六盘山洪沟小流域森林植被的水文影响与模拟
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摘要
为探讨北方干旱缺水地区森林植被的水文影响,在2006～2007年的两个生长季(5～10月)在六盘山南侧具半湿润气候特征的洪沟小流域,开展森林植被特征、森林水文过程、小流域径流的研究,以求深入认识森林植被的水文作用机理并为六盘山及类似地区的水源涵养林建设提供理论基础和技术支持。
六盘山位于我国黄土高原地区中西部和宁夏回族自治区南端,处于由半湿润区向半干旱区过渡的气候带上,黄河中游地区的主要支流泾河、清水河以及葫芦河都发源于此,在维持区域生态平衡和提供水源等方面具有重要作用。洪沟是典型的山地森林小流域,面积为10.49km2,海拔高度变化在2140～2598m,山高坡陡,土壤多石砾,植被类型丰富,森林覆盖率65.5%,年降水量591.6mm。
具体研究内容包括土壤物理性质空间分布、森林植被特征及空间分布、流域主要森林水文过程、流域径流规律、流域水文模型运用等,主要研究成果如下:
1.小流域内的植被特征和其空间分布
通过样线调查分析了六盘山洪沟小流域的森林植被群落结构和其空间分布。洪沟小流域植被可划分为华北落叶松人工林、华山松林、红桦林、山杨林和天然灌丛5个群落类型。在乔灌木树种组成上,乔木层优势种主要有华北落叶松、华山松、红桦、山杨等,灌木层优势种主要有稠李、刺翅峨嵋蔷薇、秦岭小檗、灰栒子、沙棘、华西箭竹等。
流域植被的空间分布规律是:华北落叶松主要分布在2200～2500m的半阳坡和阳坡;华山松在每个海拔带上都有分布,其中2100～2200m的阴坡和半阴坡分布最多;红桦集中分布于2200～2300m的阴坡和半阴坡;山杨分布在2400m以上的半阴坡和半阳坡;而天然灌丛分布在人工破坏后的2300m以上阳坡和半阴坡。从坡度分布上看,20o～40o的坡地占小流域面积的55.48%,各植被类型也在该坡度范围内分布较多。但华北落叶松人工林在0o～10o的缓坡分布最多;而华山松天然次生林多分布于30o以上的陡坡。
2.土壤物理性质的小流域空间分布规律
在洪沟小流域开展了大量调查,研究土壤物理性质随土层深度、坡向、坡位及植被类型的变化。结果表明:土壤容重和石砾含量的变化范围分别为0.905~1.31g/cm3和8.4~13.83%之间,并随土层加深逐渐增大,容重的增幅随土层深度增加而减小;石砾含量的增幅却逐渐加大。总孔隙度(46.51~62.69%)、毛管孔隙度(35.54~43.88%)和非毛管孔隙度(10.97~18.81%)都随土层加深而降低。
在不同坡向中,阴坡的土壤物理性质最好。随着坡位下降,土壤厚度、土壤容重、石砾含量、非毛管孔隙度逐渐增大,总孔隙度和毛管孔隙度逐渐减小,各种持水量指标基本上也有不同程度地减小,但上坡的持水量大于阴坡坡顶。
在华北落叶松人工林、华山松林、红桦林、山杨林、天然灌丛5种植被类型土壤物理性质中,土壤容重为天然灌丛(0.98)>山杨林(0.91)>华山松林(0.89)>华北落叶松林(0.83)>红桦林(0.73);土壤石砾含量最高的是华北落叶松林(19.21%),最小的是山杨林(9.33%);毛管孔隙度为华山松林(43.40%)>红桦林(42.73%)>山杨林(40.88%)>华北落叶松林(40.35%)>天然灌丛(34.36%);非毛管孔隙度为华北落叶松林(21.69%)>红桦林(20.19%)>天然灌丛(17.56%)>山杨林(16.05%)>华山松林(13.65%)。
3.流域的主要森林水文过程
测定了一次性降雨与截留量的关系,结果表明:当降雨量小于1.0mm时,不同林分的林冠几乎将降雨全部截留,截留率近100%。在雨量级1~10mm时,不同林分的林冠平均截留量多在1.11~3.0mm,平均截留率在20-57%,天然灌丛的截留率相对较小,只为20.5%;在10~50mm的降雨量时,大多数林分类型的截留量在5.0mm左右,截留率在10.28~21.5%,红桦的截留量较小,平均仅1.4mm(截留率10.28%);当降雨大于50mm时,多数林分的降雨截留量在3.0mm以上,截留率在5.78~14.06%以下,且随雨量增加而降低。
运用网格取样方法,测得华北落叶松林枯落物的储量为16.83 t/hm2,厚度为3.6cm。根据半方差分析,2个华北落叶松人工纯林样地的枯落物储量存在一定空间异质性现象,变异系数分别为0.41和0.56;以95%的置信区间,要准确得到华北落叶松样地的枯落物储量,取样数不能小于9个1m×1m的样方。
在六盘山地区自然雨强范围内(小于30mm/h),利用模拟降雨研究了枯落物的截持降雨过程,表明单位重量(1kg/m2)的华北落叶松林枯落物最大截持量对应为1.3mm、1.4mm、1.5mm,红桦林枯落物对应为2.1mm、2.3mm、2.6mm,枯落物的持水能力随雨强增大而提高;华北落叶松枯落物和红桦枯落物的最大截持量数值低于浸泡法测定的结果(华北落叶松林1.8mm;红桦林2.7mm),但吸持水分过程基本一致。并基于实验结果分析,构建了具有较好的截留机制、可同时反映枯落物含水量和降雨强度及降雨历时对枯落物持水动态和实际持水量影响的枯落物截持降雨过程模型:
洪沟小流域华北落叶松树干液流密度的昼夜变化趋势表现为明显的昼夜交替波动。在“相对静止期”内(20:00～次日07:00),树干液流密度比较稳定和微弱,其值约在0.05μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1)以下;而“活跃期”(07:00～20:30)树干液流密度表现为持续快速上升,呈现出单峰、双峰或多峰曲线,峰值一般在0.25μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1)以下。
土壤蒸发研究表明,林内与林外土壤的日蒸发变化规律相似;到12 :00～14 :00时达到最高,林外和林内土壤的蒸发速率分别是0.697mm/h和0.505 mm/h;选择土壤水分含量(SW,%)、太阳辐射(SR,lux)、空气相对湿度(RH,%)、风速(W,m/s)作为影响因子,建立了同时适合于林内外土壤蒸发的回归关系式:E=-0.468+0.205SW+0.01557SR-0.0137RH,R~2=0.8732
通过测定小流域内各植被类型典型样地不同深度土壤层次的水分渗透过程,得到各林分样地表层(0～20cm)土壤初渗速率(8.32～62.96 mm/min)和稳渗速率(7.55～40.91 mm/min),并用4种模型对环刀法测定的土壤分层渗透速率进行拟合,认为Horton公式模拟的比较合理。
4 .流域径流特征分析
洪沟小流域径流年内分配不均匀,主要集中在8和9月份即夏季,根据小流域现有实测径流资料(2006年1月-2007年12月)计算,小流域径流年内分配不均匀系数在0.44。采用滑动最小值法对小流域2006年和2007年生长季的径流过程线进行分割,计算出平均基流系数BFI为0.039;在此基础上的分析表明了径流增加量(Y)与单场降雨量(X)呈正相关关系:Y=145.11X~(0.5977),R~2=0.6499。
5.植被变化对流域径流的影响
应用分布式生态水文模型SWIM于洪沟小流域,分别利用2006年、2007年的气象数据和水文数据对模型进行率定和检验,并根据植被对水分条件的要求和生态环境建设与水资源保护对植被建设的需要,制定了华北落叶松覆盖率增加和降低的分布情景,模拟植被变化对径流的影响。结果表明,随着华北落叶松林的减少(替代为其它乡土阔叶林或灌木),洪峰流量增加,洪峰变得尖瘦,对降水的响应更敏感,整个流量过程线变化迅速,产流量增大;而随着华北落叶松林的增加(替代其它乡土阔叶林或灌丛),流量过程变缓,洪峰减小,蒸散量增加,产流量减小。
In order to evaluate the eco-hydrological effects of forest and vegetation in the arid areas of Northern China, a serial of experimentations focused on forest vegetation characteristics, hydrological process and runoff were performed during the growing seasons (from May to October) of 2006 and 2007 in the small watershed of Honggou, which is located at the south side of Liupanshan Mountains with a semi-humid climate. With these works it is expected to understand the hydrological mechanism of forest/vegetation more deeply and also to provide the theoretical and technological basis for the management of water-retention forest in the Liupanshan Mountains and similar regions.
As a representative mountainous and headwater area in the Loess Plateau, several branches of the Yellow River are started here, such as Jing River, Qingshui River and Hulu River. Liupanshan Mountains is very important to maintain the regional ecological balance and provide water resource. Xiangshuihe watershed is a representative mountain forest small watershed, of which the area is 10.49km2 and its elevation ranges from 2040m to 2942m. With a coverage of 65.5%, the forest vegetation consists of many vegetation types. The soil is embedded many stone fragments. The annual mean precipitation is 591.6mm.
The content of the dissertation is comprised of analysis upon the distribution characteristics of soil physical properties, the forest vegetation characteristics and special distribution, the main forest hydrological processes, runoff dynamics, and the application of hydrological model. The main results are shown as follows:
1. Spatial patterns and characteristics of vegetation
Based on sampling-line investigation upon typical vegetation , the following five main types of vegetation in Honggou watersherd are identified: Larix principis-rupprechtii, Pinus armandii, Betula albo-sinensis, Populus davidiana and shrub. Regarding species composition of the arbors and shrub layers, dominant species within arbor layer are Larix principis-rupprechtii, Pinus armandii, Betula albo-sinensis and Populus davidiana. The dominant species of shrub layer are Prunus virginiana, Rosa omeienis var. pteracantha, Berberis cirumserrata, Cotonedster acutifolius, Hippophae hamnoides and Fargesia nitida.
The results about the spatial distribution law of vegetation showed that the range of vertical distribution of L. principis-rupprechtii was from the elevation of 2200m to 2500m; Pinus armandii is distributed from 2040m to 2942m, and the most suitable range is from 2100 to 2200m in shady slope and half-shady slope. B. albo-sinensis is distributed mainly within 2200～2300m in shady slope and half-shady slope. The shrub is distributed above the elevation of 2300m in sunny slope and half-shady slope, which reveals the relationship between vegetation pattern and human activity to some extent.
2. Distribution characteristics of soil physical properties
Based on field investigations, the variation of soil physical characteristics with soil depth, slope aspect, slope position, and vegetation types within Honggou watershed was studied. The result shows: The soil bulk density and stone content increase with increasing soil depth; while total porosity, capillary porosity, non-capillary porosity, saturated water content, capillary soil water content, and field capacity of soil decrease with increasing soil depth.
All the soil physical properties measured in this study are relatively better on the shady slope than on the sunny slopes and all other half-sunny slopes. With lowering slope position, the soil thickness, bulk density, stone content, and non-capillary porosity are gradually increasing; while the total porosity, capillary porosity, and all water-holding capacity indicators gradually decreasing, with an exception that the water-holding capacity on the up-slope is higher than that on the slope top.
By comparing the averaged soil physical properties among five main vegetation types, the soil bulk density showed the following order: shrub land (0.98) > the Populus davidiana (0.91) > Pinus armandii (0.89) > Larix principris-upprechtii (0.83) > Betula albo-sinensis (0.73). The stone content of soil in the P. davidiana (9.33) is the least among all vegetation types. The capillary porosity of the soil in different vegetations showed order as follows: P. Armandii (43.40%) > B. albo-sinensis (42.73%) > P. davidiana (40.88%) > L. principris-upprechtii (40.35%) >shrub(34.36%) ; non-capillary porosity showed the following order: L. principris-upprechtii (21.69%) > B. albo-sinensis (20.19%) > shrub(17.56%) > P. armandii(16.05%) >P. armandii(13.65%).
3. The main forest hydrological process of watershed
This study discusses the relationship between canopy interception and the precipitation during one precipitation event in the Honggou watershed during the growing seasons from 2006 to 2007. The results show that the the canopy interception ratio to total precipitation is 100% when the precipitation is less than 1 mm during one precipitation event, and it declines to 15% when the precipitation is 10 ~50mm. But when the precipitation is over 50mm, the rate of canopy interception is basically lee than 15%. The canopy interception is more relative to the level of total rainfall, i. e. the higher the total rainfall is, the lower the interception ratio is, and the more the holding capacity of interception is.
The paper studied the spatial variability and minimum sampling area of litter mass. The result shows that litter mass of two plots are not uniform in the spatial distribution, and the variation coefficient is 0.41 and 0.56 respectively. The litters mass and micro-landform of the two Larix principis-rupprechtii plots are related linearly, and the correlation coefficient is 0.444 and 0.677, respectively. The semivariograms of litter mass in two Larix principis-rupprechtii plots were best described by spherical model, and spatial correlation is moderate. Statistical analysis showed that 9 is the least adequate sampling area (at least 9m2) to denote the average total litter mass of Larix principis-rupprechtii plot in liupan mountain.
The rainfall interception processes were studied under artificial simulated rainfall within the normal rainfall intensity range of this region (< 30 mm/h). The results showed that the interception capacity of litter increases with rainfall intensity. A mechanism-based model for describing the rainfall interception process of litter of the two species was developed:
The model can reflect the effects of water content, rainfall intensity,and duration of rainfall simultaneously. The model parameters were calibrated based on the observed data both from the soaking experiment and simulated rainfall interception experiments.
The diurnal variation of stem sap flow of Larix principis-rupprechtii on clear days in the whole growing season can be described as diurnal alternating fluctuation. The activity of stem sap flow can be divided into three phases:“relative rest stage”(20:00～next day07:00)with sap flow velocity less than 0.05μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1) , and“active phase”(07:00～20:30)with sap flow velocity less than 0.25μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1).
The soil evaporation of internal forest was similar to that of external forest. The maximum evaporation rate of soil outside and inside of forest is 0.697mm/hand 0.505 mm/h respectively at 12 :00～14 :00. The environmental factors influencing soil evaporation include solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, air temperature and wind speed and its equation follows: E=-0.468+0.205SW+0.01557SR-0.0137RH,R~2=0.8732.
According to observed data of soil infiltration under different vegetation types in Honggou watershed, the initial velocity of infiltration range from 8.23mm/min to 62.96mm/min and the velocity of stable infiltration range from 7.55mm/min to 40.91mm/min. The velocity of infiltration increased with the time passing, and trend to be a constant finally. The soil infiltration rates of typical plots of vegetation are simulated by Kostiakov model, Horton model, Phillip model and Fangzhengsan model and the results show that the Horton model, of which the parameters have clearly physical meaning, is a relatively acceptable model for soil infiltration.
4. The analysis of watershed runoff
Influenced by temperature and precipitation,the runoff varies between seasons.The runoff volume is concentrated in the summer (September, August). The runoff is mostly consist of basic flow from November to June the next year. The Minimum Smoothing Method was used to separate the runoff component of Honggou watershed during growing seasons of 2006 and 2007, and the calculated BFI is 0.039. The investigation about the relation between runoff(m3) and rainfall(mm) indicates that they having a significant function relationship(Y=145.11X~(0.5977),R~2=0.6499。).
5. The effect of vegetation variation on water balance of watershed
In order to understand the mechanism of the interaction between forest/vegetation and hydrological processes, and to quantify the effect of the heterogeneity of physical conditions on the hydrological processes and water balance in watershed,as well as to evaluate the hydrological response to vegetation transition, especially the watershed function of water yield, the hydrological model SWIM was used in Honggou small Watershed of Liupan Mountains in this paper. Calibration and validation of SWIM model was done using the meteorological and hydrological data observeded at the outlet of the watershed during 2006 and 2007. Based on the simulation of the hydrological processes, the water balance on slope as well as the contribution to watershed runoff generation of different watershed parts was analyzed. Seven scenarios with different forest coverage of Larix principis-rupprechtii were established. Then the responses of hydrological processes of the watershed for these vegetation scenarios were simulated, and the effect of the vegetation transition on water balance of watershed, especially on runoff generation, were calculated.
六盘山位于我国黄土高原地区中西部和宁夏回族自治区南端,处于由半湿润区向半干旱区过渡的气候带上,黄河中游地区的主要支流泾河、清水河以及葫芦河都发源于此,在维持区域生态平衡和提供水源等方面具有重要作用。洪沟是典型的山地森林小流域,面积为10.49km2,海拔高度变化在2140～2598m,山高坡陡,土壤多石砾,植被类型丰富,森林覆盖率65.5%,年降水量591.6mm。
具体研究内容包括土壤物理性质空间分布、森林植被特征及空间分布、流域主要森林水文过程、流域径流规律、流域水文模型运用等,主要研究成果如下:
1.小流域内的植被特征和其空间分布
通过样线调查分析了六盘山洪沟小流域的森林植被群落结构和其空间分布。洪沟小流域植被可划分为华北落叶松人工林、华山松林、红桦林、山杨林和天然灌丛5个群落类型。在乔灌木树种组成上,乔木层优势种主要有华北落叶松、华山松、红桦、山杨等,灌木层优势种主要有稠李、刺翅峨嵋蔷薇、秦岭小檗、灰栒子、沙棘、华西箭竹等。
流域植被的空间分布规律是:华北落叶松主要分布在2200～2500m的半阳坡和阳坡;华山松在每个海拔带上都有分布,其中2100～2200m的阴坡和半阴坡分布最多;红桦集中分布于2200～2300m的阴坡和半阴坡;山杨分布在2400m以上的半阴坡和半阳坡;而天然灌丛分布在人工破坏后的2300m以上阳坡和半阴坡。从坡度分布上看,20o～40o的坡地占小流域面积的55.48%,各植被类型也在该坡度范围内分布较多。但华北落叶松人工林在0o～10o的缓坡分布最多;而华山松天然次生林多分布于30o以上的陡坡。
2.土壤物理性质的小流域空间分布规律
在洪沟小流域开展了大量调查,研究土壤物理性质随土层深度、坡向、坡位及植被类型的变化。结果表明:土壤容重和石砾含量的变化范围分别为0.905~1.31g/cm3和8.4~13.83%之间,并随土层加深逐渐增大,容重的增幅随土层深度增加而减小;石砾含量的增幅却逐渐加大。总孔隙度(46.51~62.69%)、毛管孔隙度(35.54~43.88%)和非毛管孔隙度(10.97~18.81%)都随土层加深而降低。
在不同坡向中,阴坡的土壤物理性质最好。随着坡位下降,土壤厚度、土壤容重、石砾含量、非毛管孔隙度逐渐增大,总孔隙度和毛管孔隙度逐渐减小,各种持水量指标基本上也有不同程度地减小,但上坡的持水量大于阴坡坡顶。
在华北落叶松人工林、华山松林、红桦林、山杨林、天然灌丛5种植被类型土壤物理性质中,土壤容重为天然灌丛(0.98)>山杨林(0.91)>华山松林(0.89)>华北落叶松林(0.83)>红桦林(0.73);土壤石砾含量最高的是华北落叶松林(19.21%),最小的是山杨林(9.33%);毛管孔隙度为华山松林(43.40%)>红桦林(42.73%)>山杨林(40.88%)>华北落叶松林(40.35%)>天然灌丛(34.36%);非毛管孔隙度为华北落叶松林(21.69%)>红桦林(20.19%)>天然灌丛(17.56%)>山杨林(16.05%)>华山松林(13.65%)。
3.流域的主要森林水文过程
测定了一次性降雨与截留量的关系,结果表明:当降雨量小于1.0mm时,不同林分的林冠几乎将降雨全部截留,截留率近100%。在雨量级1~10mm时,不同林分的林冠平均截留量多在1.11~3.0mm,平均截留率在20-57%,天然灌丛的截留率相对较小,只为20.5%;在10~50mm的降雨量时,大多数林分类型的截留量在5.0mm左右,截留率在10.28~21.5%,红桦的截留量较小,平均仅1.4mm(截留率10.28%);当降雨大于50mm时,多数林分的降雨截留量在3.0mm以上,截留率在5.78~14.06%以下,且随雨量增加而降低。
运用网格取样方法,测得华北落叶松林枯落物的储量为16.83 t/hm2,厚度为3.6cm。根据半方差分析,2个华北落叶松人工纯林样地的枯落物储量存在一定空间异质性现象,变异系数分别为0.41和0.56;以95%的置信区间,要准确得到华北落叶松样地的枯落物储量,取样数不能小于9个1m×1m的样方。
在六盘山地区自然雨强范围内(小于30mm/h),利用模拟降雨研究了枯落物的截持降雨过程,表明单位重量(1kg/m2)的华北落叶松林枯落物最大截持量对应为1.3mm、1.4mm、1.5mm,红桦林枯落物对应为2.1mm、2.3mm、2.6mm,枯落物的持水能力随雨强增大而提高;华北落叶松枯落物和红桦枯落物的最大截持量数值低于浸泡法测定的结果(华北落叶松林1.8mm;红桦林2.7mm),但吸持水分过程基本一致。并基于实验结果分析,构建了具有较好的截留机制、可同时反映枯落物含水量和降雨强度及降雨历时对枯落物持水动态和实际持水量影响的枯落物截持降雨过程模型:
洪沟小流域华北落叶松树干液流密度的昼夜变化趋势表现为明显的昼夜交替波动。在“相对静止期”内(20:00～次日07:00),树干液流密度比较稳定和微弱,其值约在0.05μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1)以下;而“活跃期”(07:00～20:30)树干液流密度表现为持续快速上升,呈现出单峰、双峰或多峰曲线,峰值一般在0.25μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1)以下。
土壤蒸发研究表明,林内与林外土壤的日蒸发变化规律相似;到12 :00～14 :00时达到最高,林外和林内土壤的蒸发速率分别是0.697mm/h和0.505 mm/h;选择土壤水分含量(SW,%)、太阳辐射(SR,lux)、空气相对湿度(RH,%)、风速(W,m/s)作为影响因子,建立了同时适合于林内外土壤蒸发的回归关系式:E=-0.468+0.205SW+0.01557SR-0.0137RH,R~2=0.8732
通过测定小流域内各植被类型典型样地不同深度土壤层次的水分渗透过程,得到各林分样地表层(0～20cm)土壤初渗速率(8.32～62.96 mm/min)和稳渗速率(7.55～40.91 mm/min),并用4种模型对环刀法测定的土壤分层渗透速率进行拟合,认为Horton公式模拟的比较合理。
4 .流域径流特征分析
洪沟小流域径流年内分配不均匀,主要集中在8和9月份即夏季,根据小流域现有实测径流资料(2006年1月-2007年12月)计算,小流域径流年内分配不均匀系数在0.44。采用滑动最小值法对小流域2006年和2007年生长季的径流过程线进行分割,计算出平均基流系数BFI为0.039;在此基础上的分析表明了径流增加量(Y)与单场降雨量(X)呈正相关关系:Y=145.11X~(0.5977),R~2=0.6499。
5.植被变化对流域径流的影响
应用分布式生态水文模型SWIM于洪沟小流域,分别利用2006年、2007年的气象数据和水文数据对模型进行率定和检验,并根据植被对水分条件的要求和生态环境建设与水资源保护对植被建设的需要,制定了华北落叶松覆盖率增加和降低的分布情景,模拟植被变化对径流的影响。结果表明,随着华北落叶松林的减少(替代为其它乡土阔叶林或灌木),洪峰流量增加,洪峰变得尖瘦,对降水的响应更敏感,整个流量过程线变化迅速,产流量增大;而随着华北落叶松林的增加(替代其它乡土阔叶林或灌丛),流量过程变缓,洪峰减小,蒸散量增加,产流量减小。
In order to evaluate the eco-hydrological effects of forest and vegetation in the arid areas of Northern China, a serial of experimentations focused on forest vegetation characteristics, hydrological process and runoff were performed during the growing seasons (from May to October) of 2006 and 2007 in the small watershed of Honggou, which is located at the south side of Liupanshan Mountains with a semi-humid climate. With these works it is expected to understand the hydrological mechanism of forest/vegetation more deeply and also to provide the theoretical and technological basis for the management of water-retention forest in the Liupanshan Mountains and similar regions.
As a representative mountainous and headwater area in the Loess Plateau, several branches of the Yellow River are started here, such as Jing River, Qingshui River and Hulu River. Liupanshan Mountains is very important to maintain the regional ecological balance and provide water resource. Xiangshuihe watershed is a representative mountain forest small watershed, of which the area is 10.49km2 and its elevation ranges from 2040m to 2942m. With a coverage of 65.5%, the forest vegetation consists of many vegetation types. The soil is embedded many stone fragments. The annual mean precipitation is 591.6mm.
The content of the dissertation is comprised of analysis upon the distribution characteristics of soil physical properties, the forest vegetation characteristics and special distribution, the main forest hydrological processes, runoff dynamics, and the application of hydrological model. The main results are shown as follows:
1. Spatial patterns and characteristics of vegetation
Based on sampling-line investigation upon typical vegetation , the following five main types of vegetation in Honggou watersherd are identified: Larix principis-rupprechtii, Pinus armandii, Betula albo-sinensis, Populus davidiana and shrub. Regarding species composition of the arbors and shrub layers, dominant species within arbor layer are Larix principis-rupprechtii, Pinus armandii, Betula albo-sinensis and Populus davidiana. The dominant species of shrub layer are Prunus virginiana, Rosa omeienis var. pteracantha, Berberis cirumserrata, Cotonedster acutifolius, Hippophae hamnoides and Fargesia nitida.
The results about the spatial distribution law of vegetation showed that the range of vertical distribution of L. principis-rupprechtii was from the elevation of 2200m to 2500m; Pinus armandii is distributed from 2040m to 2942m, and the most suitable range is from 2100 to 2200m in shady slope and half-shady slope. B. albo-sinensis is distributed mainly within 2200～2300m in shady slope and half-shady slope. The shrub is distributed above the elevation of 2300m in sunny slope and half-shady slope, which reveals the relationship between vegetation pattern and human activity to some extent.
2. Distribution characteristics of soil physical properties
Based on field investigations, the variation of soil physical characteristics with soil depth, slope aspect, slope position, and vegetation types within Honggou watershed was studied. The result shows: The soil bulk density and stone content increase with increasing soil depth; while total porosity, capillary porosity, non-capillary porosity, saturated water content, capillary soil water content, and field capacity of soil decrease with increasing soil depth.
All the soil physical properties measured in this study are relatively better on the shady slope than on the sunny slopes and all other half-sunny slopes. With lowering slope position, the soil thickness, bulk density, stone content, and non-capillary porosity are gradually increasing; while the total porosity, capillary porosity, and all water-holding capacity indicators gradually decreasing, with an exception that the water-holding capacity on the up-slope is higher than that on the slope top.
By comparing the averaged soil physical properties among five main vegetation types, the soil bulk density showed the following order: shrub land (0.98) > the Populus davidiana (0.91) > Pinus armandii (0.89) > Larix principris-upprechtii (0.83) > Betula albo-sinensis (0.73). The stone content of soil in the P. davidiana (9.33) is the least among all vegetation types. The capillary porosity of the soil in different vegetations showed order as follows: P. Armandii (43.40%) > B. albo-sinensis (42.73%) > P. davidiana (40.88%) > L. principris-upprechtii (40.35%) >shrub(34.36%) ; non-capillary porosity showed the following order: L. principris-upprechtii (21.69%) > B. albo-sinensis (20.19%) > shrub(17.56%) > P. armandii(16.05%) >P. armandii(13.65%).
3. The main forest hydrological process of watershed
This study discusses the relationship between canopy interception and the precipitation during one precipitation event in the Honggou watershed during the growing seasons from 2006 to 2007. The results show that the the canopy interception ratio to total precipitation is 100% when the precipitation is less than 1 mm during one precipitation event, and it declines to 15% when the precipitation is 10 ~50mm. But when the precipitation is over 50mm, the rate of canopy interception is basically lee than 15%. The canopy interception is more relative to the level of total rainfall, i. e. the higher the total rainfall is, the lower the interception ratio is, and the more the holding capacity of interception is.
The paper studied the spatial variability and minimum sampling area of litter mass. The result shows that litter mass of two plots are not uniform in the spatial distribution, and the variation coefficient is 0.41 and 0.56 respectively. The litters mass and micro-landform of the two Larix principis-rupprechtii plots are related linearly, and the correlation coefficient is 0.444 and 0.677, respectively. The semivariograms of litter mass in two Larix principis-rupprechtii plots were best described by spherical model, and spatial correlation is moderate. Statistical analysis showed that 9 is the least adequate sampling area (at least 9m2) to denote the average total litter mass of Larix principis-rupprechtii plot in liupan mountain.
The rainfall interception processes were studied under artificial simulated rainfall within the normal rainfall intensity range of this region (< 30 mm/h). The results showed that the interception capacity of litter increases with rainfall intensity. A mechanism-based model for describing the rainfall interception process of litter of the two species was developed:
The model can reflect the effects of water content, rainfall intensity,and duration of rainfall simultaneously. The model parameters were calibrated based on the observed data both from the soaking experiment and simulated rainfall interception experiments.
The diurnal variation of stem sap flow of Larix principis-rupprechtii on clear days in the whole growing season can be described as diurnal alternating fluctuation. The activity of stem sap flow can be divided into three phases:“relative rest stage”(20:00～next day07:00)with sap flow velocity less than 0.05μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1) , and“active phase”(07:00～20:30)with sap flow velocity less than 0.25μl·cm~(-2)·min~(-1).
The soil evaporation of internal forest was similar to that of external forest. The maximum evaporation rate of soil outside and inside of forest is 0.697mm/hand 0.505 mm/h respectively at 12 :00～14 :00. The environmental factors influencing soil evaporation include solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, air temperature and wind speed and its equation follows: E=-0.468+0.205SW+0.01557SR-0.0137RH,R~2=0.8732.
According to observed data of soil infiltration under different vegetation types in Honggou watershed, the initial velocity of infiltration range from 8.23mm/min to 62.96mm/min and the velocity of stable infiltration range from 7.55mm/min to 40.91mm/min. The velocity of infiltration increased with the time passing, and trend to be a constant finally. The soil infiltration rates of typical plots of vegetation are simulated by Kostiakov model, Horton model, Phillip model and Fangzhengsan model and the results show that the Horton model, of which the parameters have clearly physical meaning, is a relatively acceptable model for soil infiltration.
4. The analysis of watershed runoff
Influenced by temperature and precipitation,the runoff varies between seasons.The runoff volume is concentrated in the summer (September, August). The runoff is mostly consist of basic flow from November to June the next year. The Minimum Smoothing Method was used to separate the runoff component of Honggou watershed during growing seasons of 2006 and 2007, and the calculated BFI is 0.039. The investigation about the relation between runoff(m3) and rainfall(mm) indicates that they having a significant function relationship(Y=145.11X~(0.5977),R~2=0.6499。).
5. The effect of vegetation variation on water balance of watershed
In order to understand the mechanism of the interaction between forest/vegetation and hydrological processes, and to quantify the effect of the heterogeneity of physical conditions on the hydrological processes and water balance in watershed,as well as to evaluate the hydrological response to vegetation transition, especially the watershed function of water yield, the hydrological model SWIM was used in Honggou small Watershed of Liupan Mountains in this paper. Calibration and validation of SWIM model was done using the meteorological and hydrological data observeded at the outlet of the watershed during 2006 and 2007. Based on the simulation of the hydrological processes, the water balance on slope as well as the contribution to watershed runoff generation of different watershed parts was analyzed. Seven scenarios with different forest coverage of Larix principis-rupprechtii were established. Then the responses of hydrological processes of the watershed for these vegetation scenarios were simulated, and the effect of the vegetation transition on water balance of watershed, especially on runoff generation, were calculated.
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