差序式领导有效性的理论与实证研究
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摘要
中国人到底在用什么样的思维、心理和方法进行领导?这是本文研究的出发点。回顾管理学百年画卷,呈现在我们面前的实质是西方管理学。当中国学者在将这些理论应用于中国实践的时候,存在着诸多水土不服之处,“插不上嘴”、“鸡同鸭讲”的事例不胜枚举。因此建构中国本土管理理论逐渐成为管理学界的共识。就领导现象而言,由于领导是镶嵌在一个文化的脉络之中,领导是否有效必须要与当地的文化传统相契合。这就决定了一种领导方式在一种文化中有效,但在另一种文化中则未必有效。在这种情况下,从传统文化和中国管理实践入手了解中国领导者的理念、心理及影响历程应成为管理学本土化的重要一环。鉴于差序格局对中国人的心理和行为的重要影响,在组织情境下研究差序格局对领导现象的影响便十分有意义。
目前已经有学者对差序式领导这一领导模式进行了初步的探讨,印证了差序式领导风格在中国组织中普遍存在。然而,由于当前关于差序式领导的直接研究主要聚集在我国台湾地区,且其研究亦仍处于初步发展阶段,无论是差序式领导自身理论建构,还是其内在影响机制等均有许多待解之谜。基于此,本文搜集了来自大陆和台湾两个地区624个“领导-部属”的对偶样本和87个团队样本,尝试从理论建构和实证检验上对中国本土情境下差序式领导有效运行的内在机制进行回答。总体来看,本文主要分为九章,核心内容和主要研究结论如下：
第一,从文化、社会学和心理学角度对差序式领导的渊源进行回溯,以理清差序式领导的理论根源。家族主义是差序式领导得以持续发挥作用的文化根基,家族利益至上、内外有别以及泛家族化历程均是差序式领导影响历程中的主要元素。差序格局是差序式领导形成的社会学基础,本文在以往研究基础上对差序格局的理论内涵进行重新诠释和整合,指出差序格局不仅有横向的“差”,亦存在纵向的“序”；不仅指代人际关系,亦可代表社会结构；不仅仅是微观建构,亦可进行家与国之间的宏观建构。这一诠释对于差序式领导即有关系差异,又有威权对待的内涵解读奠定基础。而中国人的自我观则是差序式领导有效运行的心理学基础,由于中国人的关系自我本质,导致中国在进行人际交往时会依据关系进行归类,“自己人/外人”的区分便由此成为人们的一种心理图式和行为规范。进而本文指出,关系自我只是中国自我实现的一种手段,其终极目标在于追求道德至善、天人合一。因此差序式领导的理想境界其实是“始于差异,终于大同”：“差异”是起源,是中国人实现道德自我的手段；“大同”是终极目标,其本质是儒家建构“大同社会”的一个微观实现路径。
第二,主要从文化角度回答了差序式领导的本土契合性问题,并进而通过与中西方领导理论对比来回答更具本土契合性的问题。首先分析了差序式领导的文化预设,即差序式领导的有效运行靠伦理规范、资源配置、奖惩机制以及社会流动四个基本机制来维系,说明整个社会维系“亲亲”和“尊尊”的差序格局的文化基础依然存在。其次,从中国人的正义观和“忍”的心态来分析部属的心理历程,以此了解差序式领导有效运行的文化逻辑。本文认为,中国人有着与西方人不同的公平认知,中国人正义观的核心在于满足他人对自己的角色期待,讲求合乎“情理”,而差序式领导就是一种符合中国人正义认知的领导风格。另外,面对着领导者的差别对待,外人部属为何不去反抗,而是倾向于去接受,甚至于愿意转变为自己人?这其中中国人“忍与时”的心理起着很大的作用,当处于不利地位时中国人善于通过忍耐与等待来进行自我调适。接着,本文还将差序式领导与同样深具中国文化传统的家长式领导以及西方的“领导—成员”交换(LMX)理论以及领导生命周期理论进行了整合对比分析,研究论证了差序式领导得以持续发挥作用的关键在于该领导方式符合中国人文化价值的认知,从而更具备本土契合性。
第三,关于差序式领导这一独特的领导风格,人们多以现象解释居多,但理论建构较少,本文在以往差序式领导概念的基础上,对差序式领导的理论内涵以及理论框架予以厘清,以界定差序式领导研究的有效理论边界。我们首先对差序式领导的内涵进行重新诠释,差序式领导概念不仅包含了横向“亲亲”的关系差异,亦同时包含了纵向“尊尊”的家长权威。在此基础上,本文建构了基于“领导者—部属—同事”的研究框架,从组织中的人际关系上来看,站在领导者的角度,领导者会根据相关的分类标准将部属分为自己人部属和外人部属,并给予不同的对待；站在部属的角度看,部属可以知觉到领导者对自己的归类,并且部属亦会对领导者进行归类；从同事的角度看,同事可以知觉到对方在领导者心目中的地位,并且亦会对对方进行归类。从整个组织结构来看,领导者居于中心位置,而自己人部属则居于组织中的核心位置,外人部属则居于组织中的边缘或者外围位置。从这三个角度的差序格局的分析中可以勾勒出差序式领导理论体系的框架。
第四,本文主要从信任的角度探讨差序式领导对部属效能的影响。研究表明,差序式领导的偏私对待行为能够提升部属的工作绩效,也能促进部属协助同事和主管的利他人行为,更可以提高部属对主管的心理认同。接着,本文发现上下级互信与主管信任对差序式领导与工作绩效和主管认同之间均呈现部分中介作用,对差序式领导与利他人行为则呈现完全中介作用,而且互信对差序式领导与绩效指标(包含工作绩效和利他人行为)的中介作用较主管信任强,主管信任则对差序式领导与态度或者心理指标(即主管认同)的中介作用较互信强。这意味着对于部属而言,得到上级的信任才能够更好的提高工作绩效,协助主管和同事完成工作,上级信任是部属完成本职工作和角色外工作的一个源动力。而部属对领导者的认同则主要是基于部属对主管的信任,此时主管对部属的信任则居于次要位置。我们还发现了信任对差序式领导与利他人行为的调节作用机制。当部属越信任主管,或者当上下级互信越高时,差序式领导越大,越能促使部属帮助同事做好工作,帮助主管处理其他事情。
第五,能否激发员工的创新行为已经成为领导是否有效的重要标志,因而考察差序式领导对员工创新的影响将十分有意义。本文将差序式领导置于团队层次,研究团队创新气氛对差序式领导与员工创新行为的影响。我们研究指出,差序式领导者对自己人部属和外人部属的创新行为有着不同的影响逻辑,自己人部属的创新行为是基于对领导者“报”的心理动力以及外人部属的竞争带来的压力的双重影响而产生的；而外人部属的创新行为则是基于为获取领导者的偏私对待的动力和现实情境中的不满与不安定感的心理压力的双重影响而产生的。同时我们研究发现,当团队创新气氛较高时,差序式领导越大,越能促进员工的创新行为；反之,而当团队创新气氛较低时,差序式领导的积极作用反而被消解掉,差序式领导越大越可能会抑制员工的创新行为。因而差序式领导要想更好地发挥激发员工创新的作用,应该积极通过组织中各种手段形塑好的团队创新气氛。
第六,在中国情境下领导者可能同时兼具家长式领导和差序式领导这两种独特的领导风格,而差序式领导所产生的差别对待本质上是一种自己人团体相对于外人团体的概念,需要从团队层次对差序式领导进行考量。因而本文将家长式领导和差序式领导分置于个体层次和团队层次研究二者与员工离职倾向的关系,并进而考察“自己人/外人”在此关系中的调节作用。团队层次的差序式领导和个体层次的家长式领导均对员工离职有显著解释力。当加入“自己人/外人”的调节之后,我们发现相对于外人部属,当主管展现越多的威权领导时自己人部属的离职倾向越高,这意味着主管对部属同样的威权领导,自己人部属较外人部属反应更为强烈更为不满；如果团队自己人平均程度越高,差序式领导越大越能降低离职；而如果团队自己人变异程度越大,差序式领导越大则可能提升离职。这道出了“自己人/外人”的双刃剑作用,如果领导者的归类标准不符合部属认知或者角色期待,如过于依赖先赋性的关系来归类自己人,那么团队中自己人外人现象分化可能会过于严重,比如说形成了围绕着不同人的几个圈子或者几派人马,此时如果领导者过于维护他自己亲信的利益,而忽视了其他派别的利益,则可能会引起严重的派系冲突,这便对整个团队有效运作产生不利影响。
本文的理论贡献和可能的创新点主要在于：第一,从文化心理角度对差序式领导持续发挥效用的内在逻辑进行阐释,指出了差序式领导与中国人的正义观之间的关系,理清了中国人面对差序式对待时的心理逻辑和行为认知,以及当部属处于不利地位时可能存在的“忍”与“时”的心理调适。
第二,建构了基于“领导者—部属—同事”的差序式领导框架,分别从领导者角度、部属角度和同事角度以及上下级关系与同事关系上对差序式领导的影响进行解读,较为完整的刻画了差序式领导对整个组织内部的影响,拓宽了差序式领导理论研究的有效边界。
第三,首次将差序式领导和家长式领导这两种典型的中国式领导结合起来研究,我们从理论上指出家长式领导本质上是差序的,无论是威权、德行还是仁慈领导,均呈现差别对待的特征；从实证上检验了在控制住家长式领导之后差序式领导对员工离职倾向的额外解释力,指出对多数人“恩”,对个别人“威”,恩威并济领导方式的有效性。
第四,发现了影响差序式领导有效运行的一些积极因素和消极因素,其中团队创新气氛较小时,差序式领导越大反而会不利于员工的创新；而当团队中自己人外人现象分化过于严重时,如形成了围绕着几个人的不同圈子或者派系,差序式领导越大越可能会引起其他派系的反弹,可能会引致团队冲突加大。
本文的研究对于理清差序式领导在个体层次和团队层次有效运行的内在机制提供了一定的启示,但由于差序式领导研究还处于初步发展阶段,关于差序式领导理论内涵的探讨、差序式领导量表的再完善、包含“自己人／外人”的测量等诸多问题都有待后续的深入研究。本研究在实证研究中尽管最大程度上控制了共同方法变异问题,但由于本文采取的横断式研究取向,使得在推广本文的结论时需要谨慎。本文讨论部分探讨了本文的不足之处和后续研究方向。
What kind of thinking, psychological and approach are the Chinese leaders using to lead? This is the starting point of this study. When reviewing the history of management, the essence what we faced is Western management. Therefore, when Chinese scholars apply these theories to practice, there are many unacclimatized examples to mention, such as "edge ways","speak the different language". Therefore, the construction of Chinese domestic management theory is gradually becoming the management academia's consensus. As the leadership is embedded in cultural context, its effectiveness must be consistent with the local traditional culture. This determined that a style of leadership may be effective in one culture and not in another. In this case, starting from traditional culture and management practice to understand the philosophy, psychology and the course of Chinese leaders should become an important part of the localization of Management. Based on this, the paper started from Chaxugeju of Chinese society, has led to the impacts on Chinese human psychology and behavior, and points out the necessity of studying the phenomenon of Chaxu leadership.
At present some scholars have begun to study the Chaxu leadership, which is universal existent in Chinese organizations, and verified the effectiveness of Chaxu leadership. However, due to the current direct study of Chaxu leadership mainly gathered in Taiwan, China, and the research is still at the preliminary stage of development. Whether the theoretical construction of Chaxu leadership itself or its internal influence mechanism and so on also have many unanswered mystery. Based on this, this paper collected a sample of624supervisor-subordinate dyads from87departments in mainland and Taiwan, trying to give answer to the psychological mechanism of Chaxu leadership from a theoretical construction and empirical test in Chinese situation.
Overall, the paper is mainly divided into nine chapters and the core content is grouped fall into six parts:
First, we combed Chaxu leadership culture, sociology and psychology foundation, reviewed the development course of Chinese native leadership theory, and commented on the research progress of Chaxu leadership and employee categorization model.Firstly, familism is the culture roots of Chaxu leadership continue to play a role. Family interests first, irrespective of inside and outside and as well as generic, family history, are all the main elements in influence process of Chaxu leadership.Secondly, Chaxugeju is the sociology basis of Chaxu leadership and the existing theories on Chaxugeju concept is controversial. Based on previous research, this paper redefined and integrated the theory connotation of Chaxugeju, and pointed out Chaxugeju not only in horizontal, but also sequence in vertical; Not only refers to interpersonal relationships, but also on behalf of social structure; Not just microscopic construction, but also macro Construction between home and countries. This interpretation lay the foundation of Chaxu leadership, which has relationship differences as well as the connotations of authoritarian treatment. Thirdly, Chinese self concept is the psychological basis of the effective operation of Chaxu leadership. Owing to Chinese self nature of the relationship, they will classify according to the relationship in interpersonal communication. The distinction between "Zijiren/Wairen" thus become a psychological pattern and code of conduct. Then we pointed out that the rational boundary of Chaxu leadership "began with differences and ended with great unity". That "difference" is the origin and "great unity" is the ultimate goal, which is a micro implementation path of Confucian constructed the "The Great Unity Society".
Second, it mainly answered the problems of indigenous compatibility of Chaxu leadership in culture perspective, and answered more indigenous compatibility problem by contrasting with the Western leadership theory.This paper firstly analyzed the cultural presupposition of Chaxu leadership.The effectiveness of Chaxu leadership relay on ethical norm, allocation of resources, rewards and punishment mechanism, and social mobility four basic mechanisms to maintain. It explored that the whole society's maintainance "Qinqin" and "Zunzun" culture foundation of the Chaxugeju still exists. Then, this paper analyzed subordinates'psychological process from the concept of justice and "tolerance"mentality of Chinese people, in order to understanding the effective operation of cultural logic of the Chaxu leadership. This paper argued that Chinese people have a fair cognition, which different with Westerner's. The core of Chinese concept of justice is to meeting others'role expectation, and stressing "reasonable".The Chaxu leadership is a kind leadership style that according to Chinese people justice cognitive. In addition, facing the leader's discrimination, why Wairen not to revolt, but tend to accept, and so willing to change into Zijiren? The Chinese peoples'mental of "Ren and Shi" play an important role. When the Chinese people were in a disadvantage, they are good at self-adaptation through patience and waiting. After then, this article discussed the integration and contrast analysis between Chaxu leadership, Paternalistic leadership which also profound traditional Chinese culture, and the theory of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) and the life cycle theory of leadership in Western society. The study demonstrates the Chaxu leadership to sustain the role which lies in leadership in a manner consistent awareness of the cultural values of the Chinese people, and more with the local community fit.
Third, the researches of Chaxu leadership which is a unique style of leadership, are explaining the phenomena more, but constructing the theory less. The paper based on the previous researches about Chaxu leadership clarified the connotation and theoretical framework, in order to define the effective boundary of the Chaxu leadership study. We first re-interpreted the connotation of Chaxu leadership, the concept includes not only relations and differences of "Qinqin" in horizontal, but also contains parental authority of "Zunzun" in vertical. On that basis, this paper constructed a framework based on"supervisor-subordinate-colleague". From the interpersonal relation in the organization, the leader will divide subordinates into Zijiren and Wairen in accordance with the relevant classification standard and give different treatments as a leader; on the other side of subordinates, they can perceived leaders'classification, and also classified leader; From colleagues, they can be perceived to the other position in the minds of the leaders, and will also be classified on the other side. In terms of the whole structure of organization, the leader in the central place, Zijiren occupies the core position in the organization, while Wairen lives in the edge or peripheral location. From this three angles'analysis of Chaxugeju sketched the framework of Chaxu leadership theory system.
Fourth, the paper mainly discussed on the subordinates'effectiveness affected by Chaxu leadership from the perspective of trust. The study indicated that Chaxu leadership can improve the performance of subordinates'work by discriminating, and it also do good behaviors of promoting subordinates assists colleagues and supervisors, as well as improve subordinates'psychological identity to the supervisor. Then, we found that mutual trust between the upper and lower levels and supervisory trust plays a part of the intermediary role on Chaxu leadership job performance and supervisor recognition, and presented fully mediation mechanism of benefiting others behavior. The intermediary role of mutual trust to Chaxu leadership and performance indications (including job performance and benefit the behavior of others) is stronger than supervisory trust, while the intermediary role of supervisory trust to Chaxu leadership and attitude or psychological indicators is stronger than mutual trust.This means that for subordinates to get their superiors'trust could improve work performance, assist superior and colleagues completing the work. The trust of superiors'trust is a source of subordinates finishing their own work and extra-role work. And subordinate agree with leader mainly based on subordinates' trust in supervisor, the supervisor trust in subordinate is in the secondary position. We also found that the regulation mechanism of trust to the Chaxu leadership and benefit behavior of others. When subordinates trust the superior more, or when the degree of mutual trust between superior and subordinate is higher, the Chaxu leadership is more stronger and easier to help colleagues do a good job and help supervisor deal with other things.
Fifth, whether can inspire staff's innovative behavior has become an important symbol of leadership effectiveness, therefore it will be very meaningful investigating the impact of the Chaxu leadership on employee innovation. This article puts Chaxu leadership at team level, and explores the effect of team innovation climate on Chaxu leadership and employee innovative behavior. We found that the Chaxu leaders had a different logic for the innovative behavior of subordinates of Zijiren and Wair en. The subordinates of Zijiren's innovative behavior are based on the dual effects of the psychological motivation of "Bad" and the competition pressure from the subordinates of Wairen, While Wairen's innovative behavior are based on the dual effects of the motivate to obtain the favoritism treatment of leader and realistic situation's psychological stress from dissatisfaction and insecurity. At the same time we found that when the team innovation climate is high, the greater the Chaxu leadership is, the more the staffs innovative behavior can be promoted. Conversely, when the team innovation climate is low, the positive role of Chaxu leadership will be offset, namely the bigger Chaxu leadership is, the more employee innovative behavior may be inhibited. Hence, if Chaxu leaders want to better inspire the employee innovation, they should be actively by various means to shape the excellent team innovation climate.
Sixth, leaders in China may have both paternalistic leadership and Chaxu leadership which are two unique leadership style. The discrimination caused by Chaxu leadership is essentially a kind concept of the team of Zijiren relative to Wairen team, and considered the Chaxu leadership at the group level. So this study is to develop an integrative model linking the impact of paternalistic leadership (at the individual level) and Chaxu leadership (at the group level) on employee turnover intention, and further explore the moderating effect of the "Zijiren/Wairen". The Chaxu leadership at the group level and paternalistic leadership at the individual level both have significant explanatory power on employee turnover. When put in the regulation of "Zijiren/Wairen",we found that compared to the Wairen, the higher turnover intention when supervisor shows the more authoritarian leadership, which means that the supervisor to subordinate the same authoritarian leadership, Zijiren responding more dissatisfied rather than Wairen; If the within-team mean of Zijiren higher, the bigger of the Chaxu leadership function, can reduce the employee turnover rate; while if the within-team variance of Zijiren greater, the bigger of the Chaxu leadership function may promote the separations. It shows the double-edged sword influence of "Zijiren/Wairen", if the leaders'classification criteria do not conform to the subordinate cognition or role expectation, such as classify Zijiren depend too much on ascribed the relationship, so the phenomenon of "Zijiren/Wairen" differentiation may be too serious, For instance formed a few circles or a few lines around with different people, then if the leader is too maintenance the interests of his cronies, while ignoring the interests of other factions, may cause severe sectarian conflict and it is harmful to the whole team works.
Theoretical contribution of this paper and the possible innovation point is mainly lies in:first, this paper, from a cultural perspective, pointed out the relationship between the Chaxu Leadership and the justice concept of Chinese. We argue the Chinese conception of justice is essentially a norm for regulating the human relationships, rather than the rule of reason purely guiding the profit distribution. So facing discriminatory, subordinates who feel fair or unfair depends on their awareness of leaders'behavior. We believe that as long as leaders in the process of classified employees and differential treatment following procedural justice and interaction justice, and following interaction justice and distributive justice. And then favoritism treat subordinate of Zijiren in line with Chinese justice cognitive.
Second, the paper constructed a Chaxu leader framework based on "supervisor-subordinate-colleague", and it respectively from the angle of leaders, subordinates and colleagues as well as the superior-subordinate and colleague relationship interpreted the influence of Chaxu leadership. It completely describes the influence of Chaxu leadership to the whole organization, and broadens effective boundary of the theory of Chaxu leadership research.
Third, the article was combined Chaxu leadership and paternalistic leadership to study for the first time, and we pointed out paternalistic leadership is Chaxu in theory. No matter what authoritarian, moral conduct or benevolence leadership styles are all present the characteristics of discrimination. Chaxu leadership on employee turnover under control paternalistic leadership tendencies additional explanatory power, empirical test shows that the majority of people "En" and individual of Wei", both En and Wei make the way of effective leadership.
Fourth, this paper found that the double-edged sword influence of "Zijiren/Wairen", and a good incentive to Wairen when most people in the team have maintained a close relationship with leaders, the leader treat Zijiren more favoritism, the efficiency of team members may be higher.This is the phenomenon of "Zijiren I Wairen" on the positive side. On the other side, the phenomenon of "Zijiren/Wairen" differentiation is too serious,such as the formation of a few people around in different circles or factions, and then if the leader treat more favoritism on their cronies, the more easier cause the other factions' bounce may result the team conflict increase. This is the negative side of the phenomenon of "Zijiren/Wairen".
In this paper, the study gave certain revelation to clarify Chaxu leadership in the effective operation of the internal mechanism of the individual level and the group level, but due to Chaxu leadership research is still in the preliminary stage of development, the problems about discussing Chaxu leadership theory connotation, improving Chaxu leadership scale, which include the measurement of "Zijiren/Wairen" and many other problems are yet to be further study. Although this study maximize control over the problem of common method variance, but due to the orientation of the cross-sectional study taken in this paper, so we should be careful to generalize the conclusion of this article. The discussion section discussed the limitations and future research directions.
目前已经有学者对差序式领导这一领导模式进行了初步的探讨,印证了差序式领导风格在中国组织中普遍存在。然而,由于当前关于差序式领导的直接研究主要聚集在我国台湾地区,且其研究亦仍处于初步发展阶段,无论是差序式领导自身理论建构,还是其内在影响机制等均有许多待解之谜。基于此,本文搜集了来自大陆和台湾两个地区624个“领导-部属”的对偶样本和87个团队样本,尝试从理论建构和实证检验上对中国本土情境下差序式领导有效运行的内在机制进行回答。总体来看,本文主要分为九章,核心内容和主要研究结论如下：
第一,从文化、社会学和心理学角度对差序式领导的渊源进行回溯,以理清差序式领导的理论根源。家族主义是差序式领导得以持续发挥作用的文化根基,家族利益至上、内外有别以及泛家族化历程均是差序式领导影响历程中的主要元素。差序格局是差序式领导形成的社会学基础,本文在以往研究基础上对差序格局的理论内涵进行重新诠释和整合,指出差序格局不仅有横向的“差”,亦存在纵向的“序”；不仅指代人际关系,亦可代表社会结构；不仅仅是微观建构,亦可进行家与国之间的宏观建构。这一诠释对于差序式领导即有关系差异,又有威权对待的内涵解读奠定基础。而中国人的自我观则是差序式领导有效运行的心理学基础,由于中国人的关系自我本质,导致中国在进行人际交往时会依据关系进行归类,“自己人/外人”的区分便由此成为人们的一种心理图式和行为规范。进而本文指出,关系自我只是中国自我实现的一种手段,其终极目标在于追求道德至善、天人合一。因此差序式领导的理想境界其实是“始于差异,终于大同”：“差异”是起源,是中国人实现道德自我的手段；“大同”是终极目标,其本质是儒家建构“大同社会”的一个微观实现路径。
第二,主要从文化角度回答了差序式领导的本土契合性问题,并进而通过与中西方领导理论对比来回答更具本土契合性的问题。首先分析了差序式领导的文化预设,即差序式领导的有效运行靠伦理规范、资源配置、奖惩机制以及社会流动四个基本机制来维系,说明整个社会维系“亲亲”和“尊尊”的差序格局的文化基础依然存在。其次,从中国人的正义观和“忍”的心态来分析部属的心理历程,以此了解差序式领导有效运行的文化逻辑。本文认为,中国人有着与西方人不同的公平认知,中国人正义观的核心在于满足他人对自己的角色期待,讲求合乎“情理”,而差序式领导就是一种符合中国人正义认知的领导风格。另外,面对着领导者的差别对待,外人部属为何不去反抗,而是倾向于去接受,甚至于愿意转变为自己人?这其中中国人“忍与时”的心理起着很大的作用,当处于不利地位时中国人善于通过忍耐与等待来进行自我调适。接着,本文还将差序式领导与同样深具中国文化传统的家长式领导以及西方的“领导—成员”交换(LMX)理论以及领导生命周期理论进行了整合对比分析,研究论证了差序式领导得以持续发挥作用的关键在于该领导方式符合中国人文化价值的认知,从而更具备本土契合性。
第三,关于差序式领导这一独特的领导风格,人们多以现象解释居多,但理论建构较少,本文在以往差序式领导概念的基础上,对差序式领导的理论内涵以及理论框架予以厘清,以界定差序式领导研究的有效理论边界。我们首先对差序式领导的内涵进行重新诠释,差序式领导概念不仅包含了横向“亲亲”的关系差异,亦同时包含了纵向“尊尊”的家长权威。在此基础上,本文建构了基于“领导者—部属—同事”的研究框架,从组织中的人际关系上来看,站在领导者的角度,领导者会根据相关的分类标准将部属分为自己人部属和外人部属,并给予不同的对待；站在部属的角度看,部属可以知觉到领导者对自己的归类,并且部属亦会对领导者进行归类；从同事的角度看,同事可以知觉到对方在领导者心目中的地位,并且亦会对对方进行归类。从整个组织结构来看,领导者居于中心位置,而自己人部属则居于组织中的核心位置,外人部属则居于组织中的边缘或者外围位置。从这三个角度的差序格局的分析中可以勾勒出差序式领导理论体系的框架。
第四,本文主要从信任的角度探讨差序式领导对部属效能的影响。研究表明,差序式领导的偏私对待行为能够提升部属的工作绩效,也能促进部属协助同事和主管的利他人行为,更可以提高部属对主管的心理认同。接着,本文发现上下级互信与主管信任对差序式领导与工作绩效和主管认同之间均呈现部分中介作用,对差序式领导与利他人行为则呈现完全中介作用,而且互信对差序式领导与绩效指标(包含工作绩效和利他人行为)的中介作用较主管信任强,主管信任则对差序式领导与态度或者心理指标(即主管认同)的中介作用较互信强。这意味着对于部属而言,得到上级的信任才能够更好的提高工作绩效,协助主管和同事完成工作,上级信任是部属完成本职工作和角色外工作的一个源动力。而部属对领导者的认同则主要是基于部属对主管的信任,此时主管对部属的信任则居于次要位置。我们还发现了信任对差序式领导与利他人行为的调节作用机制。当部属越信任主管,或者当上下级互信越高时,差序式领导越大,越能促使部属帮助同事做好工作,帮助主管处理其他事情。
第五,能否激发员工的创新行为已经成为领导是否有效的重要标志,因而考察差序式领导对员工创新的影响将十分有意义。本文将差序式领导置于团队层次,研究团队创新气氛对差序式领导与员工创新行为的影响。我们研究指出,差序式领导者对自己人部属和外人部属的创新行为有着不同的影响逻辑,自己人部属的创新行为是基于对领导者“报”的心理动力以及外人部属的竞争带来的压力的双重影响而产生的；而外人部属的创新行为则是基于为获取领导者的偏私对待的动力和现实情境中的不满与不安定感的心理压力的双重影响而产生的。同时我们研究发现,当团队创新气氛较高时,差序式领导越大,越能促进员工的创新行为；反之,而当团队创新气氛较低时,差序式领导的积极作用反而被消解掉,差序式领导越大越可能会抑制员工的创新行为。因而差序式领导要想更好地发挥激发员工创新的作用,应该积极通过组织中各种手段形塑好的团队创新气氛。
第六,在中国情境下领导者可能同时兼具家长式领导和差序式领导这两种独特的领导风格,而差序式领导所产生的差别对待本质上是一种自己人团体相对于外人团体的概念,需要从团队层次对差序式领导进行考量。因而本文将家长式领导和差序式领导分置于个体层次和团队层次研究二者与员工离职倾向的关系,并进而考察“自己人/外人”在此关系中的调节作用。团队层次的差序式领导和个体层次的家长式领导均对员工离职有显著解释力。当加入“自己人/外人”的调节之后,我们发现相对于外人部属,当主管展现越多的威权领导时自己人部属的离职倾向越高,这意味着主管对部属同样的威权领导,自己人部属较外人部属反应更为强烈更为不满；如果团队自己人平均程度越高,差序式领导越大越能降低离职；而如果团队自己人变异程度越大,差序式领导越大则可能提升离职。这道出了“自己人/外人”的双刃剑作用,如果领导者的归类标准不符合部属认知或者角色期待,如过于依赖先赋性的关系来归类自己人,那么团队中自己人外人现象分化可能会过于严重,比如说形成了围绕着不同人的几个圈子或者几派人马,此时如果领导者过于维护他自己亲信的利益,而忽视了其他派别的利益,则可能会引起严重的派系冲突,这便对整个团队有效运作产生不利影响。
本文的理论贡献和可能的创新点主要在于：第一,从文化心理角度对差序式领导持续发挥效用的内在逻辑进行阐释,指出了差序式领导与中国人的正义观之间的关系,理清了中国人面对差序式对待时的心理逻辑和行为认知,以及当部属处于不利地位时可能存在的“忍”与“时”的心理调适。
第二,建构了基于“领导者—部属—同事”的差序式领导框架,分别从领导者角度、部属角度和同事角度以及上下级关系与同事关系上对差序式领导的影响进行解读,较为完整的刻画了差序式领导对整个组织内部的影响,拓宽了差序式领导理论研究的有效边界。
第三,首次将差序式领导和家长式领导这两种典型的中国式领导结合起来研究,我们从理论上指出家长式领导本质上是差序的,无论是威权、德行还是仁慈领导,均呈现差别对待的特征；从实证上检验了在控制住家长式领导之后差序式领导对员工离职倾向的额外解释力,指出对多数人“恩”,对个别人“威”,恩威并济领导方式的有效性。
第四,发现了影响差序式领导有效运行的一些积极因素和消极因素,其中团队创新气氛较小时,差序式领导越大反而会不利于员工的创新；而当团队中自己人外人现象分化过于严重时,如形成了围绕着几个人的不同圈子或者派系,差序式领导越大越可能会引起其他派系的反弹,可能会引致团队冲突加大。
本文的研究对于理清差序式领导在个体层次和团队层次有效运行的内在机制提供了一定的启示,但由于差序式领导研究还处于初步发展阶段,关于差序式领导理论内涵的探讨、差序式领导量表的再完善、包含“自己人／外人”的测量等诸多问题都有待后续的深入研究。本研究在实证研究中尽管最大程度上控制了共同方法变异问题,但由于本文采取的横断式研究取向,使得在推广本文的结论时需要谨慎。本文讨论部分探讨了本文的不足之处和后续研究方向。
What kind of thinking, psychological and approach are the Chinese leaders using to lead? This is the starting point of this study. When reviewing the history of management, the essence what we faced is Western management. Therefore, when Chinese scholars apply these theories to practice, there are many unacclimatized examples to mention, such as "edge ways","speak the different language". Therefore, the construction of Chinese domestic management theory is gradually becoming the management academia's consensus. As the leadership is embedded in cultural context, its effectiveness must be consistent with the local traditional culture. This determined that a style of leadership may be effective in one culture and not in another. In this case, starting from traditional culture and management practice to understand the philosophy, psychology and the course of Chinese leaders should become an important part of the localization of Management. Based on this, the paper started from Chaxugeju of Chinese society, has led to the impacts on Chinese human psychology and behavior, and points out the necessity of studying the phenomenon of Chaxu leadership.
At present some scholars have begun to study the Chaxu leadership, which is universal existent in Chinese organizations, and verified the effectiveness of Chaxu leadership. However, due to the current direct study of Chaxu leadership mainly gathered in Taiwan, China, and the research is still at the preliminary stage of development. Whether the theoretical construction of Chaxu leadership itself or its internal influence mechanism and so on also have many unanswered mystery. Based on this, this paper collected a sample of624supervisor-subordinate dyads from87departments in mainland and Taiwan, trying to give answer to the psychological mechanism of Chaxu leadership from a theoretical construction and empirical test in Chinese situation.
Overall, the paper is mainly divided into nine chapters and the core content is grouped fall into six parts:
First, we combed Chaxu leadership culture, sociology and psychology foundation, reviewed the development course of Chinese native leadership theory, and commented on the research progress of Chaxu leadership and employee categorization model.Firstly, familism is the culture roots of Chaxu leadership continue to play a role. Family interests first, irrespective of inside and outside and as well as generic, family history, are all the main elements in influence process of Chaxu leadership.Secondly, Chaxugeju is the sociology basis of Chaxu leadership and the existing theories on Chaxugeju concept is controversial. Based on previous research, this paper redefined and integrated the theory connotation of Chaxugeju, and pointed out Chaxugeju not only in horizontal, but also sequence in vertical; Not only refers to interpersonal relationships, but also on behalf of social structure; Not just microscopic construction, but also macro Construction between home and countries. This interpretation lay the foundation of Chaxu leadership, which has relationship differences as well as the connotations of authoritarian treatment. Thirdly, Chinese self concept is the psychological basis of the effective operation of Chaxu leadership. Owing to Chinese self nature of the relationship, they will classify according to the relationship in interpersonal communication. The distinction between "Zijiren/Wairen" thus become a psychological pattern and code of conduct. Then we pointed out that the rational boundary of Chaxu leadership "began with differences and ended with great unity". That "difference" is the origin and "great unity" is the ultimate goal, which is a micro implementation path of Confucian constructed the "The Great Unity Society".
Second, it mainly answered the problems of indigenous compatibility of Chaxu leadership in culture perspective, and answered more indigenous compatibility problem by contrasting with the Western leadership theory.This paper firstly analyzed the cultural presupposition of Chaxu leadership.The effectiveness of Chaxu leadership relay on ethical norm, allocation of resources, rewards and punishment mechanism, and social mobility four basic mechanisms to maintain. It explored that the whole society's maintainance "Qinqin" and "Zunzun" culture foundation of the Chaxugeju still exists. Then, this paper analyzed subordinates'psychological process from the concept of justice and "tolerance"mentality of Chinese people, in order to understanding the effective operation of cultural logic of the Chaxu leadership. This paper argued that Chinese people have a fair cognition, which different with Westerner's. The core of Chinese concept of justice is to meeting others'role expectation, and stressing "reasonable".The Chaxu leadership is a kind leadership style that according to Chinese people justice cognitive. In addition, facing the leader's discrimination, why Wairen not to revolt, but tend to accept, and so willing to change into Zijiren? The Chinese peoples'mental of "Ren and Shi" play an important role. When the Chinese people were in a disadvantage, they are good at self-adaptation through patience and waiting. After then, this article discussed the integration and contrast analysis between Chaxu leadership, Paternalistic leadership which also profound traditional Chinese culture, and the theory of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) and the life cycle theory of leadership in Western society. The study demonstrates the Chaxu leadership to sustain the role which lies in leadership in a manner consistent awareness of the cultural values of the Chinese people, and more with the local community fit.
Third, the researches of Chaxu leadership which is a unique style of leadership, are explaining the phenomena more, but constructing the theory less. The paper based on the previous researches about Chaxu leadership clarified the connotation and theoretical framework, in order to define the effective boundary of the Chaxu leadership study. We first re-interpreted the connotation of Chaxu leadership, the concept includes not only relations and differences of "Qinqin" in horizontal, but also contains parental authority of "Zunzun" in vertical. On that basis, this paper constructed a framework based on"supervisor-subordinate-colleague". From the interpersonal relation in the organization, the leader will divide subordinates into Zijiren and Wairen in accordance with the relevant classification standard and give different treatments as a leader; on the other side of subordinates, they can perceived leaders'classification, and also classified leader; From colleagues, they can be perceived to the other position in the minds of the leaders, and will also be classified on the other side. In terms of the whole structure of organization, the leader in the central place, Zijiren occupies the core position in the organization, while Wairen lives in the edge or peripheral location. From this three angles'analysis of Chaxugeju sketched the framework of Chaxu leadership theory system.
Fourth, the paper mainly discussed on the subordinates'effectiveness affected by Chaxu leadership from the perspective of trust. The study indicated that Chaxu leadership can improve the performance of subordinates'work by discriminating, and it also do good behaviors of promoting subordinates assists colleagues and supervisors, as well as improve subordinates'psychological identity to the supervisor. Then, we found that mutual trust between the upper and lower levels and supervisory trust plays a part of the intermediary role on Chaxu leadership job performance and supervisor recognition, and presented fully mediation mechanism of benefiting others behavior. The intermediary role of mutual trust to Chaxu leadership and performance indications (including job performance and benefit the behavior of others) is stronger than supervisory trust, while the intermediary role of supervisory trust to Chaxu leadership and attitude or psychological indicators is stronger than mutual trust.This means that for subordinates to get their superiors'trust could improve work performance, assist superior and colleagues completing the work. The trust of superiors'trust is a source of subordinates finishing their own work and extra-role work. And subordinate agree with leader mainly based on subordinates' trust in supervisor, the supervisor trust in subordinate is in the secondary position. We also found that the regulation mechanism of trust to the Chaxu leadership and benefit behavior of others. When subordinates trust the superior more, or when the degree of mutual trust between superior and subordinate is higher, the Chaxu leadership is more stronger and easier to help colleagues do a good job and help supervisor deal with other things.
Fifth, whether can inspire staff's innovative behavior has become an important symbol of leadership effectiveness, therefore it will be very meaningful investigating the impact of the Chaxu leadership on employee innovation. This article puts Chaxu leadership at team level, and explores the effect of team innovation climate on Chaxu leadership and employee innovative behavior. We found that the Chaxu leaders had a different logic for the innovative behavior of subordinates of Zijiren and Wair en. The subordinates of Zijiren's innovative behavior are based on the dual effects of the psychological motivation of "Bad" and the competition pressure from the subordinates of Wairen, While Wairen's innovative behavior are based on the dual effects of the motivate to obtain the favoritism treatment of leader and realistic situation's psychological stress from dissatisfaction and insecurity. At the same time we found that when the team innovation climate is high, the greater the Chaxu leadership is, the more the staffs innovative behavior can be promoted. Conversely, when the team innovation climate is low, the positive role of Chaxu leadership will be offset, namely the bigger Chaxu leadership is, the more employee innovative behavior may be inhibited. Hence, if Chaxu leaders want to better inspire the employee innovation, they should be actively by various means to shape the excellent team innovation climate.
Sixth, leaders in China may have both paternalistic leadership and Chaxu leadership which are two unique leadership style. The discrimination caused by Chaxu leadership is essentially a kind concept of the team of Zijiren relative to Wairen team, and considered the Chaxu leadership at the group level. So this study is to develop an integrative model linking the impact of paternalistic leadership (at the individual level) and Chaxu leadership (at the group level) on employee turnover intention, and further explore the moderating effect of the "Zijiren/Wairen". The Chaxu leadership at the group level and paternalistic leadership at the individual level both have significant explanatory power on employee turnover. When put in the regulation of "Zijiren/Wairen",we found that compared to the Wairen, the higher turnover intention when supervisor shows the more authoritarian leadership, which means that the supervisor to subordinate the same authoritarian leadership, Zijiren responding more dissatisfied rather than Wairen; If the within-team mean of Zijiren higher, the bigger of the Chaxu leadership function, can reduce the employee turnover rate; while if the within-team variance of Zijiren greater, the bigger of the Chaxu leadership function may promote the separations. It shows the double-edged sword influence of "Zijiren/Wairen", if the leaders'classification criteria do not conform to the subordinate cognition or role expectation, such as classify Zijiren depend too much on ascribed the relationship, so the phenomenon of "Zijiren/Wairen" differentiation may be too serious, For instance formed a few circles or a few lines around with different people, then if the leader is too maintenance the interests of his cronies, while ignoring the interests of other factions, may cause severe sectarian conflict and it is harmful to the whole team works.
Theoretical contribution of this paper and the possible innovation point is mainly lies in:first, this paper, from a cultural perspective, pointed out the relationship between the Chaxu Leadership and the justice concept of Chinese. We argue the Chinese conception of justice is essentially a norm for regulating the human relationships, rather than the rule of reason purely guiding the profit distribution. So facing discriminatory, subordinates who feel fair or unfair depends on their awareness of leaders'behavior. We believe that as long as leaders in the process of classified employees and differential treatment following procedural justice and interaction justice, and following interaction justice and distributive justice. And then favoritism treat subordinate of Zijiren in line with Chinese justice cognitive.
Second, the paper constructed a Chaxu leader framework based on "supervisor-subordinate-colleague", and it respectively from the angle of leaders, subordinates and colleagues as well as the superior-subordinate and colleague relationship interpreted the influence of Chaxu leadership. It completely describes the influence of Chaxu leadership to the whole organization, and broadens effective boundary of the theory of Chaxu leadership research.
Third, the article was combined Chaxu leadership and paternalistic leadership to study for the first time, and we pointed out paternalistic leadership is Chaxu in theory. No matter what authoritarian, moral conduct or benevolence leadership styles are all present the characteristics of discrimination. Chaxu leadership on employee turnover under control paternalistic leadership tendencies additional explanatory power, empirical test shows that the majority of people "En" and individual of Wei", both En and Wei make the way of effective leadership.
Fourth, this paper found that the double-edged sword influence of "Zijiren/Wairen", and a good incentive to Wairen when most people in the team have maintained a close relationship with leaders, the leader treat Zijiren more favoritism, the efficiency of team members may be higher.This is the phenomenon of "Zijiren I Wairen" on the positive side. On the other side, the phenomenon of "Zijiren/Wairen" differentiation is too serious,such as the formation of a few people around in different circles or factions, and then if the leader treat more favoritism on their cronies, the more easier cause the other factions' bounce may result the team conflict increase. This is the negative side of the phenomenon of "Zijiren/Wairen".
In this paper, the study gave certain revelation to clarify Chaxu leadership in the effective operation of the internal mechanism of the individual level and the group level, but due to Chaxu leadership research is still in the preliminary stage of development, the problems about discussing Chaxu leadership theory connotation, improving Chaxu leadership scale, which include the measurement of "Zijiren/Wairen" and many other problems are yet to be further study. Although this study maximize control over the problem of common method variance, but due to the orientation of the cross-sectional study taken in this paper, so we should be careful to generalize the conclusion of this article. The discussion section discussed the limitations and future research directions.
引文
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