北极高纬度苔原温室气体源汇研究
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摘要
北极高纬度地区是全球变化最为敏感的地区之一,也是全球增温剧烈的地区,大面积冻土融化使苔原土壤微区环境发生了很大变化,有利于土壤微生物的活动和温室气体的产生。另外,北极高纬度地区的濒海苔原,是全球重要的海鸟栖息地,海鸟通过捕食活将海洋中的碳氮磷等养分元素转移到陆地苔原,海鸟活动与鸟粪的沉降强烈影响着当地苔原土壤的理化性质,对高纬度北极苔原温室气体的源汇过程产生了重要影响,但是目前关于北极高纬度苔原温室气体通量的研究很少有文献报道,尤其是海鸟活动对北极苔原温室气体通量的影响研究还未开展。因此,在全球变化的背景下,研究海鸟活动与环境因子对高纬度北极苔原温室气体产生与排放过程的影响尤为重要。本文采用密闭箱法对北极高纬度地区的新奥尔松(Ny-Alesund)苔原温室气体(C02. CH4和N2O)通量的时空变化规律进行了观测研究,探讨了海鸟活动和环境因子对这些气体通量的影响；通过模拟实验,详细研究了冻融循环过程对北极苔原土壤温室气体产生速率的影响；此外,还分析了海洋大气中CO2浓度及其稳定同位素值的空间分布规律及其影响因素等。主要研究内容和结果分述如下：
(1)北极新奥尔松地区近地面温室气体浓度的时空变化规律
在2008和2009年夏季,对北极新奥尔松地区(Ny-Alesund)不同生态区包括鸟类保护区、普通苔原、废弃的矿区和人类活动考察站等区域的近地面CO2、 CH4和N20浓度进行了监测。结果表明：2008年夏季鸟类保护区苔原C02和N20平均浓度比2009年高约30ppm和25ppb;而CH4浓度比2009年低约700ppb。普通苔原CO2平均浓度2009年比2008年高约30ppm, CH4平均浓度低约700ppb, N2O浓度低约11ppb。温室气体浓度的年际差异可能是由气象条件和地表覆盖状况的差异所引起的。综合不同苔原区域：新奥尔松地区CO2和CH4浓度高于背景大气浓度,而N2O低于背景大气浓度。从海鸟活动高密度区到海鸟活动边缘区CO2浓度增大；且鸟类保护区苔原C02浓度低于普通苔原,N20浓度高于普通苔原。温室气体浓度的空间变化主要是由于海鸟活动和鸟粪增加了土壤营养元素,影响苔藓植被的发育情况并改变上垫面状况。矿区苔原和站区苔原温室气体浓度的变化主要受人类活动的影响。
(2)北极新奥尔松地区苔原温室气体通量的时空变异规律及其影响因素
采用密闭箱法对北极新奥尔松地区(Ny-Alesund)不同苔原区域包括鸟类活动区苔原、普通苔原、人类活动区(矿区苔原和站区苔原)的N2O和CH4通量进行了观测,发现鸟类活动区苔原CH4和N20通量受控于海鸟活动强度的变化。强海鸟活动区CH4和N2O排放高于中等海鸟活动区和弱海鸟活动区。强海鸟活动区CO2净通量(NEE)和光合速率也显著高于中等海鸟活动区和弱海鸟活动区,表明鸟类活动显著增加了苔原生态系统净通量(NEE)和光合速率；而平均呼吸速率差异不明显。普通海滩苔原和矿区苔原整体上表现为C02排放源。海鸟活动区苔原N2O和CH4平均通量分别为18.3±3.6μgN2Om-2h-1和53.5±20.3μgCH4m-2h-1;而普通海滩苔原是弱的N2O源(8.3±13.2μgN2Om-2h-1)和强的CH4汇(-82.8±22.3μgCH4m-2h-1)。矿区苔原和站区苔原是CH4和N2O的排放源,特别是N2O通量比普通海滩苔原和鸟类活动区苔原高一个数量级。统计分析表明：C02净通量(NEE)和呼吸速率与土壤温度呈正相关。北极高纬度苔原土壤总碳(TC)和土壤水分含量是影响苔原CH4通量的重要因素。强海鸟活动区土壤总氮(TN)、氨氮(NH4+-N)、硝氮(NO3--N)、总磷(TP)和总硫(TS)平均含量比非海鸟活动区高约一到两个数量级,说明海鸟活动和海鸟粪便的沉降强烈地影响了此苔原区域土壤的化学性质。鸟类保护区苔原N20通量与TN、NH4+-N和NO3--N含量显著正相关,表明海鸟的N输入和大气N沉降是控制苔原N2O通量空间变化的主要因素。N20通量与NH4+-N显著正相关(r=0.66,p<0.001),说明NH4+-N含量是高纬度北极苔原土壤N20排放率强有力的指示剂。
(3)冻融循环对北极苔原土壤温室气体产生速率的影响
选取南北极普通苔原、北极鸟类活动区、南极企鹅与海豹活动区等苔原的土壤样品以及鸟粪和苔藓样品,开展冻融循环模拟实验,探究冻结温度、冻融频率和水分含量对温室气体产生速率的影响,发现冻结的苔原土壤温室气体产生速率较低,融化阶段产生速率急剧升高。冻融循环过程中,苔原土壤-20℃冻结温室气体的产生速率和累积排放量比-10℃冻结时高,尤其是CH4累积排放量几乎均为-10℃冻结时的2倍；五周期冻融循环中温室气体的累积排放量明显高于三周期,但随着冻融循环次数的增加产生速率和每周期累计排放量几乎均呈减少的趋势。冻融循环实验中,企鹅粪土CH4和CO2累积排放量均比其它土壤样品高约2-3个数量级；海豹活动区和北极鸟类保护区苔原土壤N20累积排放量均比其它土壤样品高约1个数量级。不同水分含量前处理(0、2、5、10和20m1)的冻融循环实验中：土壤含水率的变化对CH4产生速率的影响很小；C02累积排放量随着土壤含水率的增加而减小；N2O累积排放量随水量的增加而增加,普通苔原土壤的最大累积排放量是在5ml添水处理后,鸟类保护区土壤最大累积排放量是在10ml添水处理后。
(4)上海—南极海洋边界层大气CO2稳定同位素空间变化特征
在中国第24次南极科学考察期间,采用Tedlar气袋采集了“雪龙号”考察船航线上海洋边界层大气样品以及东南极米洛半岛近地面大气样品。在室内采用Thermo Finnigan MAT-253同位素质谱仪对气体样品中CO2稳定同位素组成进行了测量,并分析了其δ13C与δ18O的空间变化规律,结果表明：上海—南极海洋边界层大气CO2的δ13C(-9.08%o～-7.09%o)与δ18O(-2.24%o-2.65%o)平均值分别为-8.37‰±0.5‰和0.03‰±1.4‰。在33.2°N～69.2°S随纬度的变化,δ13C与δ18O略呈增加趋势,增加率分别为0.002‰和0.005‰/纬度。大气中CO2浓度与δ13C呈显著负相关,与δ180呈正相关；而δ13C与δ180呈显著负相关。米洛半岛大气CO2的δ13C和δ18O平均分别为-8.08‰±0.8‰和-0.49‰4±0.7‰,接近于海洋边界层大气CO2同位素值。分析讨论了影响海洋边界层大气CO2的δ13C与δ180空间变化的因素,提出海洋边界层大气CO2稳定同位素组成是海洋CO2源汇强度变化灵敏的指示剂。本文提供了全球大区域海洋边界层大气CO2的同位素资料,有助于定量评估全球与区域海洋大气CO2的净收支。
The High Arctic regions are very sensitive to response and feedback to global warming, and in which permafrost thaws and alters microsites environment in tundra and stimulates microorganism activity to generate and emit greenhouse gases. In addition, major seabird colonies are typically found in high Arctic coastal areas. Seabird activity such as prey and trample transfers carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus from marine to terrestrial tundra ecosystem. Seabird activity and bird dropping affect physical and chemical properties in tundra soil, which further have important impact on the processes of sources and sinks of greenhouse gases in High Arctic. However, little research on CO2, N2O and CH4fluxes has been conducted at High Arctic tundra, such as at Svalbard, especially, effects of seabird activity on greenhouse gases in tundra. Therefore it is very important to study the influence of seabird activity and environment factors on production and emission of greenhouse gases in High Arctic tundra ecosystems During the4th and5th Chinese Arctic Research Expedition, temporal and spatial variations of greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O and CH4) fluxes and their influence factors were investigated from tundra ecosystems in Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago located in the High Arctic using the close chamber method. The objects of this paper were to evaluate the potential importance of CO2, N2O and CH4emissions from the tundra ecotopes affected by seabird activity and meteorological factor in the High Arctic region. Simulation experiments were designed and carried out to discuss the influence of freezing-thawing cycles on the emission rates of greenhouse gases in High Arctic tundra soil. In addition, spatial variation of CO2concentration and its isotopic compositions were and their affecting factors were also analyzed in the marine atmosphere. The main research contents are as follows:
(1) Spatial and temporal variations of atmospheric of CO2, CH4and N2O concentration in NY-Alesund, High Arctic
During the summers of2008and2009, gas samples were collected from in the different ecologic areas, including bird sanctuary tundra, including bird sanctuary, beach tundra, mining area, human activity area, etc. in Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, Norway. The concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in these gas samples were determined by gas chromatography in the laboratory, the spatial and temporal variations of their concentrations were analyzed, and the factors affecting their concentrations were discussed in this study. The diurnal mean CO2and N2O concentrations in summer2008were about30ppm and25ppb higher than those in summer2009at the sites in the bird sanctuary. The mean CO2concentration at the sites in beach tundra were30ppm higher in summer2008than in summer2009while the mean N2O concentration was11ppb lower in summer2008than in summer2009. The CH4concentration in summer2008was0.7ppm lower than that in summer2009at the bird sanctuary, vice versus for the sites in the beach tundra. The interannual variation of greenhouse gases concentrations might be related to environmental conditions. High seabird activity sites showed lower CO2concentrations than medium and low seabird activity sites in bird sanctuary. Overall the mean concentration of CO2in the bird sanctuary was lower than that in the beach tundra, but higher N2O concentration occurred there, indicating that CO2uptake and N2O emission might be associated with seabird activities. The deposition of seabird guano supplied much organic carbon, nitrogen into local soils, and further stimulated tundra vegetation growth, which might increase tundra CO2sink and N2O emission. Overall the mean concentrations of CO2and CH4in Ny-Alesund were higher than the mean background concentration monitored at Zeppelin Station, whereas the mean N2O concentration was lower than background concentration. In addition, the mining area and human activity areas around the base and airport did not show evidently higher atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4and N2O concentrations.
(2) Spatial and temporal variations of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane fluxes from High Arctic tundra in Svalbard, Norway
During the summers of2008and2009, net carbon dioxide, respiration rate, photosynthetic rate, net methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes were investigated from five tundra ecotopes:bird sanctuary tundra, normal lowland tundra, non-seabird colony tundra, the tundra in abandoned coal mine and the tundra in scientific bases in Ny-Alesund (79°55'N,11°56'E) of High Arctic, Svalbard. High seabird activity sites showed large N2O and CH4emissions and CO2uptakes while low N2O and CH4emission, even high N2O and CH4uptake and high CO2emission occurred at medium and low seabird activity sites. Photosynthetic rates decreased from high seabird activity area to low seabird activity, indicating seabird activity significantly increased atmosphere CO2uptake from local tundra ecosystems. The respiration rates had no significant differences between the observation sites. Normal lowland tundra and the tundra in abandoned coal mine were the CO2sources. Overall the mean fluxes were18.3±3.6μgN2Om-2h-1and53.5±20.3μgCH4m-2h-1from tundra bird sanctuary tundra whereas non-seabird colony tundra and normal lowland tundra represented a relatively weak N2O source (8.3±13.2μgN2Om-2h-1) and strong CH4sink (-82.8±22.3μgCH4m-2h-1). Tundra soils in the tundra in abandoned coal mine and the tundra in scientific bases showed high CH4emissions due to effects of human activities, whereas high CH4uptake or low emission occurred in the soils of normal lowland tundra and bird sanctuary tundra. The mean N2O fluxes from the tundra in abandoned coal mine and the tundra in scientific bases were one order of magnitude higher than those from normal lowland tundra and bird sanctuary tundra, indicating that human activities significantly increased N2O emissions from tundra soils. NEE were positively related to air temperature and ground temperature, with no significant correlation with precipitation and air humidity. The mean TN, NH4+-N, NO3--N, TP and TS concentrations in the soils of High seabird activity sites are one to two orders of magnitude higher than those in the soils of non-seabird colony tundra, indicating seabird activity was the strongest soil physical and chemical processes. Soil TC and soil water regime were important factors affecting CH4fluxes from tundra soils in High Arctic. A strong positive correlation between N2O flux and the contents of soil TN, NH4+-N and NO3--N in bird sanctuary tundra further confirms that seabird guano N inputs and atmospheric N (as NH3) deposition are the predominant factors controlling the spatial variability of tundra N2O fluxes. The N2O fluxes showed a significant positive correlation with soil NH4+-N contents (r=0.66, p<0.001) at all the observation sites although the fluxes weakly correlated with soil total nitrogen (TN) contents (r=0.35, p=0.09), indicating that NH4+-N content acted as a strong predictor for N2O emission rates in tundra soils.
(3) Impact of freezing-thawing cycles on emission rates of greenhouse gases from tundra soil in the Arctic
In this study, normal tundra soil of Arctic, moss, normal tundra soil of Antartic, bird sanctuary tundra soil, seabird ornithogenic, Seal colony tundra soil and Penguin guanos were collected from six tundra regions in Arctic and Antarctic, and experimentally subjected to three freezing-thawing cycles (FTCs). We investigated the effects of FTCs on the emissions of three GHGs N2O, CO2and CH4, with special focus on the effects of freezing temperature, frequency and water content. The GHG emission rates were extremely low in frozen tundra soils. However, there was a fast increase in the emission rates of three GHGs following thawing. The emission rates and their variations were different from different experimental processes and different tundra soils. The greenhouse gases emission rates were higher during FTCs when the freezing temperature was at-20℃than-10℃. Furthermore, accumulated greenhouse gases fluxes were higher from5FTCs than3FTCs with different emission rates in each FTCs. CO2and CH4emission rates from the soils impacted by penguin guano were two or three orders of magnitude higher than those from other tundra soils. N2O emissions fluxes were one order of magnitude from bird sanctuary tundra soil and Seal colony tundra soil larger than those from others. Added0,2,5,10and20ml deionized water to tundra soil and experienced3FTCs, the variation of CH4fluxes was smallest. However, CO2emissions rates decreased with adding more water into tundra soil. The variation of N2O emission rates increased with adding more water into tundra soil. Fluxes of greenhouse gases and its variation were affected by soil physical and chemical properties during freeze-thaw cycle. Greenhouse gases emission rates from tundra soil were significantly affected by freeze-thaw cycles in Arctic and Antarctic, especially C cycle of penguin activity tundra area and N cycle of the seal activity tundra area.
(4) Stable isotopes of carbon dioxide in the marine atmosphere along a hemispheric course from China to Antarctica
During the24th Chinese Antarctic Expedition, the air samples were collected at10:00and22:00(local times) along the north-south track of the ship "Xuelong" from Shanghai Harbor, China to Antarctica. Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and its isotopic compositions were measured in these samples. Mean CO2concentration at22:00(419.4±27.1ppm) was higher than that at10:00(392.7±20.0ppm), whereas δ13C-CO2values at22:00(-8.58±0.47%o) were lower than those at10:00(-8.23±0.49%o) in the marine atmosphere, indicating that the13C/12C ratio of the CO2might be associated with the photosynthetic uptake and respiration activity of terrestrial or marine organisms during the diurnal cycle. Overall the mean δ13C-and δ18O-CO2were-8.39±0.51‰and0.03±1.39‰, respectively, in the atmosphere from30°N to69°S. Atmospheric δ13C-and δ18O-CO2averaged-8.08±0.83%o and-0.49±0.66%o on Millor Peninsula of East Antarctica. A small but progressive increase in δ13C values with increasing latitudes southward was in good agreement with the expected trend. The enhanced CO2concentrations occurred in the atmosphere close to Eurasia continent, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, and the δ13C oscillations in the atmosphere of33°N-30°S agreed well with anthropogenic pollution from the adjacent countries. In the range of30°S-50°S, atmospheric CO2concentrations were generally low with a relatively stable value of δ13C and δ18O. A great difference of δ13C occurred between10:00and22:00following the pronounced change of CO2concentrations in the range of50°S-70°S, and atmospheric CO2was significantly depleted in13C in the Antarctic Convergence Zone. The δ13C significantly negatively correlated with δ18O-CO2, and they showed a significant negative and positive correlation with CO2concentrations. Our results indicated that the isotopic compositions of CO2in the marine atmosphere might be a sensitive indicator for the strength of CO2source and sink from the ocean.
(1)北极新奥尔松地区近地面温室气体浓度的时空变化规律
在2008和2009年夏季,对北极新奥尔松地区(Ny-Alesund)不同生态区包括鸟类保护区、普通苔原、废弃的矿区和人类活动考察站等区域的近地面CO2、 CH4和N20浓度进行了监测。结果表明：2008年夏季鸟类保护区苔原C02和N20平均浓度比2009年高约30ppm和25ppb;而CH4浓度比2009年低约700ppb。普通苔原CO2平均浓度2009年比2008年高约30ppm, CH4平均浓度低约700ppb, N2O浓度低约11ppb。温室气体浓度的年际差异可能是由气象条件和地表覆盖状况的差异所引起的。综合不同苔原区域：新奥尔松地区CO2和CH4浓度高于背景大气浓度,而N2O低于背景大气浓度。从海鸟活动高密度区到海鸟活动边缘区CO2浓度增大；且鸟类保护区苔原C02浓度低于普通苔原,N20浓度高于普通苔原。温室气体浓度的空间变化主要是由于海鸟活动和鸟粪增加了土壤营养元素,影响苔藓植被的发育情况并改变上垫面状况。矿区苔原和站区苔原温室气体浓度的变化主要受人类活动的影响。
(2)北极新奥尔松地区苔原温室气体通量的时空变异规律及其影响因素
采用密闭箱法对北极新奥尔松地区(Ny-Alesund)不同苔原区域包括鸟类活动区苔原、普通苔原、人类活动区(矿区苔原和站区苔原)的N2O和CH4通量进行了观测,发现鸟类活动区苔原CH4和N20通量受控于海鸟活动强度的变化。强海鸟活动区CH4和N2O排放高于中等海鸟活动区和弱海鸟活动区。强海鸟活动区CO2净通量(NEE)和光合速率也显著高于中等海鸟活动区和弱海鸟活动区,表明鸟类活动显著增加了苔原生态系统净通量(NEE)和光合速率；而平均呼吸速率差异不明显。普通海滩苔原和矿区苔原整体上表现为C02排放源。海鸟活动区苔原N2O和CH4平均通量分别为18.3±3.6μgN2Om-2h-1和53.5±20.3μgCH4m-2h-1;而普通海滩苔原是弱的N2O源(8.3±13.2μgN2Om-2h-1)和强的CH4汇(-82.8±22.3μgCH4m-2h-1)。矿区苔原和站区苔原是CH4和N2O的排放源,特别是N2O通量比普通海滩苔原和鸟类活动区苔原高一个数量级。统计分析表明：C02净通量(NEE)和呼吸速率与土壤温度呈正相关。北极高纬度苔原土壤总碳(TC)和土壤水分含量是影响苔原CH4通量的重要因素。强海鸟活动区土壤总氮(TN)、氨氮(NH4+-N)、硝氮(NO3--N)、总磷(TP)和总硫(TS)平均含量比非海鸟活动区高约一到两个数量级,说明海鸟活动和海鸟粪便的沉降强烈地影响了此苔原区域土壤的化学性质。鸟类保护区苔原N20通量与TN、NH4+-N和NO3--N含量显著正相关,表明海鸟的N输入和大气N沉降是控制苔原N2O通量空间变化的主要因素。N20通量与NH4+-N显著正相关(r=0.66,p<0.001),说明NH4+-N含量是高纬度北极苔原土壤N20排放率强有力的指示剂。
(3)冻融循环对北极苔原土壤温室气体产生速率的影响
选取南北极普通苔原、北极鸟类活动区、南极企鹅与海豹活动区等苔原的土壤样品以及鸟粪和苔藓样品,开展冻融循环模拟实验,探究冻结温度、冻融频率和水分含量对温室气体产生速率的影响,发现冻结的苔原土壤温室气体产生速率较低,融化阶段产生速率急剧升高。冻融循环过程中,苔原土壤-20℃冻结温室气体的产生速率和累积排放量比-10℃冻结时高,尤其是CH4累积排放量几乎均为-10℃冻结时的2倍；五周期冻融循环中温室气体的累积排放量明显高于三周期,但随着冻融循环次数的增加产生速率和每周期累计排放量几乎均呈减少的趋势。冻融循环实验中,企鹅粪土CH4和CO2累积排放量均比其它土壤样品高约2-3个数量级；海豹活动区和北极鸟类保护区苔原土壤N20累积排放量均比其它土壤样品高约1个数量级。不同水分含量前处理(0、2、5、10和20m1)的冻融循环实验中：土壤含水率的变化对CH4产生速率的影响很小；C02累积排放量随着土壤含水率的增加而减小；N2O累积排放量随水量的增加而增加,普通苔原土壤的最大累积排放量是在5ml添水处理后,鸟类保护区土壤最大累积排放量是在10ml添水处理后。
(4)上海—南极海洋边界层大气CO2稳定同位素空间变化特征
在中国第24次南极科学考察期间,采用Tedlar气袋采集了“雪龙号”考察船航线上海洋边界层大气样品以及东南极米洛半岛近地面大气样品。在室内采用Thermo Finnigan MAT-253同位素质谱仪对气体样品中CO2稳定同位素组成进行了测量,并分析了其δ13C与δ18O的空间变化规律,结果表明：上海—南极海洋边界层大气CO2的δ13C(-9.08%o～-7.09%o)与δ18O(-2.24%o-2.65%o)平均值分别为-8.37‰±0.5‰和0.03‰±1.4‰。在33.2°N～69.2°S随纬度的变化,δ13C与δ18O略呈增加趋势,增加率分别为0.002‰和0.005‰/纬度。大气中CO2浓度与δ13C呈显著负相关,与δ180呈正相关；而δ13C与δ180呈显著负相关。米洛半岛大气CO2的δ13C和δ18O平均分别为-8.08‰±0.8‰和-0.49‰4±0.7‰,接近于海洋边界层大气CO2同位素值。分析讨论了影响海洋边界层大气CO2的δ13C与δ180空间变化的因素,提出海洋边界层大气CO2稳定同位素组成是海洋CO2源汇强度变化灵敏的指示剂。本文提供了全球大区域海洋边界层大气CO2的同位素资料,有助于定量评估全球与区域海洋大气CO2的净收支。
The High Arctic regions are very sensitive to response and feedback to global warming, and in which permafrost thaws and alters microsites environment in tundra and stimulates microorganism activity to generate and emit greenhouse gases. In addition, major seabird colonies are typically found in high Arctic coastal areas. Seabird activity such as prey and trample transfers carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus from marine to terrestrial tundra ecosystem. Seabird activity and bird dropping affect physical and chemical properties in tundra soil, which further have important impact on the processes of sources and sinks of greenhouse gases in High Arctic. However, little research on CO2, N2O and CH4fluxes has been conducted at High Arctic tundra, such as at Svalbard, especially, effects of seabird activity on greenhouse gases in tundra. Therefore it is very important to study the influence of seabird activity and environment factors on production and emission of greenhouse gases in High Arctic tundra ecosystems During the4th and5th Chinese Arctic Research Expedition, temporal and spatial variations of greenhouse gases (CO2, N2O and CH4) fluxes and their influence factors were investigated from tundra ecosystems in Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago located in the High Arctic using the close chamber method. The objects of this paper were to evaluate the potential importance of CO2, N2O and CH4emissions from the tundra ecotopes affected by seabird activity and meteorological factor in the High Arctic region. Simulation experiments were designed and carried out to discuss the influence of freezing-thawing cycles on the emission rates of greenhouse gases in High Arctic tundra soil. In addition, spatial variation of CO2concentration and its isotopic compositions were and their affecting factors were also analyzed in the marine atmosphere. The main research contents are as follows:
(1) Spatial and temporal variations of atmospheric of CO2, CH4and N2O concentration in NY-Alesund, High Arctic
During the summers of2008and2009, gas samples were collected from in the different ecologic areas, including bird sanctuary tundra, including bird sanctuary, beach tundra, mining area, human activity area, etc. in Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, Norway. The concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in these gas samples were determined by gas chromatography in the laboratory, the spatial and temporal variations of their concentrations were analyzed, and the factors affecting their concentrations were discussed in this study. The diurnal mean CO2and N2O concentrations in summer2008were about30ppm and25ppb higher than those in summer2009at the sites in the bird sanctuary. The mean CO2concentration at the sites in beach tundra were30ppm higher in summer2008than in summer2009while the mean N2O concentration was11ppb lower in summer2008than in summer2009. The CH4concentration in summer2008was0.7ppm lower than that in summer2009at the bird sanctuary, vice versus for the sites in the beach tundra. The interannual variation of greenhouse gases concentrations might be related to environmental conditions. High seabird activity sites showed lower CO2concentrations than medium and low seabird activity sites in bird sanctuary. Overall the mean concentration of CO2in the bird sanctuary was lower than that in the beach tundra, but higher N2O concentration occurred there, indicating that CO2uptake and N2O emission might be associated with seabird activities. The deposition of seabird guano supplied much organic carbon, nitrogen into local soils, and further stimulated tundra vegetation growth, which might increase tundra CO2sink and N2O emission. Overall the mean concentrations of CO2and CH4in Ny-Alesund were higher than the mean background concentration monitored at Zeppelin Station, whereas the mean N2O concentration was lower than background concentration. In addition, the mining area and human activity areas around the base and airport did not show evidently higher atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4and N2O concentrations.
(2) Spatial and temporal variations of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane fluxes from High Arctic tundra in Svalbard, Norway
During the summers of2008and2009, net carbon dioxide, respiration rate, photosynthetic rate, net methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes were investigated from five tundra ecotopes:bird sanctuary tundra, normal lowland tundra, non-seabird colony tundra, the tundra in abandoned coal mine and the tundra in scientific bases in Ny-Alesund (79°55'N,11°56'E) of High Arctic, Svalbard. High seabird activity sites showed large N2O and CH4emissions and CO2uptakes while low N2O and CH4emission, even high N2O and CH4uptake and high CO2emission occurred at medium and low seabird activity sites. Photosynthetic rates decreased from high seabird activity area to low seabird activity, indicating seabird activity significantly increased atmosphere CO2uptake from local tundra ecosystems. The respiration rates had no significant differences between the observation sites. Normal lowland tundra and the tundra in abandoned coal mine were the CO2sources. Overall the mean fluxes were18.3±3.6μgN2Om-2h-1and53.5±20.3μgCH4m-2h-1from tundra bird sanctuary tundra whereas non-seabird colony tundra and normal lowland tundra represented a relatively weak N2O source (8.3±13.2μgN2Om-2h-1) and strong CH4sink (-82.8±22.3μgCH4m-2h-1). Tundra soils in the tundra in abandoned coal mine and the tundra in scientific bases showed high CH4emissions due to effects of human activities, whereas high CH4uptake or low emission occurred in the soils of normal lowland tundra and bird sanctuary tundra. The mean N2O fluxes from the tundra in abandoned coal mine and the tundra in scientific bases were one order of magnitude higher than those from normal lowland tundra and bird sanctuary tundra, indicating that human activities significantly increased N2O emissions from tundra soils. NEE were positively related to air temperature and ground temperature, with no significant correlation with precipitation and air humidity. The mean TN, NH4+-N, NO3--N, TP and TS concentrations in the soils of High seabird activity sites are one to two orders of magnitude higher than those in the soils of non-seabird colony tundra, indicating seabird activity was the strongest soil physical and chemical processes. Soil TC and soil water regime were important factors affecting CH4fluxes from tundra soils in High Arctic. A strong positive correlation between N2O flux and the contents of soil TN, NH4+-N and NO3--N in bird sanctuary tundra further confirms that seabird guano N inputs and atmospheric N (as NH3) deposition are the predominant factors controlling the spatial variability of tundra N2O fluxes. The N2O fluxes showed a significant positive correlation with soil NH4+-N contents (r=0.66, p<0.001) at all the observation sites although the fluxes weakly correlated with soil total nitrogen (TN) contents (r=0.35, p=0.09), indicating that NH4+-N content acted as a strong predictor for N2O emission rates in tundra soils.
(3) Impact of freezing-thawing cycles on emission rates of greenhouse gases from tundra soil in the Arctic
In this study, normal tundra soil of Arctic, moss, normal tundra soil of Antartic, bird sanctuary tundra soil, seabird ornithogenic, Seal colony tundra soil and Penguin guanos were collected from six tundra regions in Arctic and Antarctic, and experimentally subjected to three freezing-thawing cycles (FTCs). We investigated the effects of FTCs on the emissions of three GHGs N2O, CO2and CH4, with special focus on the effects of freezing temperature, frequency and water content. The GHG emission rates were extremely low in frozen tundra soils. However, there was a fast increase in the emission rates of three GHGs following thawing. The emission rates and their variations were different from different experimental processes and different tundra soils. The greenhouse gases emission rates were higher during FTCs when the freezing temperature was at-20℃than-10℃. Furthermore, accumulated greenhouse gases fluxes were higher from5FTCs than3FTCs with different emission rates in each FTCs. CO2and CH4emission rates from the soils impacted by penguin guano were two or three orders of magnitude higher than those from other tundra soils. N2O emissions fluxes were one order of magnitude from bird sanctuary tundra soil and Seal colony tundra soil larger than those from others. Added0,2,5,10and20ml deionized water to tundra soil and experienced3FTCs, the variation of CH4fluxes was smallest. However, CO2emissions rates decreased with adding more water into tundra soil. The variation of N2O emission rates increased with adding more water into tundra soil. Fluxes of greenhouse gases and its variation were affected by soil physical and chemical properties during freeze-thaw cycle. Greenhouse gases emission rates from tundra soil were significantly affected by freeze-thaw cycles in Arctic and Antarctic, especially C cycle of penguin activity tundra area and N cycle of the seal activity tundra area.
(4) Stable isotopes of carbon dioxide in the marine atmosphere along a hemispheric course from China to Antarctica
During the24th Chinese Antarctic Expedition, the air samples were collected at10:00and22:00(local times) along the north-south track of the ship "Xuelong" from Shanghai Harbor, China to Antarctica. Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and its isotopic compositions were measured in these samples. Mean CO2concentration at22:00(419.4±27.1ppm) was higher than that at10:00(392.7±20.0ppm), whereas δ13C-CO2values at22:00(-8.58±0.47%o) were lower than those at10:00(-8.23±0.49%o) in the marine atmosphere, indicating that the13C/12C ratio of the CO2might be associated with the photosynthetic uptake and respiration activity of terrestrial or marine organisms during the diurnal cycle. Overall the mean δ13C-and δ18O-CO2were-8.39±0.51‰and0.03±1.39‰, respectively, in the atmosphere from30°N to69°S. Atmospheric δ13C-and δ18O-CO2averaged-8.08±0.83%o and-0.49±0.66%o on Millor Peninsula of East Antarctica. A small but progressive increase in δ13C values with increasing latitudes southward was in good agreement with the expected trend. The enhanced CO2concentrations occurred in the atmosphere close to Eurasia continent, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, and the δ13C oscillations in the atmosphere of33°N-30°S agreed well with anthropogenic pollution from the adjacent countries. In the range of30°S-50°S, atmospheric CO2concentrations were generally low with a relatively stable value of δ13C and δ18O. A great difference of δ13C occurred between10:00and22:00following the pronounced change of CO2concentrations in the range of50°S-70°S, and atmospheric CO2was significantly depleted in13C in the Antarctic Convergence Zone. The δ13C significantly negatively correlated with δ18O-CO2, and they showed a significant negative and positive correlation with CO2concentrations. Our results indicated that the isotopic compositions of CO2in the marine atmosphere might be a sensitive indicator for the strength of CO2source and sink from the ocean.
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