美国精英评论与反恐战争：构架方法
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摘要
本研究试图分析美国精英集团如何从意识形态上构架2001年9月11日的恐怖袭击事件以及之后一年的反恐战争(War on Terrorism campaign)。研究尝试通过构架事件的方式去解读不同的美国精英集团(例如政府官员、企业职员、媒体人员等)是如何有效限制或扩展政府应对911恐怖袭击所采取行动的选择。
本论文将以社会运动视角方面的文献的构架作为基础。这项研究考察了不同精英集团如何形成自己的主张来动员集体行动服务于各自的利益,利用了在制造“美国”的集体形象和共有的民族、性别、阶级意识,美国的敌人的特征,以及其在更迭世界中的角色。此研究所运用的方法是定性内容分析和批判性构架分析,从现美国总统乔治.布什的主要演讲、《纽约时报》和《华盛顿邮报》的社论、社员评论及专栏评论中理论上有目的性地进行抽样。精英的不同种类和来源间诊断性、预测性和动机性构架的相似与不同之处将被识别出并进行社会学方面的解释。同时将估量各家媒体文献对布什总统演讲中提出的对反恐战争意识形态上假设的支持度来进行此项研究。
《纽约时报》社论版的读者群远比《华盛顿邮报》的读者更支持反恐战争,然而整体来说《华盛顿邮报》比《纽约时报》更支持反恐战争。出于意外的是两份报纸的媒体精英比政府官员更支持反恐战争。几乎所有精英集团都支持进行先发制人的袭击政策以及伊拉克的萨达姆政权更迭。媒体的作用不仅是解释和传播精英们对反恐战争的意识形态,同时更重要的是他们帮助增强对布什政府反恐战争意识形态的构架。
当运用批评性构架分析来研究民族、阶级和经济架构、精英评论中的性别时,我从数据中发现可以将一种意识形态描述成一种帝国主义的意识形态。美国精英,尤其是媒体精英不仅试图非法化“恐怖分子”,更试图抵制那些批判全球经济、文化美国化“必不可免”的人。
This study attempts to analyze how American elites groups ideologically framed events of terrorists attack on September 11,2001 and the completion of the first year of the War on Terrorism(WOT) campaign.It tries to understand how the different groups of American elites(e.g., government officials,corporate officials,media officials etc.) effectively limited or expanded options for state action in response to the terrorists attack on 9/11 by framing the events.
This dissertation will building on the framing perspective of the social movements' literature.This study considers how different elite group shapes their opinion to mobilize collective action to serve their interests,which draw upon a collective identity and shared racial, gender and class ideologies of 'America',its enemies,and its role in the changing world.
The methodologies that have been employed to this study will be Qualitative Content Analysis and Critical Framing Analysis which theoretically purposive sample of major speeches of George W.Bush(GWB) and New York Times(NYT) and the Washington Post(WP) editorials,staff commentaries and guest Op-Eds.Similarities and differences in diagnostic,prognostic and motivational framing between sources and categories of elites will be identified and sociologically explained. There's also the amount of support of each media document gave for the ideological assumptions of the War on Terror as represented in speeches of George W.Bush will be measured for this study.
The NYT editorial board was farther ahead of its readership in support of the War on Terror than the WP,but overall the WP was more supportive than the NYT.Media elites from both newspapers were more supportive of the WOT than government officials.Almost all of groups of elites were found for the policy of preemptive strikes and specifically regime change in Iraq.The role of media was not only translate and circulate elite ideologies of the WOT but to help amplify the framing of them as well.
What I have found from the data while employing Critical Framing Analysis to examine constructions of race;class and economics;and gender in elite discourse,was an ideology that can be described as an imperialist ideology.American elites,particularly media elites not only try to delegitimize 'terrorists' but those who criticized the 'inevitability' of the Americanization of global economy and culture.
本论文将以社会运动视角方面的文献的构架作为基础。这项研究考察了不同精英集团如何形成自己的主张来动员集体行动服务于各自的利益,利用了在制造“美国”的集体形象和共有的民族、性别、阶级意识,美国的敌人的特征,以及其在更迭世界中的角色。此研究所运用的方法是定性内容分析和批判性构架分析,从现美国总统乔治.布什的主要演讲、《纽约时报》和《华盛顿邮报》的社论、社员评论及专栏评论中理论上有目的性地进行抽样。精英的不同种类和来源间诊断性、预测性和动机性构架的相似与不同之处将被识别出并进行社会学方面的解释。同时将估量各家媒体文献对布什总统演讲中提出的对反恐战争意识形态上假设的支持度来进行此项研究。
《纽约时报》社论版的读者群远比《华盛顿邮报》的读者更支持反恐战争,然而整体来说《华盛顿邮报》比《纽约时报》更支持反恐战争。出于意外的是两份报纸的媒体精英比政府官员更支持反恐战争。几乎所有精英集团都支持进行先发制人的袭击政策以及伊拉克的萨达姆政权更迭。媒体的作用不仅是解释和传播精英们对反恐战争的意识形态,同时更重要的是他们帮助增强对布什政府反恐战争意识形态的构架。
当运用批评性构架分析来研究民族、阶级和经济架构、精英评论中的性别时,我从数据中发现可以将一种意识形态描述成一种帝国主义的意识形态。美国精英,尤其是媒体精英不仅试图非法化“恐怖分子”,更试图抵制那些批判全球经济、文化美国化“必不可免”的人。
This study attempts to analyze how American elites groups ideologically framed events of terrorists attack on September 11,2001 and the completion of the first year of the War on Terrorism(WOT) campaign.It tries to understand how the different groups of American elites(e.g., government officials,corporate officials,media officials etc.) effectively limited or expanded options for state action in response to the terrorists attack on 9/11 by framing the events.
This dissertation will building on the framing perspective of the social movements' literature.This study considers how different elite group shapes their opinion to mobilize collective action to serve their interests,which draw upon a collective identity and shared racial, gender and class ideologies of 'America',its enemies,and its role in the changing world.
The methodologies that have been employed to this study will be Qualitative Content Analysis and Critical Framing Analysis which theoretically purposive sample of major speeches of George W.Bush(GWB) and New York Times(NYT) and the Washington Post(WP) editorials,staff commentaries and guest Op-Eds.Similarities and differences in diagnostic,prognostic and motivational framing between sources and categories of elites will be identified and sociologically explained. There's also the amount of support of each media document gave for the ideological assumptions of the War on Terror as represented in speeches of George W.Bush will be measured for this study.
The NYT editorial board was farther ahead of its readership in support of the War on Terror than the WP,but overall the WP was more supportive than the NYT.Media elites from both newspapers were more supportive of the WOT than government officials.Almost all of groups of elites were found for the policy of preemptive strikes and specifically regime change in Iraq.The role of media was not only translate and circulate elite ideologies of the WOT but to help amplify the framing of them as well.
What I have found from the data while employing Critical Framing Analysis to examine constructions of race;class and economics;and gender in elite discourse,was an ideology that can be described as an imperialist ideology.American elites,particularly media elites not only try to delegitimize 'terrorists' but those who criticized the 'inevitability' of the Americanization of global economy and culture.
引文
1 http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/Northeast/10/29/wtc.deaths/
2 反恐战争的缩写,我在本研究中使用WOT,此关键词是不意味着有意的支持军事行动,而是所有的各种广泛的现布什行政府的反恐战争政策。使用此关键词并不意味着有意的支持或确认正确性和可靠性。
3 童兵:《马克思主义新闻经典教程》[M],上海,复旦大学出版社,2002.PP.27.
1 Bennett,W.L.,and J.B Manheim.1993."Taking the public by storm:Information,cuing,and the democratic process in the Gulf conflict[J]." Political Communication Vol.10,P.335.
2 Weisler,Adam.1997."Editorial Opinion and Government Policymaking[D]," dissertation from Columbia University,for a summary of the research.
3 Also see Bennett,W.Lance(1990) 'Toward a theory of press-state relations in the united states[J]",Journal of Communication 40(2):103-125.
1 < http://www.nytco.com/company/>
2 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post>
3 Bennett, W.L., and J.B Manheim. 1993. "Taking the public by storm: Information, cuing, and the democratic process in the Gulf conflict[J]." Political Communication Vol. 10, P. 335.
4 Retrieved from the World Wide Web: NYT: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-adv/mediacenter/html/research_demographics.html WP: http://www.nvtimes.whsites.net/mediakit/pdfs/newspaper/MRI_NYTreaderprofile.pdf
5 Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://librarv.corporate-ir.net/librarv/62/624/62487/items/236847/TWPC2006AR.pdf Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.nvtco.com/investors/financials/revenue.html.
1 Lakoff, George. (2001, September 16).'Metaphors of Terror.' In The Days After[OL]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ News/91 llakoff.html.
2 Rice, Condoleezza. 2003. "Transforming the Middle East[N]." The Washington Post, Washington DC, Editorial section, A21, August 7, 2003.
3 NYT. 1992. "Excerpts From Pentagon's Plan: 'Prevent the Re-Emergence of a New Rival'[N]." in New York Times. New York. March 8,1992.
1 Friedman,George.2002."Media and War,Appearance and Reality." Summary Coverage of the "War on Terrorism[OL]".January 15,2002.Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://archive.infopeace.de/msg00833.html
2 Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.september11news.com/OsamaSpeeches.htm.
3 Rhem,Kathleen T.2001."DOD to Get Much of Bush Emergency Budget Request[OL]." News briefing,September 13,2001.Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=44893
4 Wolfowitz Interview with Sam Tannenhaus,Vanity Fair,Friday,May 09,2003.Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=25945 Wolfowitz,Paul,"United on the Risks of a War With Iraq[N]",The Washington Post,EDITORIAL;Pg.A19,December 23,2002.
6 See http://www.pollingreport.com-76%in favor in 1998,46-67%in favor in 2002.
7 Iraq Liberation Act,1998."SEC.3.SENSE OF THE CONGRESS REGARDING UNITED STATES POLICY TOWARD IRAQ." Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.iraqwatch.org/govemment/US/Legislation/ILA.htm.
8 赵鼎新:《社会与政治运动讲义》[M],北京,社会科学文献出版社,2006.pp.212.CNN/USA today/Gallup Poll of 1,007 adults nationwide,August,2002.http://www.pollingreport.com.
10 Fox News/Opinion Poll Dynamics Poll of 900 registered voters nationwide,January 29-30,2003.http://www.pollingreport.com.
11 Commission Report,2005."The Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction[R]" Report to the President of the United States,March 31,2005,Washington DC:(pp.3)
12 李良荣:“西方新闻事业概论”[M],上海,复旦大学出版社,2006.pp.123. See, for example, Reuters, Tuesday, February 11,2003 "Bin Laden Labels Saddam an Infidel - Jazeera TV" by Samia Nakhoul.
2 Bush, George W., 2001. "President Launches "Lessons of Liberty[OL].", Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011030-7.html.
3 Bush, George W., 2002. "National Security Strategy - Calls for U.S. Global Preeminence[OL]", Retrieved from the World Wide Web: www.whitehouse.gov.
4 Ashcroft, John. 2002 "Prepared Remarks of Attorney General John Ashcroft to the National Religious Broadcasters Convention[OL].", February 19, 2002. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.usdoj.gov/archive/ag/speeches/2002/021902religiousbroadcasters.htm.
5 Ashcroft, John. 2002 "Prepared Remarks of Attorney General John Ashcroft to the National Religious Broadcasters Convention[OL].", February 19, 2002. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.usdoj.gov/archive/ag/speeches/2002/021902religiousbroadcasters.htm.
6 Lubragge, Michael T., The Many Shades of Manifest Destiny[OL]." Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://odur.let.rug.nl/～usa/E/manifest/manif5.htm.
7 Cheney, Dick. 2001. "The Vice President appears on Meet the Press with Time Russert[OL]." Camp David, Maryland, September 16,2001. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/vicepresident/news-speeches/speeches/vp20010916.html.
8 Bush, George W., 2002. "President Announces Step to Expand Trade & Create Jobs[OL]." Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020116-13.html.
9 McLean, Christopher. 1995. "The Costs of Masculinity: Placing Men's Pain in the context of Male Power[OL]." in Promoting Gender Equity Conference. Canberra, Australia. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.mceetya.edu.au/verve/_resources/genderframwk74-144.pdf.
10 Bush, George W., 2003. "President Bush Names Randall Tobias to be Global AIDS Coordinator[OL]." The Roosevelt Room, July 2, 2003. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/07/20030702-3.html.
11 Lakoff, George. 1995. "Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust[J]." Social Research, Summer95, Vol. 62, Issue 2, pp. 177-213. Also see http://www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html#STRICT.
1 Kennan, George. 1976. "pps23." Foreign Relations of the United States 1. http://www.firethistime.org/georgekennanpps23.htm
2 http://www.wordorgins.org/wordort.htm.
3 Code of Federal Regulations 28 C.F.R. Section 0.85
4 http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/patrpt/2001/html.
5 Also see Colossus: The Price of America's Empire[M]. By Niall Ferguson. New York: Penguin Press: 2004.
6 See detailed unclassified documents on this at the National Security Archive http://www.gwu.edu/～nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/
7 See, for example, George H. W. Bush's State of the Union Address, Envisioning One Thousand Points of Light, Tuesday, January 29,1991.
Or, Ignatieff, Michael. 2003. The Burden: With a military of unrivaled might, the United States rules a new kind of empire. Will this cost America its soul - or save it?[J] New York Times Magazine, January 5,2003.
Or, Friedman, Thomas L. 1999. A Manifesto for the Fast World: From supercharged financial markets to Osama bin Laden, the emerging global order demands an enforcer. That's America's new burden[J]. New York Times Magazine; March 28,1999, p. 40.
8 Reagan, George W. Bush, and Colin Powell have all used the term "crusade".
9 See for example, NYT SC 01-09-18
10 Both Powell's and Racicot's 2004 use of "crusade" was used after widespread criticism of Bush's use of "crusade" in 2001.
11 Friedman, Thomas. New York Times of March 28, 1999.
12 Pew Center on Religion and Democracy. 2003. "Difference and Democracy" Carl F. Bowman, University of Virginia.
13 See http://www.ncac.org.
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[2]李良荣:“西方新闻事业概论[M]”,上海,复旦大学出版社,2006.第123页。
[3]陈向明:“质的研究方法与社会科学研究[M]”,北京,教育科学出版社,2006.第270-271页。
[4]童兵:“马克思主义新闻经典教程[M]”,上海,复旦大学出版社,2002.第27页。
2 反恐战争的缩写,我在本研究中使用WOT,此关键词是不意味着有意的支持军事行动,而是所有的各种广泛的现布什行政府的反恐战争政策。使用此关键词并不意味着有意的支持或确认正确性和可靠性。
3 童兵:《马克思主义新闻经典教程》[M],上海,复旦大学出版社,2002.PP.27.
1 Bennett,W.L.,and J.B Manheim.1993."Taking the public by storm:Information,cuing,and the democratic process in the Gulf conflict[J]." Political Communication Vol.10,P.335.
2 Weisler,Adam.1997."Editorial Opinion and Government Policymaking[D]," dissertation from Columbia University,for a summary of the research.
3 Also see Bennett,W.Lance(1990) 'Toward a theory of press-state relations in the united states[J]",Journal of Communication 40(2):103-125.
1 < http://www.nytco.com/company/>
2 < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post>
3 Bennett, W.L., and J.B Manheim. 1993. "Taking the public by storm: Information, cuing, and the democratic process in the Gulf conflict[J]." Political Communication Vol. 10, P. 335.
4 Retrieved from the World Wide Web: NYT: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-adv/mediacenter/html/research_demographics.html WP: http://www.nvtimes.whsites.net/mediakit/pdfs/newspaper/MRI_NYTreaderprofile.pdf
5 Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://librarv.corporate-ir.net/librarv/62/624/62487/items/236847/TWPC2006AR.pdf Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.nvtco.com/investors/financials/revenue.html.
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3 NYT. 1992. "Excerpts From Pentagon's Plan: 'Prevent the Re-Emergence of a New Rival'[N]." in New York Times. New York. March 8,1992.
1 Friedman,George.2002."Media and War,Appearance and Reality." Summary Coverage of the "War on Terrorism[OL]".January 15,2002.Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://archive.infopeace.de/msg00833.html
2 Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.september11news.com/OsamaSpeeches.htm.
3 Rhem,Kathleen T.2001."DOD to Get Much of Bush Emergency Budget Request[OL]." News briefing,September 13,2001.Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=44893
4 Wolfowitz Interview with Sam Tannenhaus,Vanity Fair,Friday,May 09,2003.Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=25945 Wolfowitz,Paul,"United on the Risks of a War With Iraq[N]",The Washington Post,EDITORIAL;Pg.A19,December 23,2002.
6 See http://www.pollingreport.com-76%in favor in 1998,46-67%in favor in 2002.
7 Iraq Liberation Act,1998."SEC.3.SENSE OF THE CONGRESS REGARDING UNITED STATES POLICY TOWARD IRAQ." Retrieved from the World Wide Web:http://www.iraqwatch.org/govemment/US/Legislation/ILA.htm.
8 赵鼎新:《社会与政治运动讲义》[M],北京,社会科学文献出版社,2006.pp.212.CNN/USA today/Gallup Poll of 1,007 adults nationwide,August,2002.http://www.pollingreport.com.
10 Fox News/Opinion Poll Dynamics Poll of 900 registered voters nationwide,January 29-30,2003.http://www.pollingreport.com.
11 Commission Report,2005."The Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction[R]" Report to the President of the United States,March 31,2005,Washington DC:(pp.3)
12 李良荣:“西方新闻事业概论”[M],上海,复旦大学出版社,2006.pp.123. See, for example, Reuters, Tuesday, February 11,2003 "Bin Laden Labels Saddam an Infidel - Jazeera TV" by Samia Nakhoul.
2 Bush, George W., 2001. "President Launches "Lessons of Liberty[OL].", Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/10/20011030-7.html.
3 Bush, George W., 2002. "National Security Strategy - Calls for U.S. Global Preeminence[OL]", Retrieved from the World Wide Web: www.whitehouse.gov.
4 Ashcroft, John. 2002 "Prepared Remarks of Attorney General John Ashcroft to the National Religious Broadcasters Convention[OL].", February 19, 2002. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.usdoj.gov/archive/ag/speeches/2002/021902religiousbroadcasters.htm.
5 Ashcroft, John. 2002 "Prepared Remarks of Attorney General John Ashcroft to the National Religious Broadcasters Convention[OL].", February 19, 2002. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.usdoj.gov/archive/ag/speeches/2002/021902religiousbroadcasters.htm.
6 Lubragge, Michael T., The Many Shades of Manifest Destiny[OL]." Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://odur.let.rug.nl/～usa/E/manifest/manif5.htm.
7 Cheney, Dick. 2001. "The Vice President appears on Meet the Press with Time Russert[OL]." Camp David, Maryland, September 16,2001. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/vicepresident/news-speeches/speeches/vp20010916.html.
8 Bush, George W., 2002. "President Announces Step to Expand Trade & Create Jobs[OL]." Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020116-13.html.
9 McLean, Christopher. 1995. "The Costs of Masculinity: Placing Men's Pain in the context of Male Power[OL]." in Promoting Gender Equity Conference. Canberra, Australia. Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.mceetya.edu.au/verve/_resources/genderframwk74-144.pdf.
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11 Lakoff, George. 1995. "Metaphor, Morality, and Politics, Or, Why Conservatives Have Left Liberals In the Dust[J]." Social Research, Summer95, Vol. 62, Issue 2, pp. 177-213. Also see http://www.wwcd.org/issues/Lakoff.html#STRICT.
1 Kennan, George. 1976. "pps23." Foreign Relations of the United States 1. http://www.firethistime.org/georgekennanpps23.htm
2 http://www.wordorgins.org/wordort.htm.
3 Code of Federal Regulations 28 C.F.R. Section 0.85
4 http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/patrpt/2001/html.
5 Also see Colossus: The Price of America's Empire[M]. By Niall Ferguson. New York: Penguin Press: 2004.
6 See detailed unclassified documents on this at the National Security Archive http://www.gwu.edu/～nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/
7 See, for example, George H. W. Bush's State of the Union Address, Envisioning One Thousand Points of Light, Tuesday, January 29,1991.
Or, Ignatieff, Michael. 2003. The Burden: With a military of unrivaled might, the United States rules a new kind of empire. Will this cost America its soul - or save it?[J] New York Times Magazine, January 5,2003.
Or, Friedman, Thomas L. 1999. A Manifesto for the Fast World: From supercharged financial markets to Osama bin Laden, the emerging global order demands an enforcer. That's America's new burden[J]. New York Times Magazine; March 28,1999, p. 40.
8 Reagan, George W. Bush, and Colin Powell have all used the term "crusade".
9 See for example, NYT SC 01-09-18
10 Both Powell's and Racicot's 2004 use of "crusade" was used after widespread criticism of Bush's use of "crusade" in 2001.
11 Friedman, Thomas. New York Times of March 28, 1999.
12 Pew Center on Religion and Democracy. 2003. "Difference and Democracy" Carl F. Bowman, University of Virginia.
13 See http://www.ncac.org.
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