不同生态系统土壤呼吸与环境因子的关系研究
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摘要
用LI-COR-6400便携式光合作用仪连接6400-09土壤叶室,对山西太原地区和丹麦哥本哈根地区不同生态系统的土壤呼吸进行了研究,其目的是:1)研究两个地区不同生态系统土壤呼吸的季节变化,了解两个区域不同生态系统土壤呼吸的差异;2)估计两个区域不同生态系统的土壤呼吸总量;3)量化不同生态系统中不同土地利用方式土壤呼吸的空间变化规律;4)研究两个区域不同土地利用方式的土壤呼吸时、空变化与土壤温度、土壤水分等环境因子之间的关系。
论文分为5章。第1章为引言,第2-5章为主要研究内容。第2章以研究自然生态系统(森林、灌丛、草地等)条件下的土壤呼吸规律为目的,在太原天龙山国家自然保护区范围内对11个样地(不同位置、不同植被、不同立地条件)的土壤呼吸与环境因子关系进行了两年的研究;第3章以农业生态系统为研究对象,对4种土地利用类型的土壤呼吸与环境因子关系进行了为期一年的研究;第4章的研究对象仍然是农业生态系统,但是研究以比较中、小尺度农田与其他利用类型土壤呼吸的空间异质特点为主要目的,研究两个尺度下土壤呼吸的空间变化;第5章以丹麦哥本哈根地区的农业生态系统(农作物和牧草地等)为研究对象,比较了4种土地利用方式的土壤呼吸及其与土壤温度、水分的关系以及较大尺度的土壤呼吸空间变化特征。主要研究结果如下:
1)太原天龙山地区的土壤呼吸具有明显的季节变化特点,冬、春季较低,夏秋季较高,11个样地土壤呼吸的季节变化与天数的关系均可用高斯3参数方程表示。2005年4-12月(部分样地为5-12月)样地1到样地11土壤呼吸的平均值分别为:3.92,4.66,4.40,3.01,3.70,3.88,4.00,4.72,5.21,4.52,2.57μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1);2006年11个样地的土壤呼吸平均值分别为:2.33,2.96,1.93,2.35,2.70,2.89,2.79,3.39,3.08,3.23,1.83μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。2005年和2006年11个样地的土壤呼吸总平均值分别为3.92和2.68μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。
对大多数样地而言,土壤呼吸与10 cm深度土壤温度的关系显著。土壤呼吸与土壤温度之间的关系可用直线、指数和Lloyd & Taylor方程表达。土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的28-88%。土壤受干旱胁迫时,土壤温度的作用明显降低。土壤呼吸与0-10 cm深度土壤水分的关系次之,可用直线或指数关系表达。标准化后的土壤呼吸与土壤水分的相关性增加,土壤水分可解释土壤呼吸变化的比例在15-71%。土壤温度较低时,土壤水分的作用亦明显减小。大多数时段土壤温度和土壤水分对土壤呼吸的作用同时存在。但是,土壤温度和土壤水分对土壤呼吸的影响在11个样地不完全相同,在土壤持水能力较差的样地,土壤水分对土壤呼吸的作用大于土壤温度的作用。与单因子模型相比,把土壤水分和土壤温度结合在一起的复合模型可以更好的预测土壤呼吸。土壤温度和土壤水分一起可解释土壤呼吸变化的55-86%。
11个样地土壤呼吸的温度敏感性指数(Q_(10))和土壤温度10℃时的基础土壤呼吸值(R_(10))不同,2005年Q_(10)值从1.80到4.94,2006年Q_(10)值从1.78到5.91;R_(10)在1.47-4.75μmol CO_2 m~(12)s~(-1)之间。Q_(10)、R_(10)的平均值分别为3.14和3.54μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1),在其他研究者报道的范围之内。11个样地的年土壤呼吸总量在654.9-1440.5 gC m~(-2)(2005年),581.2-1075.3 g C m~(-2)(2006年)之间。2005年和2006年天龙山自然生态系统11个样地的土壤呼吸总量平均值分别为1068.6和850 g C m~(-2)。
2)太原盆地4种农田生态系统的土壤呼吸同样具有明显的季节变化特征,最小值出现在1、2、3以及11、12月份,在1μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)附近,最大值超过10μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),主要出现在夏季的7、8月份。受环境因子影响,土壤呼吸具有明显的波动特点,尤其是在夏季。4种土地利用方式土壤呼吸的加权平均值分别为,柠条林地3.54±2.61μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),草地4.43±3.99μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1),药材地3.95±3.58μmol CO_2m~(-2)s~(-1),玉米地3.84±4-2.93μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1)。4种土地利用条件下土壤呼吸均值差异不显著。土壤呼吸与土壤温度的直线关系、指数关系以及Lloyd& Taylor函数关系均达显著水平,但是各拟合方程得到的R~2值不同,直线型R~2值最低,Lloyd & Taylor函数的R~2值最高。在没有土壤水分胁迫的条件下(土壤水分大于田间持水量的1/3为标准),土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的比重(%)柠条林地、草地、药材地和玉米地分别为,直线:40,23,33,29;指数方程:56,45,62,41;Lloyd & Taylor函数:60,56,69,44。
与天龙山地区的结果相比,在农田生态系统中土壤水分对土壤呼吸有较大影响。土壤呼吸与土壤水分的直线关系好于指数关系。但是将土壤呼吸标准化到10℃时的土壤呼吸与土壤水分的关系分析表明,直线方程和指数方程的R~2值差异不大,分别在37-64%和39-61%之间。同样,用土壤温度和土壤水分的混合模型(双变量模型)预测土壤呼吸的准确性增加,土壤温度和土壤水分可以解释土壤呼吸变化的52-82%,明显大于单因子模型的R~2值。
6、8和10月份3次24 h的土壤呼吸测定表明,4种土地利用方式的土壤呼吸均具有较明显的日变化特点,最大值出现在11:00-15:00之间,最低值在凌晨6:00左右。土壤呼吸的日变化与土壤温度的日变化的关系多数情况下不显著。8:00-12:00的土壤呼吸的平均值比24小时土壤呼吸的平均值大10%。用我们1-12月份共33次的测定数据计算,柠条地、草地、药材地、玉米地的年土壤呼吸总量依次为:1227、1732、1509和1477 g C m~(-2)。5-10月份土壤呼吸总量分别为柠条地996.3 gC m~(-2),草地1361.1 g C m~(-2),药材地1300.7 g C m~-2)和玉米地1191.4 g C m~(-2)。
3)无论在区域尺度上还是在观测小区尺度上,土壤呼吸均存在明显的空间变化。2005年7月和10月份两次对太原盆地北部区域42个样地(其中玉米地23个,其他地类19个)的土壤呼吸测定结果表明,土壤呼吸具有明显的空间变化特点,变异系数在25-50%;土壤呼吸的空间变化与土壤温度和土壤水分的关系只是在土壤水分差异较大的7月份显著。在观测小区尺度内3个样地的2次测定(9月和11月份)中,3个样地土壤呼吸的变异系数都较大,9月份分别为21,32和39%,11月份分别为40,46和58%。9月份的变异系数小于11月的变异系数,但是9月份土壤呼吸的平均值和标准差显著大于11月。小区尺度内土壤呼吸与土壤温度和土壤水分的关系的相关性较差。对于土壤呼吸空间变异的原因仍有待进一步研究。
4)丹麦农业生态系统的土壤呼吸同样具有明显的季节变化特点,夏季土壤呼吸较高、春冬季较低,土壤呼吸最低值在2月为0.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),最大值在7月份为5.77μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1);与太原地区的土壤呼吸的季节变化相一致。土壤呼吸随日期变化的关系同样可以用高斯3参数方程表达。冬小麦地1-12月土壤呼吸18次测定的平均值为2.21±1.45μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1);4-10月为2.39±1.50μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),小于天龙山地区的土壤呼吸平均值,接近于天龙山裸地的土壤呼吸平均值。在没有土壤水分胁迫情况下的土壤呼吸与土壤温度的关系非常明显,土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的68%。冬小麦地1-12月土壤CO_2释放量为655.5 g C m~(-2)a~(-1)。
4-12月4种土地利用方式的土壤呼吸测定结果分别为:冬小麦地2.71±1.74μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),休闲草地3.90±2.47μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),牧草地2.65±1.24μmol CO_2m~(-2) s~(-1),花草地1.54±0.91μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1);4个样地土壤呼吸与土壤温度的关系显著,土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的比重分别为75%,82%,86%和45%;土壤呼吸的温度敏感性指数(Q_(10))分别为3.16,2.87,2.04和2.09;土壤温度10℃时的基础土壤呼吸值(R_(10))分别为2.02,3.53,2.11和1.23μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),用Lloyd&Taylor函数计算的4个样地的R_(10)值分别为2.32,3.88,2.16和1.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。1-12月冬小麦地、休闲草地、牧草地和花草地的土壤CO_2释放量分别为655.5、1129、835.4和374.6 g C m~(-2)。用4个样地的全部数据计算得到的Q_(10)、R_(10)值分别为2.37和2.32μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。Q_(10)和R_(10)值均接近于我们在太原天龙山地区大多数样地的计算结果。本地区土壤呼吸同样存在明显的空间变化,8月份3天测定的冬小麦和草地土壤呼吸的变异系数从30%到70%,草地的变异系数小于冬小麦地的土壤呼吸的变异系数。
The soil respiration(R_s) in different ecosystems were measured,respectively,in Taiyuan,China, and in Copenhagen,Denmark,using LI-COR-6400 portable photosynthesis system(LI-COR, Environmental Division,Lincoln,NE,USA) connected to a LI-COR 6400-09 soil chamber with an area of 71.6 cm~2.The objectives of this study were to:(1) examine the seasonal patterns of soil CO_2 effiux in the two areas to understand whether there is any difference in soil respiration between the two areas;(2) estimate the amount of soil CO_2 effiux from the two areas;(3) characterize the spatial variation of soil CO_2 efflux across the different sites of the two areas,and(4) identify the relationships between soil CO_2 effiux and soil temperature(T_s) as well as soil water content(W_s) in the two areas.
The dissertation consists of five chapters.The chapter one is literature review,and the chapter two through chapter five mainly are research results.The chapter two is the study results mainly on natural ecosystems including forest,shrub and grass lands and so on,and the soil respiration in 11 sites ranging in altitude from 829 to 1443 m with different soil properties,vegetation covers and slop orientation etc. in the Tianlong Mountain,one of the national natural reserve areas(N37°44′19″;E112°22′49″),was measured over two years from 2005 to 2006.The chapter three is on agricultural ecosystems(crop), and we measured the soil respiration over 1 year for 4 different land use covers to identify the relationships between soil respiration and environmental factors.The object of research in the chapter four is also on agricultural ecosystems,but the purpose is to understand the spatial variation in soil respiration in two different scales,middle and small scale.The chapter five is the study results we made in Copenhagen area for agricultural ecosystems whenⅠwas a visiting scholar in University of Copenhagen in 2003.In this chapter the soil respiration in different vegetation conditions was measured from February to December in 2003,with an aim to make comparison of soil respiration for different covers and the relationships between soil respiration and soil temperature,and to understand the spatial variation in soil respiration in different vegetation covers.The main results are as follows:
1) The soil respiration in the Tianlong Mountain area showed a distinct seasonal variation with the low values in winter and spring and the high values in middle summer,and the seasonal variation of soil respiration in 11 sites could be described by a three-parameters Gaussian equation.The soil respiration rate was,3.92,4.66,4.40,3.01,3.70,3.88,4.00,4.72,5.21,4.52,2.57μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1) in 2005,and 2.33,2.96,1.93,2.35,2.70,2.89,2.79,3.39,3.08,3.23,1.83μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) in 2006.The overall means of soil respiration across 11 sites were 3.92 and 2.68μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),in 2005 and 2006, respectively,and were different between two years.
For most of the sites,the correlation between soil respiration(R_s) and soil temperature(T_s) over 10 cm depth was significant,which could be described by linear,exponential and Lloyd & Taylor equations.T_s explained 28-88%of the seasonal changes of R_s using the three kinds of equations.When the soils were in the drought-affected condition,the controlling of T_s over R_s was less.The correlation parameters of R_s to W_s increased when the measured R_s were normalized to 10℃T_s,and the W_s explained 15-71%of seasonal changes of R_s.When the soil temperature was low the controlling of W_s over R_s was less than that of T_s.In most of the time over the season the combined controlling of T_s and W_s over R_s was existed.The effect of both the T_s and W_s on R_s was different for the 11 sites,and there were more effect of W_s on R_s than that of T_s on R_s for these sites at which water holding capacity(WHC) is low.In compared with the soil temperature-based or soil water-based one variable model the twovariable models integrating T_s and W_s into one equation were better to predict their relation between R_s with both the T_s and W_s,the both variables could explain 55-86%of soil respiration variation over the season.
The Q_(10),which is called temperature sensitivity of R_s,and R_(10),which represents the respiration rate at a soil temperature of 10℃was different for the 11 sites.The Q_(10) values ranged from 1.80 to 4.94 and the R_(10) from 1.47 to 4.75μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1).The mean values of Q_(10) and R_(10) in our studied sites are 3.14 and 3.54μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),respectively,and are in the range of published values by other researchers.The overall annual mean soil CO_2 efflux,which is the daily-weighted monthly mean R_s multiplied by the respective day numbers of the month,was from 654.9 to 1440.5 g C m~(-2) among 11 sites in 2005 from April to December,and 581.2 to 1075.3 g C m~(-2) in 2006 from March to December. The mean CO_2 efflux across the 11 sites was 1068.6 g C m~(-2) in 2005 and 850 g C m~(-2) in 2006, respectively.
2) The soil respiration of agricultural ecosystems in 4 kinds of land cover in Taiyuan basin showed a clear seasonally changes over the season,with the lower values about 1μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) in January, February,March,as well as in November and December,with the higher values more than 10μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) in July and August.The higher values during the summer months showed a fluctuation because of the influence of environmental factors.The daily-weighted mean soil respiration from January to December was 3.54±2.6,4.43±3.99,3.95±3.58,3.84±2.93μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),respectively,in shrub plantation,grass land,medicinal herb land and crop land.There was no difference of soil respiration among 4 sites.The correlation of linear,exponential and Lloyd & Taylor equations of R_s to T_s was all significant(P＜0.05),but the R~2 from different equation was different,the highest one is from Lloyd & Taylor equation and the lowest is from linear equation.When the soil water is in no drought-stress condition(here the definition criteria is that soil water content is more than 1/3 of WHC) the soil temperature explained 40,23,33,29%of the soil respiration variation,respectively,for shrub plantation,grass land,medicinal herb land and crop land,for linear equation;56,45,62,41%for exponential equation and 60,56,69,44%for Lloyd & Taylor equation.
Comparison with the results from Tianlong mountain area,soil water content has more influence on soil respiration.The correlation of R_s to W_s for linear equation was better than that for exponential one,but when the soil respiration was normalized to 10℃the R~2 from both the equation showed less difference,ranging from 37 to 64%for linear one and 39 to 61%for exponential one.Furthermore,the two-variable models including both T_s and W_s variable could be used accurately to explain the R_s variation over the season,with the R~2 ranging from 52 to 82%,an obvious increment comparing with those values from single-variable models.
The 24-h measurement of soil respiration in June,August and October showed a diurnal variation of R_s,with the higher values occurring between 11:00-15:00,and the lower values at about 6 o'clock in the morning.The correlation of the diurnal R_s and Ts was not significant on most of measurement days for 4 kinds of land use.When the mean value of R_s measured between 8 h-12 h was used to represent the 24-h mean value the error is about 10%larger than actual R_s.According to all measurements the annual CO_2 efflux from the soils were,1227,1732,1509 and 1477 g C m~(-2) a~(-1) for shrub plantation, grass land,medicinal herb land and crop land respectively.The amount of CO_2 effiux from May to October was 996.3,1361.1,1300.7 and 1191.4 g C m~(-2),which were larger than the values we measured in Tianlong mountain area.
3) Significantly spatial variations of R_s existed at different scales,either between-sites or withinsite. In the northern Taiyuan basin,the measurements of soil respiration of 42 sites(among them including 23 crop fields and the others being grass land,waste land etc.) in July and October showed that spatial variation in R_s in this area existed.The variation of R_s indicated by the coefficent of variation(CV) ranged from 25-50%.The correlation of R_s to T_s at spatial scale was significant only in June when the soil moisture was changed greatly among the all measurement sites.The CVs within-site spatial variation of R_s for two-time measurements in 3 measurement sites were,respectively,21,32, 39%in September and 40,46,58%in November.The CV was higher in November than those in September.The correlation of R_s to T_s,or to W_s was not significant for the measurements.Further studies are needed to understand the relations of soil respiration to soil variables,such as microbial population,root density and so on.
4) The soil respiration of agricultural ecosystem in Copenhagen area of Denmark also showed a seasonal variation with the highest value of 5.77μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) occurring in July and the lowest value of 0.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) appearing in February.The trend was in accordance with the seasonal changes in soil respiration in our above research areas.The correlations of seasonal variation in soil respiration to day number of the year in winter wheat could be described by a three-parameter Gaussian equation.The mean CO_2 efflux for 18 measurements between February and December from the soil in winter wheat was 2.21±1.45μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),and 2.39±1.50μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) from April to October. The CO_2 efflux values were less than the values we observed in most of the sites in our study area,but nearly equalled the value in the site of bare land in Tianlong maintain area.When there was no water stress in the soil,the soil temperature explained 68%of soil respiration variation.The annual amount of soil CO_2 efflux from the winter wheat was 655.5 g C m~(-2) a~(-1).
The soil CO_2 efflux between April and December under 4 different kinds of land cover showed that the soil CO_2 efflux were,2.71±1.74μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) for winter wheat land,3.90±2.47μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) for fallow grass land,2.65±1.24μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),for forage grass land and 1.54±0.91μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) for flower land.The correlation of R_s to T_s for 4 separate sites was significant,and the temperature explained 75%,82%,86%and 45%of variation in soil respiration in winter wheat land, fallow grass land,forage grass land and flower land,respectively.The Q_(10) values calculated from the soil respiration measurements of the 4 sites were 3.16,2.87,2.04 and 2.09 in winter wheat land,fallow grass land,forage grass land and flower land,respectively,and the R_(10) were 2.32,3.88,2.16 and 1.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),respectively.The amount of soil CO_2 efflux between April to December was 655.5, 1129,835.4 and 374.6 g C m~(-2),respectively,in winter wheat land,fallow grass land,forage grass land and flower land.Both Q_(10) and R_(10) were in a range comparable with those measured in our other research sites.There were a spatial variation of soil respiration in winter wheat and grassland in Copenhagen area of Denmark,and the CVs of soil respiration in Auguest ranged from 30 to 70%,with the lager ones of CV appearing in winter wheat rather than in grassland.
论文分为5章。第1章为引言,第2-5章为主要研究内容。第2章以研究自然生态系统(森林、灌丛、草地等)条件下的土壤呼吸规律为目的,在太原天龙山国家自然保护区范围内对11个样地(不同位置、不同植被、不同立地条件)的土壤呼吸与环境因子关系进行了两年的研究;第3章以农业生态系统为研究对象,对4种土地利用类型的土壤呼吸与环境因子关系进行了为期一年的研究;第4章的研究对象仍然是农业生态系统,但是研究以比较中、小尺度农田与其他利用类型土壤呼吸的空间异质特点为主要目的,研究两个尺度下土壤呼吸的空间变化;第5章以丹麦哥本哈根地区的农业生态系统(农作物和牧草地等)为研究对象,比较了4种土地利用方式的土壤呼吸及其与土壤温度、水分的关系以及较大尺度的土壤呼吸空间变化特征。主要研究结果如下:
1)太原天龙山地区的土壤呼吸具有明显的季节变化特点,冬、春季较低,夏秋季较高,11个样地土壤呼吸的季节变化与天数的关系均可用高斯3参数方程表示。2005年4-12月(部分样地为5-12月)样地1到样地11土壤呼吸的平均值分别为:3.92,4.66,4.40,3.01,3.70,3.88,4.00,4.72,5.21,4.52,2.57μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1);2006年11个样地的土壤呼吸平均值分别为:2.33,2.96,1.93,2.35,2.70,2.89,2.79,3.39,3.08,3.23,1.83μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。2005年和2006年11个样地的土壤呼吸总平均值分别为3.92和2.68μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。
对大多数样地而言,土壤呼吸与10 cm深度土壤温度的关系显著。土壤呼吸与土壤温度之间的关系可用直线、指数和Lloyd & Taylor方程表达。土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的28-88%。土壤受干旱胁迫时,土壤温度的作用明显降低。土壤呼吸与0-10 cm深度土壤水分的关系次之,可用直线或指数关系表达。标准化后的土壤呼吸与土壤水分的相关性增加,土壤水分可解释土壤呼吸变化的比例在15-71%。土壤温度较低时,土壤水分的作用亦明显减小。大多数时段土壤温度和土壤水分对土壤呼吸的作用同时存在。但是,土壤温度和土壤水分对土壤呼吸的影响在11个样地不完全相同,在土壤持水能力较差的样地,土壤水分对土壤呼吸的作用大于土壤温度的作用。与单因子模型相比,把土壤水分和土壤温度结合在一起的复合模型可以更好的预测土壤呼吸。土壤温度和土壤水分一起可解释土壤呼吸变化的55-86%。
11个样地土壤呼吸的温度敏感性指数(Q_(10))和土壤温度10℃时的基础土壤呼吸值(R_(10))不同,2005年Q_(10)值从1.80到4.94,2006年Q_(10)值从1.78到5.91;R_(10)在1.47-4.75μmol CO_2 m~(12)s~(-1)之间。Q_(10)、R_(10)的平均值分别为3.14和3.54μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1),在其他研究者报道的范围之内。11个样地的年土壤呼吸总量在654.9-1440.5 gC m~(-2)(2005年),581.2-1075.3 g C m~(-2)(2006年)之间。2005年和2006年天龙山自然生态系统11个样地的土壤呼吸总量平均值分别为1068.6和850 g C m~(-2)。
2)太原盆地4种农田生态系统的土壤呼吸同样具有明显的季节变化特征,最小值出现在1、2、3以及11、12月份,在1μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)附近,最大值超过10μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),主要出现在夏季的7、8月份。受环境因子影响,土壤呼吸具有明显的波动特点,尤其是在夏季。4种土地利用方式土壤呼吸的加权平均值分别为,柠条林地3.54±2.61μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),草地4.43±3.99μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1),药材地3.95±3.58μmol CO_2m~(-2)s~(-1),玉米地3.84±4-2.93μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1)。4种土地利用条件下土壤呼吸均值差异不显著。土壤呼吸与土壤温度的直线关系、指数关系以及Lloyd& Taylor函数关系均达显著水平,但是各拟合方程得到的R~2值不同,直线型R~2值最低,Lloyd & Taylor函数的R~2值最高。在没有土壤水分胁迫的条件下(土壤水分大于田间持水量的1/3为标准),土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的比重(%)柠条林地、草地、药材地和玉米地分别为,直线:40,23,33,29;指数方程:56,45,62,41;Lloyd & Taylor函数:60,56,69,44。
与天龙山地区的结果相比,在农田生态系统中土壤水分对土壤呼吸有较大影响。土壤呼吸与土壤水分的直线关系好于指数关系。但是将土壤呼吸标准化到10℃时的土壤呼吸与土壤水分的关系分析表明,直线方程和指数方程的R~2值差异不大,分别在37-64%和39-61%之间。同样,用土壤温度和土壤水分的混合模型(双变量模型)预测土壤呼吸的准确性增加,土壤温度和土壤水分可以解释土壤呼吸变化的52-82%,明显大于单因子模型的R~2值。
6、8和10月份3次24 h的土壤呼吸测定表明,4种土地利用方式的土壤呼吸均具有较明显的日变化特点,最大值出现在11:00-15:00之间,最低值在凌晨6:00左右。土壤呼吸的日变化与土壤温度的日变化的关系多数情况下不显著。8:00-12:00的土壤呼吸的平均值比24小时土壤呼吸的平均值大10%。用我们1-12月份共33次的测定数据计算,柠条地、草地、药材地、玉米地的年土壤呼吸总量依次为:1227、1732、1509和1477 g C m~(-2)。5-10月份土壤呼吸总量分别为柠条地996.3 gC m~(-2),草地1361.1 g C m~(-2),药材地1300.7 g C m~-2)和玉米地1191.4 g C m~(-2)。
3)无论在区域尺度上还是在观测小区尺度上,土壤呼吸均存在明显的空间变化。2005年7月和10月份两次对太原盆地北部区域42个样地(其中玉米地23个,其他地类19个)的土壤呼吸测定结果表明,土壤呼吸具有明显的空间变化特点,变异系数在25-50%;土壤呼吸的空间变化与土壤温度和土壤水分的关系只是在土壤水分差异较大的7月份显著。在观测小区尺度内3个样地的2次测定(9月和11月份)中,3个样地土壤呼吸的变异系数都较大,9月份分别为21,32和39%,11月份分别为40,46和58%。9月份的变异系数小于11月的变异系数,但是9月份土壤呼吸的平均值和标准差显著大于11月。小区尺度内土壤呼吸与土壤温度和土壤水分的关系的相关性较差。对于土壤呼吸空间变异的原因仍有待进一步研究。
4)丹麦农业生态系统的土壤呼吸同样具有明显的季节变化特点,夏季土壤呼吸较高、春冬季较低,土壤呼吸最低值在2月为0.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),最大值在7月份为5.77μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1);与太原地区的土壤呼吸的季节变化相一致。土壤呼吸随日期变化的关系同样可以用高斯3参数方程表达。冬小麦地1-12月土壤呼吸18次测定的平均值为2.21±1.45μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1);4-10月为2.39±1.50μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),小于天龙山地区的土壤呼吸平均值,接近于天龙山裸地的土壤呼吸平均值。在没有土壤水分胁迫情况下的土壤呼吸与土壤温度的关系非常明显,土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的68%。冬小麦地1-12月土壤CO_2释放量为655.5 g C m~(-2)a~(-1)。
4-12月4种土地利用方式的土壤呼吸测定结果分别为:冬小麦地2.71±1.74μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),休闲草地3.90±2.47μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),牧草地2.65±1.24μmol CO_2m~(-2) s~(-1),花草地1.54±0.91μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1);4个样地土壤呼吸与土壤温度的关系显著,土壤温度可以解释土壤呼吸变化的比重分别为75%,82%,86%和45%;土壤呼吸的温度敏感性指数(Q_(10))分别为3.16,2.87,2.04和2.09;土壤温度10℃时的基础土壤呼吸值(R_(10))分别为2.02,3.53,2.11和1.23μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),用Lloyd&Taylor函数计算的4个样地的R_(10)值分别为2.32,3.88,2.16和1.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。1-12月冬小麦地、休闲草地、牧草地和花草地的土壤CO_2释放量分别为655.5、1129、835.4和374.6 g C m~(-2)。用4个样地的全部数据计算得到的Q_(10)、R_(10)值分别为2.37和2.32μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1)。Q_(10)和R_(10)值均接近于我们在太原天龙山地区大多数样地的计算结果。本地区土壤呼吸同样存在明显的空间变化,8月份3天测定的冬小麦和草地土壤呼吸的变异系数从30%到70%,草地的变异系数小于冬小麦地的土壤呼吸的变异系数。
The soil respiration(R_s) in different ecosystems were measured,respectively,in Taiyuan,China, and in Copenhagen,Denmark,using LI-COR-6400 portable photosynthesis system(LI-COR, Environmental Division,Lincoln,NE,USA) connected to a LI-COR 6400-09 soil chamber with an area of 71.6 cm~2.The objectives of this study were to:(1) examine the seasonal patterns of soil CO_2 effiux in the two areas to understand whether there is any difference in soil respiration between the two areas;(2) estimate the amount of soil CO_2 effiux from the two areas;(3) characterize the spatial variation of soil CO_2 efflux across the different sites of the two areas,and(4) identify the relationships between soil CO_2 effiux and soil temperature(T_s) as well as soil water content(W_s) in the two areas.
The dissertation consists of five chapters.The chapter one is literature review,and the chapter two through chapter five mainly are research results.The chapter two is the study results mainly on natural ecosystems including forest,shrub and grass lands and so on,and the soil respiration in 11 sites ranging in altitude from 829 to 1443 m with different soil properties,vegetation covers and slop orientation etc. in the Tianlong Mountain,one of the national natural reserve areas(N37°44′19″;E112°22′49″),was measured over two years from 2005 to 2006.The chapter three is on agricultural ecosystems(crop), and we measured the soil respiration over 1 year for 4 different land use covers to identify the relationships between soil respiration and environmental factors.The object of research in the chapter four is also on agricultural ecosystems,but the purpose is to understand the spatial variation in soil respiration in two different scales,middle and small scale.The chapter five is the study results we made in Copenhagen area for agricultural ecosystems whenⅠwas a visiting scholar in University of Copenhagen in 2003.In this chapter the soil respiration in different vegetation conditions was measured from February to December in 2003,with an aim to make comparison of soil respiration for different covers and the relationships between soil respiration and soil temperature,and to understand the spatial variation in soil respiration in different vegetation covers.The main results are as follows:
1) The soil respiration in the Tianlong Mountain area showed a distinct seasonal variation with the low values in winter and spring and the high values in middle summer,and the seasonal variation of soil respiration in 11 sites could be described by a three-parameters Gaussian equation.The soil respiration rate was,3.92,4.66,4.40,3.01,3.70,3.88,4.00,4.72,5.21,4.52,2.57μmol CO_2 m~(-2)s~(-1) in 2005,and 2.33,2.96,1.93,2.35,2.70,2.89,2.79,3.39,3.08,3.23,1.83μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) in 2006.The overall means of soil respiration across 11 sites were 3.92 and 2.68μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),in 2005 and 2006, respectively,and were different between two years.
For most of the sites,the correlation between soil respiration(R_s) and soil temperature(T_s) over 10 cm depth was significant,which could be described by linear,exponential and Lloyd & Taylor equations.T_s explained 28-88%of the seasonal changes of R_s using the three kinds of equations.When the soils were in the drought-affected condition,the controlling of T_s over R_s was less.The correlation parameters of R_s to W_s increased when the measured R_s were normalized to 10℃T_s,and the W_s explained 15-71%of seasonal changes of R_s.When the soil temperature was low the controlling of W_s over R_s was less than that of T_s.In most of the time over the season the combined controlling of T_s and W_s over R_s was existed.The effect of both the T_s and W_s on R_s was different for the 11 sites,and there were more effect of W_s on R_s than that of T_s on R_s for these sites at which water holding capacity(WHC) is low.In compared with the soil temperature-based or soil water-based one variable model the twovariable models integrating T_s and W_s into one equation were better to predict their relation between R_s with both the T_s and W_s,the both variables could explain 55-86%of soil respiration variation over the season.
The Q_(10),which is called temperature sensitivity of R_s,and R_(10),which represents the respiration rate at a soil temperature of 10℃was different for the 11 sites.The Q_(10) values ranged from 1.80 to 4.94 and the R_(10) from 1.47 to 4.75μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1).The mean values of Q_(10) and R_(10) in our studied sites are 3.14 and 3.54μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),respectively,and are in the range of published values by other researchers.The overall annual mean soil CO_2 efflux,which is the daily-weighted monthly mean R_s multiplied by the respective day numbers of the month,was from 654.9 to 1440.5 g C m~(-2) among 11 sites in 2005 from April to December,and 581.2 to 1075.3 g C m~(-2) in 2006 from March to December. The mean CO_2 efflux across the 11 sites was 1068.6 g C m~(-2) in 2005 and 850 g C m~(-2) in 2006, respectively.
2) The soil respiration of agricultural ecosystems in 4 kinds of land cover in Taiyuan basin showed a clear seasonally changes over the season,with the lower values about 1μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) in January, February,March,as well as in November and December,with the higher values more than 10μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) in July and August.The higher values during the summer months showed a fluctuation because of the influence of environmental factors.The daily-weighted mean soil respiration from January to December was 3.54±2.6,4.43±3.99,3.95±3.58,3.84±2.93μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),respectively,in shrub plantation,grass land,medicinal herb land and crop land.There was no difference of soil respiration among 4 sites.The correlation of linear,exponential and Lloyd & Taylor equations of R_s to T_s was all significant(P＜0.05),but the R~2 from different equation was different,the highest one is from Lloyd & Taylor equation and the lowest is from linear equation.When the soil water is in no drought-stress condition(here the definition criteria is that soil water content is more than 1/3 of WHC) the soil temperature explained 40,23,33,29%of the soil respiration variation,respectively,for shrub plantation,grass land,medicinal herb land and crop land,for linear equation;56,45,62,41%for exponential equation and 60,56,69,44%for Lloyd & Taylor equation.
Comparison with the results from Tianlong mountain area,soil water content has more influence on soil respiration.The correlation of R_s to W_s for linear equation was better than that for exponential one,but when the soil respiration was normalized to 10℃the R~2 from both the equation showed less difference,ranging from 37 to 64%for linear one and 39 to 61%for exponential one.Furthermore,the two-variable models including both T_s and W_s variable could be used accurately to explain the R_s variation over the season,with the R~2 ranging from 52 to 82%,an obvious increment comparing with those values from single-variable models.
The 24-h measurement of soil respiration in June,August and October showed a diurnal variation of R_s,with the higher values occurring between 11:00-15:00,and the lower values at about 6 o'clock in the morning.The correlation of the diurnal R_s and Ts was not significant on most of measurement days for 4 kinds of land use.When the mean value of R_s measured between 8 h-12 h was used to represent the 24-h mean value the error is about 10%larger than actual R_s.According to all measurements the annual CO_2 efflux from the soils were,1227,1732,1509 and 1477 g C m~(-2) a~(-1) for shrub plantation, grass land,medicinal herb land and crop land respectively.The amount of CO_2 effiux from May to October was 996.3,1361.1,1300.7 and 1191.4 g C m~(-2),which were larger than the values we measured in Tianlong mountain area.
3) Significantly spatial variations of R_s existed at different scales,either between-sites or withinsite. In the northern Taiyuan basin,the measurements of soil respiration of 42 sites(among them including 23 crop fields and the others being grass land,waste land etc.) in July and October showed that spatial variation in R_s in this area existed.The variation of R_s indicated by the coefficent of variation(CV) ranged from 25-50%.The correlation of R_s to T_s at spatial scale was significant only in June when the soil moisture was changed greatly among the all measurement sites.The CVs within-site spatial variation of R_s for two-time measurements in 3 measurement sites were,respectively,21,32, 39%in September and 40,46,58%in November.The CV was higher in November than those in September.The correlation of R_s to T_s,or to W_s was not significant for the measurements.Further studies are needed to understand the relations of soil respiration to soil variables,such as microbial population,root density and so on.
4) The soil respiration of agricultural ecosystem in Copenhagen area of Denmark also showed a seasonal variation with the highest value of 5.77μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) occurring in July and the lowest value of 0.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) appearing in February.The trend was in accordance with the seasonal changes in soil respiration in our above research areas.The correlations of seasonal variation in soil respiration to day number of the year in winter wheat could be described by a three-parameter Gaussian equation.The mean CO_2 efflux for 18 measurements between February and December from the soil in winter wheat was 2.21±1.45μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),and 2.39±1.50μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) from April to October. The CO_2 efflux values were less than the values we observed in most of the sites in our study area,but nearly equalled the value in the site of bare land in Tianlong maintain area.When there was no water stress in the soil,the soil temperature explained 68%of soil respiration variation.The annual amount of soil CO_2 efflux from the winter wheat was 655.5 g C m~(-2) a~(-1).
The soil CO_2 efflux between April and December under 4 different kinds of land cover showed that the soil CO_2 efflux were,2.71±1.74μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) for winter wheat land,3.90±2.47μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) for fallow grass land,2.65±1.24μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),for forage grass land and 1.54±0.91μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1) for flower land.The correlation of R_s to T_s for 4 separate sites was significant,and the temperature explained 75%,82%,86%and 45%of variation in soil respiration in winter wheat land, fallow grass land,forage grass land and flower land,respectively.The Q_(10) values calculated from the soil respiration measurements of the 4 sites were 3.16,2.87,2.04 and 2.09 in winter wheat land,fallow grass land,forage grass land and flower land,respectively,and the R_(10) were 2.32,3.88,2.16 and 1.22μmol CO_2 m~(-2) s~(-1),respectively.The amount of soil CO_2 efflux between April to December was 655.5, 1129,835.4 and 374.6 g C m~(-2),respectively,in winter wheat land,fallow grass land,forage grass land and flower land.Both Q_(10) and R_(10) were in a range comparable with those measured in our other research sites.There were a spatial variation of soil respiration in winter wheat and grassland in Copenhagen area of Denmark,and the CVs of soil respiration in Auguest ranged from 30 to 70%,with the lager ones of CV appearing in winter wheat rather than in grassland.
引文
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