华南古—中生代之交火山作用的古气候影响和生物多样性响应
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摘要
从大地构造旋回角度来看,东特提斯地区从晚古生代到古-中生代之交大致代表了一个洋盆拉张到闭合的过程。其中,晚古生代,特别是中二叠世茅口期,在扬子西南缘峨眉山地区及其以西的金沙江、松潘-甘孜和阿尼玛卿地区大量海底玄武岩的存在,说明此时的东特提斯洋盆很可能处于拉张阶段。晚二叠世末东昆仑等地区放射虫硅质岩的消失和全球泛大陆的形成则可能代表洋盆闭合期。在洋盆闭合期,洋壳板块俯冲导致的岛弧中-酸性火山岩喷发,并在华南二叠纪-三叠纪界线附近形成广泛分布的界线火山粘土。
在上述这一拉张到闭合的旋回中,发生了两次大规模的火山活动。这两次火山活动均造成了显著的环境变迁、海洋碳酸盐碳同位素负偏和生物集群灭绝。因此,将这两次大规模的火山活动及其环境和生物效应联系起来进行对比研究,不但可以相互参照和印证,而且可以从地球圈层构造旋回角度来探索岩石圈、大气圈、水圈和生物圈之间的协同演化规律,符合当今地球系统科学所提倡的全球观和系统性的新思想。
中-晚二叠世之交,峨眉山及其以西的金沙江,松潘-甘孜和阿尼玛卿地区均大量的玄武岩喷发。其中具有重要影响的为峨眉山火成岩省大规模的玄武岩活动。峨眉山玄武岩主要分布于中国西南的云南、贵州和四川,大多覆盖在中二叠世浅海台地相茅口组灰岩之上。峨眉山玄武岩火山序列中的海相灰岩夹层中保存有瓜达鲁普统生物灭绝的丰富信息。峨眉山火山活动在中国西南瞬间释放了约25万平方公里、50万立方公里的熔岩,引起了巨大的环境灾难并造成大量海生生物的灭绝和陆地生物面貌的改变。分布在中国西南地区的众多剖面因此提供了在同一地区同时研究生物大灭绝和火山爆发的机会。本研究通过详细的牙形石生物地层工作显示了峨眉山火山作用开始于中二叠世Capitanian中期的Jinogondolella altudaensis牙形石带(-263Ma),以大规模的水-岩浆爆发式喷发为主并伴随以新希瓦格蜓(Neoschwagerinidae)为代表的大型蜂巢(?)类有孔虫和钙藻的大灭绝,这一时间早于传统观点所认为的中-晚二叠世之交；而华南大部分地区的玄武岩活动发生在稍后的J. xuanhanensis带,表现为玄武岩大规模覆盖在茅口组顶部J. xuanhanensis带灰岩之上。这种初始阶段喷发规模小,而随后伴随玄武岩活动在范围和规模上急速扩张的模式,在其它大火成岩省也很常见,如南美洲-纳米比亚的Parana-Etendeka火成岩省。峨眉山玄武岩的喷发和中二叠世的生物灭绝在时间关联支持两者存在因果联系。生物大灭绝早于大幅度碳同位素的负偏,该负偏表现出大火成岩省活动期间海洋-大气碳循环的剧烈波动。沉积学证据也不支持峨眉山火成岩省导致的公里级隆升学说,因为峨眉山喷发于中二叠世的茅口组台地灰岩之上,喷发期间的枕状熔岩等水下喷发证据遍布整个火成岩省,而喷发结束后大火成岩省主要被海陆交互相的龙潭组所覆盖。
西伯利亚暗色岩系喷发于二叠纪-三叠纪之交,而火山作用引起的一系列环境效应可能导致了二叠纪末生物的大灭绝。生物大灭绝之后早三叠世的一些独有的现象也一直引起学术界的关注：如极低的生物多样性,大幅度的碳同位素波动,缓慢的生物复苏,早三叠世全球缺煤,缺生物礁和缺硅质岩等现象。海洋生态系统直到中三叠世才得到全面恢复。生物的宏观演化、生态系统的变化往往与环境变化息息相关。因此,研究从古-中生代之交由火山活动引起的环境气候变化和生物响应显得尤为重要。论文以20000多枚牙形石化石为核心材料,在建立详细的生物地层框架的基础上,通过牙形石碳氧同位素的测试分析,首次构建起了华南地区晚二叠世末到中三叠世早期的高精度古海水温度曲线。分析认为二叠纪与三叠纪之交急剧升高的地球温度是生物大灭绝的主要原因,创新性地提出了整个早三叠世是一个海水温度持续波动上升的超级温室期。这一研究结果为认识大灭绝后几百万年时间内生物复苏滞后的原因提供了崭新的思路。
赤道海平面温度是衡量地质历史时期环境温度的重要参数,在本文用来作为量化西伯利亚大火成岩省喷发的环境效应的指标。中国华南地区在古-中生代之交是位于古赤道附近的浅海台地,具有世界上该时期最好的海相地层沉积,为本文的研究提供了良好的客观条件。深时古气温恢复需要良好的氧同位素指标,因为很多钙质壳体化石在成岩和石化过程中会发生改变,难以提供可靠的研究材料。本文的研究数据表明古-中生代之交的牙形石氧同位素数据表现出与碳同位素类似的大幅波动,总体在17.5‰到22.5‰之间震荡(NBS-120c=22.6‰),反应出整个早三叠世气温一直高位震荡到中三叠世(247Ma)。计算氧同位素数据可得出对应的古海水温度：二叠纪长兴期末的海水温度与现在的温度类似,约25℃(现代海洋赤道海平面年平均温度范围为25-31℃)。温度在二叠系-三叠系界线附近迅速上升,穿过现代海洋赤道海平面年平均温度范围,在早三叠世早期达到32℃；温度随后持续上升,在格里斯巴赫中-晚期达到第一个峰值35-38℃。格里斯巴赫期的极热事件造成了很多二叠纪的残存种的灭绝,如牙形石Hindeodus和菊石Otoceras。随后的迪奈尔期气温有所变冷,一直持续到斯密斯期最早期;斯密斯早-中期的温度相对平稳,在随后的斯密斯期-斯帕斯期之交的短暂时间内,海平面温度迅速上升了4℃,峰值可能达到了41℃,是早三叠世的第二个极热事件。在早斯帕斯期海水温度迅速降低,斯帕斯中-晚期海水温度缓慢升高,并保持在高位,斯帕斯期最末期气温有4-6℃的降低,直到中三叠世最早期气温趋于稳定,恢复到与晚二叠长兴期末相似的温度；整个早三叠世的5个百万年中,赤道海平面温度比现代海洋平均高约5-8℃。二叠-三叠纪之交海水温度的急剧升高与二叠纪末的生物大灭绝相吻合,从而证实了二叠纪末快速温室效应是导致这次生物大灭绝的重要原因之一。
全球变暖对海洋生物有重要影响,这在晚二叠世生物灭绝后的海洋中表现得十分显著。一般动物的热耐受温度上限为47℃,大部分生物的上限只有40-45℃。随着温度的升高,新陈代谢速率会大幅加强,有氧运动需氧量迅速提升。这一过程一直持续到线粒体不能提供足够的三磷酸腺苷(ATP),随后动物体即开始进行线粒体的厌氧氧化,但厌氧氧化是不能长期持续的。这一过程随后导致低血氧症(hypoxaemia),生物体只能通过生成热休克蛋白(heat-shock protein)来短期缓解。而对于海洋生物而言,热耐受温度上限更低,这是因为随着温度的上升,需氧量也随之上升而海水中的氧气溶解度迅速降低,而体液的携氧能力也更低。因此,大部分海洋动物,特别是具有高运动能力和高需氧量的门类(如头足类),不能在常年超过35℃的水温中生存。这一自然规律可能是导致早三叠世的海洋,特别是赤道地区,低生物量的重要原因之一。这一客观规律在早三叠世的两次极热事件中表现得极为明显：几乎所有的门类在格里斯巴赫中-晚期和斯密斯晚期的极热事件中都受到了很大的打击。许多二叠纪的残存类型在格里斯巴赫中-晚期灭绝；牙形石和菊石在Smithian末期的极热事件中几乎灭绝,双壳和腹足等门类也经历了多样性的显著降低。
二叠纪末生物大灭绝后各海洋生物门类长达5个百万年的不均匀复苏一直困扰地质学界。本文对古-中生代之交主要化石门类的分析表明,具有游泳能力和高起源率的门类(如菊石、牙形石)的复苏的更快,且多样性变化与温度变化有吻合关系：高温伴随生物多样性降低,较低的温度伴随生物多样性增高。而固着类型的海洋生物(如腕足,腹足类)也基本遵守这一规律,但总体多样性低于游泳类。而早三叠世的高温对低纬度海洋植物和无脊椎动物施加了重要的抑制作用。如钙藻在华南的早三叠世十分稀少,直到早三叠世晚期(Spathian)才逐步恢复；而同时期北部高纬度地区(如格陵兰岛、英属哥伦比亚、斯皮斯伯根岛)的钙藻则十分繁盛。固着生存的门类,如腕足类、腹足类,由于缺少游泳动物所具有的主动捕食和趋利避害的能力,它们在早三叠世的多样性明显低于游泳类,且在大灭绝后的复苏更为缓慢。
高温可以导致动植物向高纬度地区迁移。早三叠世的鱼类主要集中在高纬度地区：世界上许多著名的鱼类化石埋藏点,如马达加斯加岛,格陵兰岛和加拿大英属哥伦比亚等,均产极为丰富的鱼类化石,但都属于南北中-高纬度地区。而中国华南(赤道地区)早三叠世的鱼类化石相对很少；最为著名的江苏句容早三叠世鱼类属于相对偏冷的迪奈尔期,其它时间段的鱼类化石更少,这种现象一直持续到早三叠晚期(Spathian中-晚期)。与海生动物类似,大量的陆地四足兽发现于南非Karoo盆地和俄罗斯等地。南极洲有森林和相当丰富的爬行和两栖动物。因为冷血动物具有很弱的体温能力,不能生活在过冷或过热的气候条件下。这些化石门类集中于高纬度的现象是由于全球变暖导致的生物迁移；而脊椎动物的高迁移力和低依氧热耐受性,使它们在温室时期能够首先离开赤道炎热地区。离片椎类两栖动物在二叠纪末生物大灭绝后的迅速复苏-辐射是早三叠世显著的特点之一。这种早期的两栖动物在三叠纪迅速占领了淡水生态系统的主要生态位。而早三叠世的离椎类两栖动物主要分布于南北纬40°以上;这与现代两栖动物的分布形成鲜明的对比：现代两栖动物主要分布于北纬400和南纬450之间。这是因为冷血动物,特别是两栖动物,体温调节能力极弱,不能适应过高和过低的温度；而早三叠世离椎类两栖动物的高纬度分布暗示了早三叠世的两极地区可能异常温暖。
本文的古气温恢复还提供了困扰地质学界古植物灭绝和早三叠世缺煤和动物小型化等原因的最新解释。一般而言,赤道海平面温度在陆地上会被折射得更高,如现代赤道海平面温度为25-31℃,而赤道陆地地区的温度常常达到40-55℃。在早三叠世,这一温度在陆地上可能比现在的陆地最高气温更高。对于C3植物而言,超过30℃时光合作用逐渐减弱,而光合呼吸作用逐渐增强;在超过35℃时光合呼吸作用超过光合作用,大部分植物无法生存(C4植物,如现在的玉米、仙人掌等,在新生代才出现)。而高温也会增加细菌和真菌等分解者的分解能力,如现代亚马逊热带雨林的土壤即非常贫瘠,而前人的研究在早三叠世的南极发现了如今热带气候才有的低腐殖质土壤。低植物量和高分解率导致了早三叠世低纬度地区的陆相碳固定率很低,难以成煤。大体型动物的热耐受性通常更低,与高温下的高幼体死亡率相结合将产生一个小个体占主导地位的化石记录。动物的小型化是早三叠世的一个显著特色,被称为“小人国效应”(Lilliput effect)。多种门类,包括牙形石、腕足和腹足,在早三叠世都有变小的现象。本文将这种现象解释为高温度条件下一种自然现象。动物的小型化现象在地质历史时期的其它温室区间也有发现,如古新世-始新世极热事件(PETM)中哺乳动物发生了明显的变小。
大型火山作用,特别是玄武岩大火成岩省的活动,在古-中生代之交的环境变化中起到了至关重要的作用,是影响全球碳循环的重要因素。峨眉山玄武岩的喷发是导致中二叠生物灭绝的重要原因。而西伯利亚大火成岩省诱发的超级温室是导致早三叠世缺煤、生物不均匀复苏、生物向高纬度迁移和小型化的原因。但也要认识到,气候变化是由地球各圈层多种因素共同主导的。短时的极热事件往往显示出正反馈作用,在其它负反馈将碳循环恢复到一种平衡态前,放大和加速初始碳释放的温室效应。这是极热事件通常滞后于初始碳释放(在本文为峨眉山和西伯利亚的火山作用)的一个重要原因。而负反馈作用--如硅酸盐的风化--则可以直接或间接的消耗二氧化碳。在强温室条件下,大陆风化和大气对流作用得到加强；随之而来的中-高纬度强降雨条件会将大量的营养物质带入海洋,从而激发中高纬度地区的海洋生产力,进一步增加海洋碳埋藏,间接消耗二氧化碳温室气体。
综上,本文：1.首次构建了从晚二叠世末期到中三叠世早期的华南地区高精度的古海水温度曲线,并指出二叠纪-三叠纪之交古海水温度随着西伯利亚火山作用的喷发迅速升高,而随后的早三叠世则是由火山作用诱发的长达5个百万年的超级温室期;2.研究认为高温是控制早三叠世生物灭绝／复苏的主要因素,也是导致动物发生小型化和向高纬度地区迁移的原因；3.提出超级温室是导致早三叠世缺煤、缺后生生物礁的重要原因之一：4.建立了含峨眉山大火成岩省的高分辨率牙形石生物地层框架,指出峨眉山火山活动主要发生在中二叠世Capitanian中-晚期：5.建立了峨眉山火山活动与中二叠生物危机的时间对应关系——峨眉山的喷发与含蜂巢层的大型(?)类的灭绝和钙藻的转换相耦合；6.通过对茅口组／峨眉山玄武岩接触的野外观察和沉积学研究提出了与峨眉山“地幔柱公里级隆升”学说不同的看法。
In a tectonic perspective, the East Tethys likely represnted a transition from ocean basin extension to closing during the late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic interval.In the Middle Permian of Palaeozoic, extensive marine basalt was exposed in the Emeishan area on the southwest edge of Yangtze Platform, the Jianshajiang River, Songpan-Ganze Terrance and Amne Machin area, suggesting Eastern Tethys was probably in an extension stage. The disappearance of red radiolarian chert in eastern Kunlun and the of the super continent Pangea may suggest a closing stage of the East Tethys. The subduction of oceanic crust in the closure of Tethys likely linked to the activities of volcanic arc, which might be the source of wide-spreaded ash layers observed around the Permian-Triassic boundary in South China.
Two major volcanisms accompanied such transion from extension to closure and triggered significant environmental changes, large carbonate carbon isotope perturbation and mass extinctions. Comparing these two volcanic events and their environmental-ecological consequenses thus enable us to obtain a better understanding on the co-evolution of Earth system. This conforms recent developments of the Earth System Science.
Extensive basalt was widely developed at the Emeishan region, Songpan-Ganzi Terrance and Amne Machin area during the Middle-Late Permian transition, among which the Emeishan Flood Basalt was the most volumnous and could potentially trigger significant environmental changes. The Permian Emeishan LIP was a relatively small LIP that erupted on marine setting during its early stage.This unique setting enables us to conduct comprehensive conodont biostratigraphic and facies analysis studies on Maokou Limestones that were underlying and/or intercalated the initial lava flows. The studies sections span the localities from the LIP central area via LIP periphery to several hundred kilometers beyond the LIP margin. The results suggested the initial onset of the Emeishan volcanism was probably around middle Capitanian Jinogondolella altudaensis conodont zone, which was seen at Xiong Jia Chang and Pingdi sections of Guizhou Province. The large scale eruption only occurred later around J. xuanhanensis zone, which was seen at six sections of Sichuan and Yunnan Province. This phenomenon is also observed in other LIP (e.g. Parana-Etendeka) where the initial eruptions were small and increased in extent and volume with time. The onset of Emeishan volcanism coincided with-5～-6‰negative shift of carbonate carbon isotope around J. altudaensis zone, the extinction of keriotheca-walled fusulinaceans (e.g., Neoschwagerinidae), and the changeover of calcareous algae. Together with former studies, we conclude that the initial and main stages of Emeishan volcanism were within the Capitanian [～263Ma (million years ago)] rather than around the Gaudalupingian-Lopingian boundary (-259Ma). Our conodont data provide not only important constraints on biostratigraphic controls of Emeishan volcanism, but also the correlation criteria for further studies. The Guadalupian Crisis predates a6‰carbon isotope negative excurtion suggesting subsequent severe disturbance of the ocean-atmosphere carbon cycle.
The Siberian flood basalt unleashed around the Permian-Triassic interval probably played critical roles in the end-Permian mass extinction and likely trigered a green house state in the aftermath of this crisis. The Early Triassic interval (～250Ma) came at the end of an interval of major climatic change in the aftermath of the end-Permian mass extinction. The Carboniferous-Permian interval saw major and prolonged glaciations in southern polar latitudes but this ice age terminated by the end of Early Permian. Small, mountain glaciers may have persisted a little longer but after the Middle Permian there were few if any glaciers left. The ocean at this time was dominated by diverse and abundant organisms such as the ammonoids, brachiopods, corals, foraminifera, and radiolarians. On land, the dominant animals of the Late Permian were the herbivorous pareiasaurs, and the top predators were the gorgonopsids. They lived in a terrestrial ecosystem with vegetation that was dominated by seed-bearing gymnosperms. Most of these marine and terrestrial organisms were lost in the end-Permian mass extinction and replaced by the low diversity and monotonous assemblages in the Early Triassic:a shrub-like tree fern named Dicroidium and a pig-sized herbivorous reptile named Lystrosaurus dominated on land while mollusks, notably a bivalve called Claraia, appeared in a great number in the ocean. The Early Triassic world took an unusually long time to recover from the mass extinction, diversity in most ecosystems remained low for5million years. The interval was characterized by a global absence of coal burial, deep-sea radiolarian chert formation and metazoan reefs and the prevalence of small and dwarfed animals. Conditions must have been harsh at this time and new Mesozoic marine communities were only gradually established in the Middle Triassic.
Calculating the temperature changes during this extinction has proved difficult because calcite-based thermometers of fossils like brachiopod suffered great losses in the end-Permian mass extinction and are very rare in the Early Triassic. Other shelled-fossils, such as bivalves, mainly consisted of aragonite or high-magnesium calcite that is metastable during the diagenasis and thus unreliable for reconstructing the original oxygen isotopic composition that is used to determine temperatures. Conodont bio-apatite is very resistant to post-depositional changes and is ideal for temperature reconstructions in deep time. Equally fortunate, conodonts, suffered little loss in the mass extinction and so they are able to provide a continuous temperature record across the mass extinction.
Conodont oxygen isotope ratios suggest that the equatorial sea surface temperatures of the latest Permian were around25℃, very similar to those of today (the annual mean value of the equatorial sea surface temperature is roughly in25-30℃range). The temperatures quickly increased to32℃at the beginning of Early Triassic and continued to increase, reaching a thermal maximum within the Griesbachian. Many Permian survivors, such as the conodont Hindeodus and the ammonoid Otoceras, went extinct at the end of the Griesbachian and these losses may have been caused by the late Griesbachian Thermal Maximum. The following substage, the Dienerian, saw a3-4℃temperature decrease which coincides with a transient recovery pulse in which several groups began to diversify. The early and middle parts of Smithian, represent a relatively stable high temperature plateau but the late Smithian saw a further2℃temperature increase to produce sea surface temperatures that exceeded40℃during the late Smithian. This was the hottest interval in the Early Triassic and one of the hottest intervals ever recorded. The Spathian, saw an initial cooling trend followed by relatively stable temperatures in the middle part and further cooling at the end of this stage and stabilization of temperatures.
High temperatures would be expected to exert major impacts on marine lives. This is much more clear in the aftermach of the end-Permian mass extinction. Temperatures above45℃cause protein denaturation for most animals and their response, to produce heat-shock proteins, can only delay death for a short interval. However, for marine animals, the thermal limit is even lower because aerobic metabolic demands increase with temperature whilst oxygen solubility decreases in seawater and bodily fluids as temperature increases. Thus, most marine organisms cannot long survive when temperatures exceed35℃. This is most clearly for creatures with high performance and consequently high oxygen demand, such as ammonoid cephalopods and fish. The former suffered a major diversity decline in the late Smithian Thermal Maximum that was silimar great compared to their losses during the end-Permian mass extinction. Nektonic vertebrates, such as fishes and ichthyosaurs, show both high mobility and low oxygen-dependent thermal tolerance. They could vacate the equator and migrate to more comfortable areas when temperature increases. This is clearly shown in the fossil record. In the late Permian, fishes were globally distributed. They became rare in equatorial waters during the Griesbachian and Dienerian and became very scarce in low latitudes during the Smithian. In contrast, at higher latitudes during the Smithian, in places such as Spitsbergen and British Columbia, the fish fossil record is exceptional with abundant and diverse faunas present. Interestingly, ichthyosaurs first appeared in northern high latitudes during the Smithian and yet they did not appear in low latitude waters until the late Spathian several million years later. Fishes and ichthyosaurs returned to the equator during the late Spathian to early Anisian (Middle Triassic) and showed a globally distributed pattern that had not seen since the late Permian.
The active migration of vertebrates with temperature oscillations can be examined on land. Most abundant and fairly diverse Early Triassic tetrapod fossil assemblages are known from high latitudes such as South Africa and Antarctica in the south and the Russian Federations in the north. In contrast, Early Triassic terrestrial strata from low latitudes is widespread (e.g. the Buntsandstein of central Europe) and has been studied intensively for200years and yet its vertebrate remains are exceptionally rare; only in the Spathian and Middle Triassic do they start to become common. Again the prohibitively high equatorial temperatures at this time can explain this pattern:life in the tropics was unsustainable due to the heat.
The uneven recovery in the aftermach of the end-Permian mass extinction is a matter of intense debets and has puzzled geologists for years. Groups with swimming abilities and high origination rates, such as conodont and ammonoids, recovered much faster. Their diversity shows a clear inverse relationship with temperature fluctuations:high temperatures corresponding to low diversity whist low temperatures corresponding to high diversity. In contrast, sessile groups such as brachipods and gastropods show much lower diversity. High temperatures in the Early Triassic supressed both marine plants and invertibrates in the low latitudes. For example, calcareous algae were exceptionally rare in South China in the first two substages of Early Triassic. Calcareous algae did not become more common until the Spathian, a stark contrast to the high latitudes records—coeval algae thrived in Greenland, Spitsbergen, British Columbia. Sessile groups such as brachipods and gastropods lack the abilities to avoid hostile environments thus show much lower diversities than the free-living groups and recovered much slower in the aftermath of P-T mass extinction.
Our high temperature scenario offers alternative explanations for the coal gap and Lilliput effect in the Early Triassic. The middle30s℃sea surface temperatures are likely to correspond to continental temperatures of40-45℃. Such high temperatures would have been inimical to most plants and animals because the photorespirations dominate over photosynthesis in C3plants when temperatures exceed35℃whist the upper thermal tolerance of ectotherms is below45℃. Furthermore, high temperatures enhance the activities of decomposers (e.g., bacteria and fungi). The low plant mass and high decomposition rate under high temperature conditions were likely responsible for the suspension of global peat formation in the Early Triassic. The gymnosperm forests and peat formation first returned at high latitudes in the late Spathian to Anisian whist this return was much later in the equatorial. In equatorial South China, peat-forming conditions were not restored until the Late Triassic, about15million years after their disappearance. The prevalence of small species, both on land and in the ocean, is a stand-out feature in the Early Triassic low latitudes fossil records-a phenomenon that has been named the "Lilliput effect". The prevalence of small size can be explained by the observation that many organisms decrease their body size as temperatures increase. Together with increased juvenile mortalities, hothouse environments will produce fossil records that are dominated by the small. Similar size reductions among mammals are also observed during the Pal eocene-Eocene transition—another hothouse interval some55million years ago.
In conclusion, the volcanisms (especially the LIP activities) were probably the dominate factors on climate changes during the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic transition. The rapid warming during the Permian-Triassic transition was likely induced by the massive carbon release of the Siberia Traps. Sillisic volcanisms may have contributed to the maintaince of the～5Myr warmhouse climate in the Early Triassic. Transient warming events in greenhouse worlds normally represent enhanced effects of positive feedbacks, accelerated and magnified initial carbon ejections (in this case, eruptions of the Emeishan LIP and the Siberia Traps), before negative feedbacks restore the carbon cycle to a steady state. This is likely a key reason that carbon ejections predates two thermal maxima in the Early Triassic. However, it is noteworthy that the climate evolution of the Earth involves more complex feedbacks and compensations of carbon cycles. Chemical weathering is likely to be high under the hothouse conditions. High atmosphere convections and run-off rate in middle-high latitudes will bring more nutrients to oceans thus stimulates primary productivities. These processes will either consume CO2directly or convert CO2into organic carbon and ultimately draw down the atmospheric pCO2level.
In conclusion, this study:1). firstly established a high-resolution temperature record for the latest Permian to early Middle Triassic interval and suggest that the sudden temperature raise in P-T boundary interval coincide with the carbon ejections of the Siberia Traps. The following Early Triassic is one of the hottest green house interval during the Phanerszoic. Minor silicic volcanisms could contribute to maintain such presistant warm house conditions for5Myr (million years);2). suggested high temperatures controlled the nature and pace of exinction and recovery in the Early Triassic and likely a diving factor for the Lilliput effects and the dynamic immigrations of faunas and flores;3). established a hypothesis that the high temperatures were a contributing factor for the coal and coral reef gaps;4). established high-resolution conodont biostratigraphic framework for the Emeishan flood province and suggest that the major volcanic activities occurred in the Middle Permian;5). established a cause-and-effect link between the eruptions of Emeishan Basalt and the Middle Permian mass extinction—the extinctions of keriotheca-walled fusulinaceans and the changeover of calcareous algae coincided with the main phase of volcanism;6). careful obseversions on the Maokou-Emeishan contacts across the Emeishan LIP offered no evidence for a "kilometer-scale pre-volcanic uplift". Rather, a dynamic topography variation during the plume acitivies is prosposed for the Emeishan Large Igneous Province (LIP).
在上述这一拉张到闭合的旋回中,发生了两次大规模的火山活动。这两次火山活动均造成了显著的环境变迁、海洋碳酸盐碳同位素负偏和生物集群灭绝。因此,将这两次大规模的火山活动及其环境和生物效应联系起来进行对比研究,不但可以相互参照和印证,而且可以从地球圈层构造旋回角度来探索岩石圈、大气圈、水圈和生物圈之间的协同演化规律,符合当今地球系统科学所提倡的全球观和系统性的新思想。
中-晚二叠世之交,峨眉山及其以西的金沙江,松潘-甘孜和阿尼玛卿地区均大量的玄武岩喷发。其中具有重要影响的为峨眉山火成岩省大规模的玄武岩活动。峨眉山玄武岩主要分布于中国西南的云南、贵州和四川,大多覆盖在中二叠世浅海台地相茅口组灰岩之上。峨眉山玄武岩火山序列中的海相灰岩夹层中保存有瓜达鲁普统生物灭绝的丰富信息。峨眉山火山活动在中国西南瞬间释放了约25万平方公里、50万立方公里的熔岩,引起了巨大的环境灾难并造成大量海生生物的灭绝和陆地生物面貌的改变。分布在中国西南地区的众多剖面因此提供了在同一地区同时研究生物大灭绝和火山爆发的机会。本研究通过详细的牙形石生物地层工作显示了峨眉山火山作用开始于中二叠世Capitanian中期的Jinogondolella altudaensis牙形石带(-263Ma),以大规模的水-岩浆爆发式喷发为主并伴随以新希瓦格蜓(Neoschwagerinidae)为代表的大型蜂巢(?)类有孔虫和钙藻的大灭绝,这一时间早于传统观点所认为的中-晚二叠世之交；而华南大部分地区的玄武岩活动发生在稍后的J. xuanhanensis带,表现为玄武岩大规模覆盖在茅口组顶部J. xuanhanensis带灰岩之上。这种初始阶段喷发规模小,而随后伴随玄武岩活动在范围和规模上急速扩张的模式,在其它大火成岩省也很常见,如南美洲-纳米比亚的Parana-Etendeka火成岩省。峨眉山玄武岩的喷发和中二叠世的生物灭绝在时间关联支持两者存在因果联系。生物大灭绝早于大幅度碳同位素的负偏,该负偏表现出大火成岩省活动期间海洋-大气碳循环的剧烈波动。沉积学证据也不支持峨眉山火成岩省导致的公里级隆升学说,因为峨眉山喷发于中二叠世的茅口组台地灰岩之上,喷发期间的枕状熔岩等水下喷发证据遍布整个火成岩省,而喷发结束后大火成岩省主要被海陆交互相的龙潭组所覆盖。
西伯利亚暗色岩系喷发于二叠纪-三叠纪之交,而火山作用引起的一系列环境效应可能导致了二叠纪末生物的大灭绝。生物大灭绝之后早三叠世的一些独有的现象也一直引起学术界的关注：如极低的生物多样性,大幅度的碳同位素波动,缓慢的生物复苏,早三叠世全球缺煤,缺生物礁和缺硅质岩等现象。海洋生态系统直到中三叠世才得到全面恢复。生物的宏观演化、生态系统的变化往往与环境变化息息相关。因此,研究从古-中生代之交由火山活动引起的环境气候变化和生物响应显得尤为重要。论文以20000多枚牙形石化石为核心材料,在建立详细的生物地层框架的基础上,通过牙形石碳氧同位素的测试分析,首次构建起了华南地区晚二叠世末到中三叠世早期的高精度古海水温度曲线。分析认为二叠纪与三叠纪之交急剧升高的地球温度是生物大灭绝的主要原因,创新性地提出了整个早三叠世是一个海水温度持续波动上升的超级温室期。这一研究结果为认识大灭绝后几百万年时间内生物复苏滞后的原因提供了崭新的思路。
赤道海平面温度是衡量地质历史时期环境温度的重要参数,在本文用来作为量化西伯利亚大火成岩省喷发的环境效应的指标。中国华南地区在古-中生代之交是位于古赤道附近的浅海台地,具有世界上该时期最好的海相地层沉积,为本文的研究提供了良好的客观条件。深时古气温恢复需要良好的氧同位素指标,因为很多钙质壳体化石在成岩和石化过程中会发生改变,难以提供可靠的研究材料。本文的研究数据表明古-中生代之交的牙形石氧同位素数据表现出与碳同位素类似的大幅波动,总体在17.5‰到22.5‰之间震荡(NBS-120c=22.6‰),反应出整个早三叠世气温一直高位震荡到中三叠世(247Ma)。计算氧同位素数据可得出对应的古海水温度：二叠纪长兴期末的海水温度与现在的温度类似,约25℃(现代海洋赤道海平面年平均温度范围为25-31℃)。温度在二叠系-三叠系界线附近迅速上升,穿过现代海洋赤道海平面年平均温度范围,在早三叠世早期达到32℃；温度随后持续上升,在格里斯巴赫中-晚期达到第一个峰值35-38℃。格里斯巴赫期的极热事件造成了很多二叠纪的残存种的灭绝,如牙形石Hindeodus和菊石Otoceras。随后的迪奈尔期气温有所变冷,一直持续到斯密斯期最早期;斯密斯早-中期的温度相对平稳,在随后的斯密斯期-斯帕斯期之交的短暂时间内,海平面温度迅速上升了4℃,峰值可能达到了41℃,是早三叠世的第二个极热事件。在早斯帕斯期海水温度迅速降低,斯帕斯中-晚期海水温度缓慢升高,并保持在高位,斯帕斯期最末期气温有4-6℃的降低,直到中三叠世最早期气温趋于稳定,恢复到与晚二叠长兴期末相似的温度；整个早三叠世的5个百万年中,赤道海平面温度比现代海洋平均高约5-8℃。二叠-三叠纪之交海水温度的急剧升高与二叠纪末的生物大灭绝相吻合,从而证实了二叠纪末快速温室效应是导致这次生物大灭绝的重要原因之一。
全球变暖对海洋生物有重要影响,这在晚二叠世生物灭绝后的海洋中表现得十分显著。一般动物的热耐受温度上限为47℃,大部分生物的上限只有40-45℃。随着温度的升高,新陈代谢速率会大幅加强,有氧运动需氧量迅速提升。这一过程一直持续到线粒体不能提供足够的三磷酸腺苷(ATP),随后动物体即开始进行线粒体的厌氧氧化,但厌氧氧化是不能长期持续的。这一过程随后导致低血氧症(hypoxaemia),生物体只能通过生成热休克蛋白(heat-shock protein)来短期缓解。而对于海洋生物而言,热耐受温度上限更低,这是因为随着温度的上升,需氧量也随之上升而海水中的氧气溶解度迅速降低,而体液的携氧能力也更低。因此,大部分海洋动物,特别是具有高运动能力和高需氧量的门类(如头足类),不能在常年超过35℃的水温中生存。这一自然规律可能是导致早三叠世的海洋,特别是赤道地区,低生物量的重要原因之一。这一客观规律在早三叠世的两次极热事件中表现得极为明显：几乎所有的门类在格里斯巴赫中-晚期和斯密斯晚期的极热事件中都受到了很大的打击。许多二叠纪的残存类型在格里斯巴赫中-晚期灭绝；牙形石和菊石在Smithian末期的极热事件中几乎灭绝,双壳和腹足等门类也经历了多样性的显著降低。
二叠纪末生物大灭绝后各海洋生物门类长达5个百万年的不均匀复苏一直困扰地质学界。本文对古-中生代之交主要化石门类的分析表明,具有游泳能力和高起源率的门类(如菊石、牙形石)的复苏的更快,且多样性变化与温度变化有吻合关系：高温伴随生物多样性降低,较低的温度伴随生物多样性增高。而固着类型的海洋生物(如腕足,腹足类)也基本遵守这一规律,但总体多样性低于游泳类。而早三叠世的高温对低纬度海洋植物和无脊椎动物施加了重要的抑制作用。如钙藻在华南的早三叠世十分稀少,直到早三叠世晚期(Spathian)才逐步恢复；而同时期北部高纬度地区(如格陵兰岛、英属哥伦比亚、斯皮斯伯根岛)的钙藻则十分繁盛。固着生存的门类,如腕足类、腹足类,由于缺少游泳动物所具有的主动捕食和趋利避害的能力,它们在早三叠世的多样性明显低于游泳类,且在大灭绝后的复苏更为缓慢。
高温可以导致动植物向高纬度地区迁移。早三叠世的鱼类主要集中在高纬度地区：世界上许多著名的鱼类化石埋藏点,如马达加斯加岛,格陵兰岛和加拿大英属哥伦比亚等,均产极为丰富的鱼类化石,但都属于南北中-高纬度地区。而中国华南(赤道地区)早三叠世的鱼类化石相对很少；最为著名的江苏句容早三叠世鱼类属于相对偏冷的迪奈尔期,其它时间段的鱼类化石更少,这种现象一直持续到早三叠晚期(Spathian中-晚期)。与海生动物类似,大量的陆地四足兽发现于南非Karoo盆地和俄罗斯等地。南极洲有森林和相当丰富的爬行和两栖动物。因为冷血动物具有很弱的体温能力,不能生活在过冷或过热的气候条件下。这些化石门类集中于高纬度的现象是由于全球变暖导致的生物迁移；而脊椎动物的高迁移力和低依氧热耐受性,使它们在温室时期能够首先离开赤道炎热地区。离片椎类两栖动物在二叠纪末生物大灭绝后的迅速复苏-辐射是早三叠世显著的特点之一。这种早期的两栖动物在三叠纪迅速占领了淡水生态系统的主要生态位。而早三叠世的离椎类两栖动物主要分布于南北纬40°以上;这与现代两栖动物的分布形成鲜明的对比：现代两栖动物主要分布于北纬400和南纬450之间。这是因为冷血动物,特别是两栖动物,体温调节能力极弱,不能适应过高和过低的温度；而早三叠世离椎类两栖动物的高纬度分布暗示了早三叠世的两极地区可能异常温暖。
本文的古气温恢复还提供了困扰地质学界古植物灭绝和早三叠世缺煤和动物小型化等原因的最新解释。一般而言,赤道海平面温度在陆地上会被折射得更高,如现代赤道海平面温度为25-31℃,而赤道陆地地区的温度常常达到40-55℃。在早三叠世,这一温度在陆地上可能比现在的陆地最高气温更高。对于C3植物而言,超过30℃时光合作用逐渐减弱,而光合呼吸作用逐渐增强;在超过35℃时光合呼吸作用超过光合作用,大部分植物无法生存(C4植物,如现在的玉米、仙人掌等,在新生代才出现)。而高温也会增加细菌和真菌等分解者的分解能力,如现代亚马逊热带雨林的土壤即非常贫瘠,而前人的研究在早三叠世的南极发现了如今热带气候才有的低腐殖质土壤。低植物量和高分解率导致了早三叠世低纬度地区的陆相碳固定率很低,难以成煤。大体型动物的热耐受性通常更低,与高温下的高幼体死亡率相结合将产生一个小个体占主导地位的化石记录。动物的小型化是早三叠世的一个显著特色,被称为“小人国效应”(Lilliput effect)。多种门类,包括牙形石、腕足和腹足,在早三叠世都有变小的现象。本文将这种现象解释为高温度条件下一种自然现象。动物的小型化现象在地质历史时期的其它温室区间也有发现,如古新世-始新世极热事件(PETM)中哺乳动物发生了明显的变小。
大型火山作用,特别是玄武岩大火成岩省的活动,在古-中生代之交的环境变化中起到了至关重要的作用,是影响全球碳循环的重要因素。峨眉山玄武岩的喷发是导致中二叠生物灭绝的重要原因。而西伯利亚大火成岩省诱发的超级温室是导致早三叠世缺煤、生物不均匀复苏、生物向高纬度迁移和小型化的原因。但也要认识到,气候变化是由地球各圈层多种因素共同主导的。短时的极热事件往往显示出正反馈作用,在其它负反馈将碳循环恢复到一种平衡态前,放大和加速初始碳释放的温室效应。这是极热事件通常滞后于初始碳释放(在本文为峨眉山和西伯利亚的火山作用)的一个重要原因。而负反馈作用--如硅酸盐的风化--则可以直接或间接的消耗二氧化碳。在强温室条件下,大陆风化和大气对流作用得到加强；随之而来的中-高纬度强降雨条件会将大量的营养物质带入海洋,从而激发中高纬度地区的海洋生产力,进一步增加海洋碳埋藏,间接消耗二氧化碳温室气体。
综上,本文：1.首次构建了从晚二叠世末期到中三叠世早期的华南地区高精度的古海水温度曲线,并指出二叠纪-三叠纪之交古海水温度随着西伯利亚火山作用的喷发迅速升高,而随后的早三叠世则是由火山作用诱发的长达5个百万年的超级温室期;2.研究认为高温是控制早三叠世生物灭绝／复苏的主要因素,也是导致动物发生小型化和向高纬度地区迁移的原因；3.提出超级温室是导致早三叠世缺煤、缺后生生物礁的重要原因之一：4.建立了含峨眉山大火成岩省的高分辨率牙形石生物地层框架,指出峨眉山火山活动主要发生在中二叠世Capitanian中-晚期：5.建立了峨眉山火山活动与中二叠生物危机的时间对应关系——峨眉山的喷发与含蜂巢层的大型(?)类的灭绝和钙藻的转换相耦合；6.通过对茅口组／峨眉山玄武岩接触的野外观察和沉积学研究提出了与峨眉山“地幔柱公里级隆升”学说不同的看法。
In a tectonic perspective, the East Tethys likely represnted a transition from ocean basin extension to closing during the late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic interval.In the Middle Permian of Palaeozoic, extensive marine basalt was exposed in the Emeishan area on the southwest edge of Yangtze Platform, the Jianshajiang River, Songpan-Ganze Terrance and Amne Machin area, suggesting Eastern Tethys was probably in an extension stage. The disappearance of red radiolarian chert in eastern Kunlun and the of the super continent Pangea may suggest a closing stage of the East Tethys. The subduction of oceanic crust in the closure of Tethys likely linked to the activities of volcanic arc, which might be the source of wide-spreaded ash layers observed around the Permian-Triassic boundary in South China.
Two major volcanisms accompanied such transion from extension to closure and triggered significant environmental changes, large carbonate carbon isotope perturbation and mass extinctions. Comparing these two volcanic events and their environmental-ecological consequenses thus enable us to obtain a better understanding on the co-evolution of Earth system. This conforms recent developments of the Earth System Science.
Extensive basalt was widely developed at the Emeishan region, Songpan-Ganzi Terrance and Amne Machin area during the Middle-Late Permian transition, among which the Emeishan Flood Basalt was the most volumnous and could potentially trigger significant environmental changes. The Permian Emeishan LIP was a relatively small LIP that erupted on marine setting during its early stage.This unique setting enables us to conduct comprehensive conodont biostratigraphic and facies analysis studies on Maokou Limestones that were underlying and/or intercalated the initial lava flows. The studies sections span the localities from the LIP central area via LIP periphery to several hundred kilometers beyond the LIP margin. The results suggested the initial onset of the Emeishan volcanism was probably around middle Capitanian Jinogondolella altudaensis conodont zone, which was seen at Xiong Jia Chang and Pingdi sections of Guizhou Province. The large scale eruption only occurred later around J. xuanhanensis zone, which was seen at six sections of Sichuan and Yunnan Province. This phenomenon is also observed in other LIP (e.g. Parana-Etendeka) where the initial eruptions were small and increased in extent and volume with time. The onset of Emeishan volcanism coincided with-5～-6‰negative shift of carbonate carbon isotope around J. altudaensis zone, the extinction of keriotheca-walled fusulinaceans (e.g., Neoschwagerinidae), and the changeover of calcareous algae. Together with former studies, we conclude that the initial and main stages of Emeishan volcanism were within the Capitanian [～263Ma (million years ago)] rather than around the Gaudalupingian-Lopingian boundary (-259Ma). Our conodont data provide not only important constraints on biostratigraphic controls of Emeishan volcanism, but also the correlation criteria for further studies. The Guadalupian Crisis predates a6‰carbon isotope negative excurtion suggesting subsequent severe disturbance of the ocean-atmosphere carbon cycle.
The Siberian flood basalt unleashed around the Permian-Triassic interval probably played critical roles in the end-Permian mass extinction and likely trigered a green house state in the aftermath of this crisis. The Early Triassic interval (～250Ma) came at the end of an interval of major climatic change in the aftermath of the end-Permian mass extinction. The Carboniferous-Permian interval saw major and prolonged glaciations in southern polar latitudes but this ice age terminated by the end of Early Permian. Small, mountain glaciers may have persisted a little longer but after the Middle Permian there were few if any glaciers left. The ocean at this time was dominated by diverse and abundant organisms such as the ammonoids, brachiopods, corals, foraminifera, and radiolarians. On land, the dominant animals of the Late Permian were the herbivorous pareiasaurs, and the top predators were the gorgonopsids. They lived in a terrestrial ecosystem with vegetation that was dominated by seed-bearing gymnosperms. Most of these marine and terrestrial organisms were lost in the end-Permian mass extinction and replaced by the low diversity and monotonous assemblages in the Early Triassic:a shrub-like tree fern named Dicroidium and a pig-sized herbivorous reptile named Lystrosaurus dominated on land while mollusks, notably a bivalve called Claraia, appeared in a great number in the ocean. The Early Triassic world took an unusually long time to recover from the mass extinction, diversity in most ecosystems remained low for5million years. The interval was characterized by a global absence of coal burial, deep-sea radiolarian chert formation and metazoan reefs and the prevalence of small and dwarfed animals. Conditions must have been harsh at this time and new Mesozoic marine communities were only gradually established in the Middle Triassic.
Calculating the temperature changes during this extinction has proved difficult because calcite-based thermometers of fossils like brachiopod suffered great losses in the end-Permian mass extinction and are very rare in the Early Triassic. Other shelled-fossils, such as bivalves, mainly consisted of aragonite or high-magnesium calcite that is metastable during the diagenasis and thus unreliable for reconstructing the original oxygen isotopic composition that is used to determine temperatures. Conodont bio-apatite is very resistant to post-depositional changes and is ideal for temperature reconstructions in deep time. Equally fortunate, conodonts, suffered little loss in the mass extinction and so they are able to provide a continuous temperature record across the mass extinction.
Conodont oxygen isotope ratios suggest that the equatorial sea surface temperatures of the latest Permian were around25℃, very similar to those of today (the annual mean value of the equatorial sea surface temperature is roughly in25-30℃range). The temperatures quickly increased to32℃at the beginning of Early Triassic and continued to increase, reaching a thermal maximum within the Griesbachian. Many Permian survivors, such as the conodont Hindeodus and the ammonoid Otoceras, went extinct at the end of the Griesbachian and these losses may have been caused by the late Griesbachian Thermal Maximum. The following substage, the Dienerian, saw a3-4℃temperature decrease which coincides with a transient recovery pulse in which several groups began to diversify. The early and middle parts of Smithian, represent a relatively stable high temperature plateau but the late Smithian saw a further2℃temperature increase to produce sea surface temperatures that exceeded40℃during the late Smithian. This was the hottest interval in the Early Triassic and one of the hottest intervals ever recorded. The Spathian, saw an initial cooling trend followed by relatively stable temperatures in the middle part and further cooling at the end of this stage and stabilization of temperatures.
High temperatures would be expected to exert major impacts on marine lives. This is much more clear in the aftermach of the end-Permian mass extinction. Temperatures above45℃cause protein denaturation for most animals and their response, to produce heat-shock proteins, can only delay death for a short interval. However, for marine animals, the thermal limit is even lower because aerobic metabolic demands increase with temperature whilst oxygen solubility decreases in seawater and bodily fluids as temperature increases. Thus, most marine organisms cannot long survive when temperatures exceed35℃. This is most clearly for creatures with high performance and consequently high oxygen demand, such as ammonoid cephalopods and fish. The former suffered a major diversity decline in the late Smithian Thermal Maximum that was silimar great compared to their losses during the end-Permian mass extinction. Nektonic vertebrates, such as fishes and ichthyosaurs, show both high mobility and low oxygen-dependent thermal tolerance. They could vacate the equator and migrate to more comfortable areas when temperature increases. This is clearly shown in the fossil record. In the late Permian, fishes were globally distributed. They became rare in equatorial waters during the Griesbachian and Dienerian and became very scarce in low latitudes during the Smithian. In contrast, at higher latitudes during the Smithian, in places such as Spitsbergen and British Columbia, the fish fossil record is exceptional with abundant and diverse faunas present. Interestingly, ichthyosaurs first appeared in northern high latitudes during the Smithian and yet they did not appear in low latitude waters until the late Spathian several million years later. Fishes and ichthyosaurs returned to the equator during the late Spathian to early Anisian (Middle Triassic) and showed a globally distributed pattern that had not seen since the late Permian.
The active migration of vertebrates with temperature oscillations can be examined on land. Most abundant and fairly diverse Early Triassic tetrapod fossil assemblages are known from high latitudes such as South Africa and Antarctica in the south and the Russian Federations in the north. In contrast, Early Triassic terrestrial strata from low latitudes is widespread (e.g. the Buntsandstein of central Europe) and has been studied intensively for200years and yet its vertebrate remains are exceptionally rare; only in the Spathian and Middle Triassic do they start to become common. Again the prohibitively high equatorial temperatures at this time can explain this pattern:life in the tropics was unsustainable due to the heat.
The uneven recovery in the aftermach of the end-Permian mass extinction is a matter of intense debets and has puzzled geologists for years. Groups with swimming abilities and high origination rates, such as conodont and ammonoids, recovered much faster. Their diversity shows a clear inverse relationship with temperature fluctuations:high temperatures corresponding to low diversity whist low temperatures corresponding to high diversity. In contrast, sessile groups such as brachipods and gastropods show much lower diversity. High temperatures in the Early Triassic supressed both marine plants and invertibrates in the low latitudes. For example, calcareous algae were exceptionally rare in South China in the first two substages of Early Triassic. Calcareous algae did not become more common until the Spathian, a stark contrast to the high latitudes records—coeval algae thrived in Greenland, Spitsbergen, British Columbia. Sessile groups such as brachipods and gastropods lack the abilities to avoid hostile environments thus show much lower diversities than the free-living groups and recovered much slower in the aftermath of P-T mass extinction.
Our high temperature scenario offers alternative explanations for the coal gap and Lilliput effect in the Early Triassic. The middle30s℃sea surface temperatures are likely to correspond to continental temperatures of40-45℃. Such high temperatures would have been inimical to most plants and animals because the photorespirations dominate over photosynthesis in C3plants when temperatures exceed35℃whist the upper thermal tolerance of ectotherms is below45℃. Furthermore, high temperatures enhance the activities of decomposers (e.g., bacteria and fungi). The low plant mass and high decomposition rate under high temperature conditions were likely responsible for the suspension of global peat formation in the Early Triassic. The gymnosperm forests and peat formation first returned at high latitudes in the late Spathian to Anisian whist this return was much later in the equatorial. In equatorial South China, peat-forming conditions were not restored until the Late Triassic, about15million years after their disappearance. The prevalence of small species, both on land and in the ocean, is a stand-out feature in the Early Triassic low latitudes fossil records-a phenomenon that has been named the "Lilliput effect". The prevalence of small size can be explained by the observation that many organisms decrease their body size as temperatures increase. Together with increased juvenile mortalities, hothouse environments will produce fossil records that are dominated by the small. Similar size reductions among mammals are also observed during the Pal eocene-Eocene transition—another hothouse interval some55million years ago.
In conclusion, the volcanisms (especially the LIP activities) were probably the dominate factors on climate changes during the Palaeozoic-Mesozoic transition. The rapid warming during the Permian-Triassic transition was likely induced by the massive carbon release of the Siberia Traps. Sillisic volcanisms may have contributed to the maintaince of the～5Myr warmhouse climate in the Early Triassic. Transient warming events in greenhouse worlds normally represent enhanced effects of positive feedbacks, accelerated and magnified initial carbon ejections (in this case, eruptions of the Emeishan LIP and the Siberia Traps), before negative feedbacks restore the carbon cycle to a steady state. This is likely a key reason that carbon ejections predates two thermal maxima in the Early Triassic. However, it is noteworthy that the climate evolution of the Earth involves more complex feedbacks and compensations of carbon cycles. Chemical weathering is likely to be high under the hothouse conditions. High atmosphere convections and run-off rate in middle-high latitudes will bring more nutrients to oceans thus stimulates primary productivities. These processes will either consume CO2directly or convert CO2into organic carbon and ultimately draw down the atmospheric pCO2level.
In conclusion, this study:1). firstly established a high-resolution temperature record for the latest Permian to early Middle Triassic interval and suggest that the sudden temperature raise in P-T boundary interval coincide with the carbon ejections of the Siberia Traps. The following Early Triassic is one of the hottest green house interval during the Phanerszoic. Minor silicic volcanisms could contribute to maintain such presistant warm house conditions for5Myr (million years);2). suggested high temperatures controlled the nature and pace of exinction and recovery in the Early Triassic and likely a diving factor for the Lilliput effects and the dynamic immigrations of faunas and flores;3). established a hypothesis that the high temperatures were a contributing factor for the coal and coral reef gaps;4). established high-resolution conodont biostratigraphic framework for the Emeishan flood province and suggest that the major volcanic activities occurred in the Middle Permian;5). established a cause-and-effect link between the eruptions of Emeishan Basalt and the Middle Permian mass extinction—the extinctions of keriotheca-walled fusulinaceans and the changeover of calcareous algae coincided with the main phase of volcanism;6). careful obseversions on the Maokou-Emeishan contacts across the Emeishan LIP offered no evidence for a "kilometer-scale pre-volcanic uplift". Rather, a dynamic topography variation during the plume acitivies is prosposed for the Emeishan Large Igneous Province (LIP).
引文
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