, which may be ligated to capture DNA immobilized on an electrode surface in the presence of a target DNA strand that is complementary to the ends of each DNA since this allows formation of a nicked, double-stranded DNA. A redox current is observed. The ligation product may form a hairpin structure after the removal of target DNA, resulting in an enhanced electrochemical signal. By this method, target DNA can be determined in the range from 3.4×10~(-12) to 1.4×10~(-7) M with a detection limit of 1.0×10~(-12) M.
In chapter 9, a novel system for the detection of DNA hybridization in a homogenous format is developed. This method is based on fluorescence quenching by gold nanoparticles used as both nano-scaffolds for the immobilization of capture sequences and nano-quenchers of fluorophores attached to detection sequences. The oligonucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles are synthesized by derivatizing the colloidal gold solution with 5'-thiolated 12-base olignucleotides. Introduction of sequence-specific target DNAs (24 bases) into the mixture containing dye-tagged detection sequences and olignucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles results in the quenching of carboxytetramethylrhodamine(TAMRA)-labeled DNA fluorescence because DNA hybridization occurs and brings fluorophores into close proximity with olignucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles. The quenching efficiency of fluorescence increases with the target DNA concentration and provides a quantitative measurement of sequence-specific DNA in sample. A linearity is obtained within the range from 1.4 to 92 nM.
In chapter 10, an exciting discovery that the adsorption of negatively charged molecules onto nanoparticle surfaces can induce the intensive aggregation of citrate-stabilized gold nanoparticles has been reported. Along this line, a homogeneous, colorimetric system for DNA detection is described based on the aggregation of gold nanoparticles induced by the products of DNA cleavage. Excellent response characteristics (for example, sensitivity, selectivity and linear response range) are achieved using either UV/vis spectrophotometer or the naked eye.
单核苷多形态(SNPs)是指基因组中特定位置的碱基发生突变的现象,是遗传变异中一种最为普遍的形式。由于氨基酸的替代、基因表达的更改与基因拼接的变化,SNP能够影响基因组的功能,进而导致各种疾病的发生与药物代谢的个体差异[5]。虽然目前用于基因突变检测的方法已有不少报道,多数体系需要对目标序列进行放大,比如,PCR放大。为了灵敏、准确、快速而低消耗地识别突变位点,需要继续发展一些较为通用的检测方法[6]。
基于以上考虑,综合文献报道,本论文利用普通序列与富G-序列(这种序列可以形成分子内或者分子间四股螺旋结构)核酸适配子发展了一序列的生物检测体系,研究了富G-DNA衍生纳米颗粒的团聚行为;此外,利用核苷酸杂交作用发展了DNA序列检测与点突变识别的新型电化学与光学生物传感技术。具体细节如下:
1.基于核酸适配子的生物检测体系
A)富G-DNA衍生纳米金的团聚行为与基于G-四股螺旋结构的电化学传感器。
基于核酸适配子构型转换,利用腺苷做目标分析物,第2章构建了可再生、电化学传感平台,用于小分子物质的灵敏检测。首先在金电极表面修饰酪胺聚合膜和纳米金层,再通过硫-金键的强亲合力将巯基衍生的固定探针组装在电极表面;特异性识别腺苷的二茂铁-适配子探针与固定探针杂交后即完成传感器的制备。腺苷的存在使二茂铁标记的适配子探针从电极表面脱落而导致氧化还原峰电流下降。峰电流的降低幅度与腺苷含量成正比。此传感界面可提供较宽的线性响应范围和较低的检测下限,此外,还具有较高的选择性、良好的重现性、稳定性及再生性等优点。回收试验证实了此电化学传感系统用于腺苷检测的可行性。
第3章考察了末端碱基为四个鸟嘌呤、含27个碱基的DNA序列修饰的金纳米颗粒的团聚行为。研究发现,某种程度上,纳米颗粒间的G-四股螺旋促进了纳米金的团聚。另一方面,金属离子络合的现象发生部分钝化:富G-DNA衍生纳米颗粒的稳定性比普通DNA衍生纳米颗粒稍低;衍生纳米颗粒团聚过程中的金属选择性被有效抑制。据此,本章提出了富G-DNA衍生纳米颗粒可能的团聚机理。
基于富G-DNA的构型转换,第4章构建了开/关型纳米电子器件。巯基化、氨基修饰的富G-DNA固定于金电极表面,然后标记电化学活性物质二茂铁(Fc)。表面限定的DNA序列能够在刚性四元G-四股螺旋与弹性单链结构间相互转换。这种较大的形态改变使得DNA序列能够象尺蠖一样做伸―缩运动,产生了电流变化。因钾离子能够与G-四股螺旋发生特异性结合,使用这种无试剂的电化学传感界面,不需任何额外的检测试剂,就可实现对钾离子的简便、快速、选择性检测。
第5章利用分子间的G-四股螺旋结构,不需任何信号增强试剂,构建了高灵敏的电化学DNA生物传感器。为了获得传感界面,通过巯-金键作用将捕获探针(巯基DNA序列)组装到金电极表面;用具有电化学活性的二茂铁分子衍生末端富G-片段的DNA序列,作为信号报道探针,这条探针设计成能够形成分子间的四股螺旋,且与捕获探针序列相匹配。信号探针与表面限定捕获探针的杂交能使电极产生氧化还原峰电流。少量的目标DNA与捕获探针的预先杂交能够使电极的峰电流发生显著变化,产生电化学响应信号。用这种竞争杂交型的电化学检测方法,获得的浓度响应范围为9.92×10-14到9.92×10-10 M,检测限为2.48×10?19 mol。相对于普通序列探针构建的传感界面,该传感界面具有较高的灵敏度。此外,本检测体系操作简便、快速、消耗低,而且回避了信号扩大过程中可能产生的各种问题。B)为了进一步说明核酸适配子在生化分析中的优越性,本部分内容以IgE为待测目标物质、核酸适配子为识别探针,构建了生物检测体系,考察了核酸适配子检测体系的分析性能。
在第6章,以含抗-IgE适配子标准序列片段、能形成发夹型结构的核酸分子为识别探针,构建了IgE的电化学检测平台。没有目标IgE时,由于双臂末端的杂交作用,电极表面限定的核酸适配子可以形成大的发夹型结构,溶液中的电化学活性分子能产生氧化还原峰电流;有待测物质IgE时,目标蛋白质的结合不但能使电极表面介电层增厚,而且导致核酸适配子形态发生较大的改变:发夹结构的打开将生物分子层与溶液的界面推离电极表面,电子传递距离增大,传递效率被有效抑制,产生增强的检测信号。
基于核酸适配子对IgE的特异性识别作用,并借助短序列杂交反应,第7章提出了IgE荧光增强均相检测体系。用与核酸适配子匹配的德克萨斯红标记的DNA (T-DNA)作为信号探针,在形成IgE/aptamer/T-DNA的三元复合物后,其荧光明显增强;以4′-(4′-二甲基氨基叠氮苯)苯甲酸(DABCYL,猝灭基团)标记的另一条DNA (Q-DNA)为猝灭探针,这条DNA序列能与核酸适配子序列中同信号探针相邻的另一片段发生杂交反应,由于猝灭基团与荧光基团之间发生能量转移而有效降低荧光背景。用这种方法检测IgE取得的动力学响应浓度范围为9.2×10~(-11)到3.7×10~(-8) M,检测限为5.7×10~(-11) M.
2. DNA杂交检测与单核苷多形态识别方法研究
通过反转分子信标与DNA连接酶的联合使用,第8章提出了一种DNA检测与点突变识别的新策略。用5'端磷酸化、3'端修饰二茂铁的DNA为信号探针,这条探针在目标序列与连接酶存在时能被连接到表面限定的捕获探针上,产生氧化还原电流;洗脱目标DNA后,连接生成物可以形成发夹型结构,电流响应强度进一步增大。利用这种检测方法,在3.4×10~(-12)到1.4×10~(-7) M浓度范围内的目标DNA序列能被定量检测,检测限为1.0×10~(-12) M。
以纳米金作为DNA捕获探针的富集基体和检测探针的荧光猝灭剂,第9章研究了一种新型的荧光淬灭DNA杂交均相检测系统。以5'端修饰纳米金的DNA作为捕获探针,3'端修饰羧基四甲基罗丹名(TAMRA)的DNA作为信号探针,溶液中加入匹配DNA后,由于杂交反应,TAMRA接近纳米金表面而发生荧光淬灭;荧光淬灭效率随着目标DNA浓度的增大而增强,因此适合于DNA的定量测量。检测线性范围为1.4～92 nM。
第10章报道了5'-单磷酸腺苷(AMP),一种带负电荷分子,可导致纳米金强烈团聚的现象。据此,研发出一种基于切割碎片诱导纳米金团聚、用于核酸序列检测的均相非标记比色检测技术。这种比色检测技术用于DNA序列检测,通过目视比色法和UV/vis分光光度法,均可获得较为理想的响应性能(如灵敏度,选择性和线性范围)。
Aptamers are synthetic oligonucleotides with high binding affinity for a broad range of targets, including small molecules, proteins, or even whole cells. They are isolated from random-sequence nucleic acid libraries by“in vitro selection”. Some aptamers with guanine (G)-rich segments, biologically active RNA and DNA sequences including anti-proliferative, anti-HIV and anti-coagulation aptamers[1], can assemble into G-quartets, planar structures of four H-bonded Gs, which stack on top of each other to form G-quadruplexes that are essential for nucleotide fuctions. Some species that bind to G-quadruplexes can find significant applications as therapeutics or as probes for gene function[2]. In biochemical analysis, aptamers, including G-rich oligonucleotides, rival antibodies as highly promising tools due to the specificity, the easy storage, the fast tissue penetration, the high binding affinity and simplicity of in vitro selection. Aptamers have been used for the preparation of numerous sensing atrageies for the detection of various proteins and provide a interesting alternative to immunoassays and immunosensors[3]. Nevertheless, aptamer research is still in its infancy compared with the bellwether antibody technology[4]. The key in the development of aptamer-based sensing systems is to transducer successfully aptamer recognition events to detectable signals.
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are point mutations that occur at specific positions in a genome and constitute the most common form of genetic variation. SNP may affect gene function resulting from amino acid substitution, modification of gene expression or alteration of gene splicing and are closely associated with various common diseases and individual differences in drug metabolism[5]. Although numerous technologies for the point mutation detection have been reported to date, most of these approaches require target amplification, typically with PCR. Additional efforts are thus needed to explore more broadly applicable methods for the sensitive, accurate, rapid, and low-cost SNP identification[6]. In this doctoral thesis, several bioassay systems have been developed based on aptamers with the common sequences and those with with G-rich segments that can form the intramolecular or intermolecular G-quadruplex structures; the aggregation behavior of G-rich DNA-modified nanoparticles has been inveastigatedd; electrochemical sensing interfaces as well as optical methods for the detection of DNA hybridization and the screening of SNPs. The details are summarized as follows:
1. Aptamer–based bioassay systems
A) The aggregation behavior of gold nanoparticles modified with G-rich DNA sequences and electrochemical biosensors based on G-quadruplex structures.
(1) In chapter 2, a reusable electrochemical sensing platform based on structure-switching signaling aptamers for highly sensitive detection of small molecules is developed using adenosine as a model analyte. A gold electrode is firstly modified with polytyramine (Pty) and gold nanoparticles (GNPs). Then, thiolated-capture probe is assembled onto the modified electrode surface via sulfur-gold affinity. Ferrocene (Fc)-labeled aptamer probe, which is designed to hybridize with capture DNA sequence and specifically recognize adenosine, is immobilized on electrode surface by hybridization reaction. The introduction of adenosine triggers structure switching of aptamer. As a result, Fc-labeled aptamer probe is forced to dissociate from the sensing interface, resulting in a decrease in redox current. The decrement of peak current is proportional to the amount of adenosine. The present sensing system could provide both a wide linear dynamic range and a low detection limit. In addition, high selectivity, good reproducibility, stability and reusability are achieved. The recovery test demonstrates the feasibility of the designed sensing system for adenosine assay.
(2) In chapter 3, the aggregation behavior of the nanoparticles, which are functionalized with four-guanine-terminated 27-base sequences, is investigated. To some extent, the guanine-quadruplex structures between gold nanoparticles (GNPs) promote the nanoparticle aggregation. However, the coordination site of the metal ion on the nanoparticle surfaces is partly passivated: the stability of guanine-rich DNA-GNPs is slightly lower than that of the common DNA-GNPs, and the metal-ion specificity of nanoparticle assembly is substantially decreased. Accordingly, a mechanism for the aggregation of guanine-rich sequence-modified GNPs is proposed.
In chapter 4, a novel on/off electronic nanoswitch is described based on the conformational change of DNA sequence possessing a single guanine (G)-rich stretch. A thiolated, amine-containing G-rich DNA sequence is immobilized on the surface of gold electrode and is then labeled with redox-active ferrocene molecules. The surface-confined DNA sequence is able to change its configuration between rigid tetramolecular G-quadruplex and flexible single-stranded structures. The large conformational change enables the probes to perform an inchworm like extending-shrinking motion, which is reflected by the fluctuation in current intensity. Since potassium ion can specifically bind to G-quadruplex, using this reagentless reusable electrochemical sensing platform, the simple, rapid and selective detection of potassium ion can be accomplished without the use of exogenous reagents.
In chapter 5, a highly sensitive electrochemical DNA biosensor without any signal amplifier has been reported by employing an intermolecular tetrameric guanine (G)-quadruplex structure. To fabricate a sensing interface, thiolated DNA sequence (capture DNA) is assembled onto the surface of a gold electrode through the covalent thiol-gold binding. Redox-active ferrocene (Fc)-conjugated DNAs with single guanine (G)-rich stretches are used as signaling probes, which can form intermolecular G-quadruplexes and are complementary sequences of capture DNAs. The introduction of signaling probes onto the sensing interface can lead to a redox current. A marked current response is observed even if small amounts of target DNA are prehybridized with the surface-confined capture DNA. Target sequences can be detected in a competition setup in the concentration range from 9.92×10-14 to 9.92×10-10 M with a detection limit of 2.48×10?19 mol, indicating a substantial improvement in the sensitivity compared with a common signaling probe-based scheme. The present strategy exhibits other advantages of simplicity, rapidity, low cost and circumvents various problems associated with the additional signal amplifiers. B) To demonstrate that aptamers can provide several advantages over the corresponding antibodies, we have developed biosensing systems using IgE and aptamers as the model analyte and probe molecules, respectively, and investigated their analytical characteristic by comparison.
In chapter 6, an aptamer-based electrochemical sensing platform for the direct protein detection has been developed using immunoglobulin E (IgE) and a specifically designed oligonucleotide strand with hairpin structure that has the standard aptamer segment as the model analyte and probe sequence, respectively. In the absence of IgE, the aptamer immobilized on an electrode surface forms a large hairpin due to the hybridization of the two complementary arm sequences, and peak currents of redox species dissolved in solution can be achieved. However, the target protein-binding can not only cause the increase of the dielectric layer but also trigger the significant conformational switching of the aptamer due to the opening of the designed hairpin structure that pushes the biomolecule layer/electrolyte interface away from the electrode surface, suppressing substantially the electron transfer (eT) and resulting in a strong detection signal.
In chapter 7, we demonstrate a fluorescence immunoglobulin E (IgE) assay sensor based on DNA aptamer. A Texas red labeled short DNA strand (T-DNA) complementary with part of the IgE aptamer sequence was used to produce the enhanced fluorescence upon the binding of IgE to the aptamer. Another short DNA strand labeled with dabcyl quencher (Q-DNA) complementary with part of aptamer sequence nearby the T-DNA location was used to lower the background fluorescence. The IgE can be detected in the concentration range from 9.2×10~(-11) to 3.7×10~(-8) mol·L~(-1) with a detection limit of 5.7×10~(-11) mol? L~(-1).
2. The methods for the detection of DNA hybridization and the identification of SNPs.
In chapter 8, a novel strategy is described for highly sensitive DNA detection and point mutation identification based on the combination of reverse molecular beacon with DNA ligase. A 5'-phosphorylated and 3'-ferrocene terminated DNA sequence is used as detection probe, which may be ligated to capture DNA immobilized on an electrode surface in the presence of a target DNA strand that is complementary to the ends of each DNA since this allows formation of a nicked, double-stranded DNA. A redox current is observed. The ligation product may form a hairpin structure after the removal of target DNA, resulting in an enhanced electrochemical signal. By this method, target DNA can be determined in the range from 3.4×10~(-12) to 1.4×10~(-7) M with a detection limit of 1.0×10~(-12) M.
In chapter 9, a novel system for the detection of DNA hybridization in a homogenous format is developed. This method is based on fluorescence quenching by gold nanoparticles used as both nano-scaffolds for the immobilization of capture sequences and nano-quenchers of fluorophores attached to detection sequences. The oligonucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles are synthesized by derivatizing the colloidal gold solution with 5'-thiolated 12-base olignucleotides. Introduction of sequence-specific target DNAs (24 bases) into the mixture containing dye-tagged detection sequences and olignucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles results in the quenching of carboxytetramethylrhodamine(TAMRA)-labeled DNA fluorescence because DNA hybridization occurs and brings fluorophores into close proximity with olignucleotide-functionalized gold nanoparticles. The quenching efficiency of fluorescence increases with the target DNA concentration and provides a quantitative measurement of sequence-specific DNA in sample. A linearity is obtained within the range from 1.4 to 92 nM.
In chapter 10, an exciting discovery that the adsorption of negatively charged molecules onto nanoparticle surfaces can induce the intensive aggregation of citrate-stabilized gold nanoparticles has been reported. Along this line, a homogeneous, colorimetric system for DNA detection is described based on the aggregation of gold nanoparticles induced by the products of DNA cleavage. Excellent response characteristics (for example, sensitivity, selectivity and linear response range) are achieved using either UV/vis spectrophotometer or the naked eye.
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