层状节理岩体高边坡地震动力破坏机理研究
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摘要
地震诱发的层状节理岩体高边坡破坏是一种常见的的自然地质灾害,破坏范围极大,破坏力极强。对于其地震动力破坏机理的研究,涉及到多学科的交叉,一直是科学界的研究重点和难点之一。目前的研究手段和研究方法多数借鉴于对土质边坡地震动力破坏机理研究的成果,不能很好的反映出层状节理岩体的结构特征和动力变形破坏特点。本文从层状节理岩体的物理力学特征入手,以结构面网络控制理论为核心思想,综合利用工程地质分析法、岩体力学理论、岩石断裂力学理论、物理模型试验手段和数值模拟试验手段,分别针对顺层节理岩体高边坡、逆层节理岩体高边坡和近水平层状节理岩体高边坡的地震动力破坏机理进行了系统的研究探索,主要的研究结论如下：
以结构面网络控制理论为指导思想,系统分析了三种层状节理岩体高边坡的岩体结构面网络发育特征和物理力学性质,将结构面分为层面和正交次级节理面两大类,认为层面和正交次级节理均存在着贯通部分和非贯通部分;着重强调了正交次级节理对岩体边坡地震动力稳定性的影响；指出岩体结构面的非贯通部分所具有的强度对岩体边坡地震动力稳定性的贡献十分显著。
运用岩体力学理论和岩石断裂力学理论,通过理论推导和对前人试验结果的分析,明确了岩石材料内部的微裂纹只能产生Ⅰ型张拉破坏,而所谓的岩石裂纹Ⅱ型剪切破坏,实际上是由无数微观的Ⅰ型张拉破坏面连接而成的细观破坏面,其尺度已经超出经典材料断裂力学微观尺度研究范畴,不属于真正意义上的裂纹Ⅱ型剪切破坏,从而说明岩石断裂力学实际上是一门介于微观和宏观尺度之间的材料科学。推导了层状岩体层面内部细观裂纹扩展贯通的断裂力学计算公式和破坏判据,研究了在不同应力条件下和不同的层面强度条件下层面内部裂纹扩展贯通的规律。研究结果证明,层面的强度与受力状态相关,并且层面强度与完整岩块强度的比值会影响层面的扩展模式。改进了层状岩体内部正交次级节理形成机制构造力学模型,并分析了不同构造力学条件下正交次级节理扩展的断裂力学机制。利用岩石断裂力学理论从力学角度系统研究和总结了为何层状岩体中的正交次级节理无法穿透层面切割多层岩石。研究结果表明,产生这种现象的原因主要有：正交次级节理无法穿透已经产生贯通的层面；由于非贯通层面断裂韧度远低于完整岩块断裂韧度,因此正交次级节理在扩展至与非贯通层面交汇时,无论处于何种应力状态,均会优先沿层面延伸方向产生扩展,使层面逐渐贯通,而无法切穿非贯通层面进而切割多层岩石。
总结了顺层、逆层和近水平层状节理岩体高边坡地震动力破坏基本特征,改进了各类边坡的地震动力破坏模型。以结构面网络控制理论为指导,分别对顺层、逆层和近水平层状节理岩体高边坡在地震动力作用下内部层面和正交次级节理面的破坏模式进行了详细的分类研究,通过研究证明,对于顺层节理岩体高边坡,在水平地震动力作用下其内部非贯通层面部位也可能处于受拉应力状态,产生张拉破坏,并非只能产生剪切破坏。通过分析指出,贯通结构面由于胶结或填充作用所具有的微小抗拉强度不能在动力破坏分析过程中被忽视,因为当抗拉强度丧失后,贯通结构面的抗剪强度也会显著减小。为此,提出了考虑贯通结构面动力破坏过程中抗拉强度与抗剪强度关系的改进Mohr-Coulomb破坏准则。
使用相似材料制作了含有非连续的层面和非贯通的次级节理顺层和逆层岩质边坡物理模型,并对其进行了离心机动力试验研究。对岩石相似材料的常规试验和裂纹扩展试验结果证明本文所设计的岩石相似材料制作方法和闭合接触层面和次级节理制作方法能够较好的反映真实层状节理岩体的物理力学特性。岩石相似材料采用石膏和细砂及水的混合物通过标准化的制备方法制成,其物理力学特性与沉积砂岩近似：设计了新的工艺和新的方法,首次实现了完全闭合接触的贯通层面的制作；实现了层面非贯通部位的精确位置控制和较为精确的强度控制；设计并改进了离心机试验系统,其中改进了试验加载平台,使其适用于岩体边坡模型动力试验；设计了新的裂隙扩展监测装置,用于监测边坡层面的准确破坏时刻。离心机模型试验结果证明：①边坡地形放大效应与地震动力输入频率和振幅有关,并分析推断产生这种现象的原因为边坡阻尼的影响,阻尼不是常数,与震动频率有关,并且阻尼越大,边坡的地形放大效应越明显；②层状岩体中广泛发育的正交次级节理对层状岩质边坡的动力响应和动力破坏均存在显著的影响,含有正交次级节理的边坡模型动力稳定性小于不含有正交次级节理的边坡模型。
完善了使用非连续性介质模拟方法和连续性介质模拟方法进行层状节理岩体高边坡建模进行耦合计算的原理及具体实现方法。其中非连续介质建模部分采用PFC2D软件,连续性介质建模部分采用FLAC软件。系统研究了由颗粒集合体粘结而成的PFC2D岩块模型中颗粒细观参数与模型宏观参数之间的关系；改进了非贯通Smooth Joint接触模型破坏准则,设计了两种在PFC2D层状岩体模型内部表达层状岩体内部正交次级节理的方法,即通过折减层间岩块强度的隐式方法,和使用改进的Smooth Joint接触模型显式添加正交次级节理的方法：建立了PFC2D层状岩体模型,通过对模型进行单轴抗压试验,并与岩石断裂力学理论计算结果相对比,证明了该模型的适用型。
分别建立了顺层、逆层、近水平层状节理岩体高边坡PFC2D/FLAC耦合计算模型,进行了边坡地震动力破坏过程数值模拟,分析了各类边坡地震动力破坏的基本模式,并针对层状节理岩体中层面和正交次级节理的参数对边坡地震动力破坏过程的影响进行了试验研究,研究结果如下：
在地震动力破坏过程中,顺层节理岩体边坡主要沿层面与正交次级节理组合而成的破坏面产生滑动破坏。内部非贯通层面不只会产生剪切破坏,而且会产生张拉破坏；正交次级节理主要产生张拉破坏,几乎不存在剪切破坏。非贯通层面部分的强度和层面贯通率对顺层边坡地震动力稳定性的影响十分明显,贯通层面摩擦角的影响较小；非贯通正交次级节理强度和节理间距对边坡地震动力稳定性、破坏模式、破坏范围均有着显著的影响：贯通正交次级节理的摩擦角对边坡地震动力过程几乎不产生影响。试验结果证明,层状岩体中广泛发育的正交次级节理对顺层岩体边坡地震动力破坏模式影响显著,在进行顺层节理岩体边坡地震动力稳定性分析时,必须考虑正交次级节理的发育对其破坏模式和稳定性的影响。实验结果还证明,顺层岩体边坡地震动力顺层滑动破坏机理的传统理论存在着漏洞,顺层边坡内部的层面,即使在如本文所施加的水平地震动力作用下,仍然可以产生张拉破坏,因此在对边坡地震动力稳定性的研究中,必须考虑层面抗拉强度的影响。试验中顺层节理岩体高边坡的动力破坏是一个渐进的过程,随着地震动力输入的增强,边坡破坏区域由表层区域逐渐向边坡内部扩展,边坡在破坏过程中内部会形成多条贯通破坏面,破坏区域的岩体在地震动力作用过程中也会产生内部的解体。因此,传统的只针对某一指定潜在破坏面进行的顺层边坡地震动力稳定性分析,只能计算出边坡沿着该指定破坏面破坏的情况下的稳定性,但这不能完整的表达边坡的实际动力稳定性。为此,设计了一种新的顺层节理岩体边坡动力稳定性判定方法,采用两个基本参数进行破坏判别：①边坡内部形成首条贯通破坏面所需的地震动力输入强度；②首条贯通破坏面所围破坏区域大小。该判定方法既可以判断边坡的动力稳定性,又可以判断边坡失稳后破坏范围的大小。
在地震动力破坏过程中,逆层节理岩体高边坡主要产生倾倒破坏,内部层面主要产生剪切破坏和张拉破坏,以剪切破坏为主,张拉破坏所占比例很小,并且均集中于逆层边坡坡体顶部位置。坡顶岩层主要产生沿正交次级节理的张拉破坏,形成转动位移,产生宏观的倾倒；而坡底的正交次级节理既会产生张拉破坏,也会产生剪切破坏,坡底岩层产生的转动位移很小,而滑动位移趋势明显。非贯通层面部分的强度和层面贯通率对逆层边坡地震动力稳定性的影响十分明显,而贯通层面部分的抗剪强度的影响较小。非贯通正交次级节理强度、贯通正交次级节理抗剪强度、正交次级节理间距三个参数均会对边坡地震动力稳定性产生一定的影响,但影响的程度十分有限。在地震动力作用下逆层边坡坡顶岩层内的正交次级节理首先产生张拉破坏,使顶部岩体产生倾倒趋势,然后才是边坡底部岩层内部的正交次级节理产生剪切破坏和张拉破坏,使底部岩体形成贯通破坏面,产生滑动位移。而对逆层边坡的传统静力学分析认为在静力条件下,边坡底部岩体首先产生破坏,导致上覆岩体失去支撑形成倾倒破坏。这一破坏顺序的差别充分反映出了正交次级节理的存在对边坡地震动力破坏过程的影响,并体现出了逆层边坡静力破坏与动力破坏过程的区别。
在地震动力破坏过程中,近水平层状节理岩体边坡内部岩体产生了大量的渐进式破坏,其中包含了张拉破坏和剪切破坏,以张拉破坏为主。岩体首先产生大量的近竖直方向延伸的宏观张拉裂缝,随着这些裂缝数量的增加和密度的增大,相互连接形成宏观的剪切破坏面,构成了圆弧状的破坏面。随着正交次级节理强度的提升,边坡的地震动力稳定性相应提升。边坡表层破碎岩体的厚度在很大程度上控制着边坡产生整体破坏的破坏范围,随着厚度的增大,破坏范围相应增大。贯通层面抗剪强度对边坡地震动力稳定性、动力破坏过程的影响非常小。随着层面倾角的变化,边坡逐渐从顺层缓倾过渡到逆层缓倾,在相同地震强度作用下边坡地震永久位移随着倾角的减小逐渐减小,并呈现近似指数关系。因此,在进行近水平层状节理岩体边坡地震动力稳定性分析过程中,无法找出一个固定的永久位移阀值,来统一判断不同倾角边坡的临界失稳状态。
选取在5.12汶川地震中产生破坏的四川省北川县孙家园滑坡为计算实例,建立其FLAC/PFC2D耦合模型进行地震动力破坏过程数值模拟。模拟结果显示,孙家园滑坡在汶川地震作用下,先后经历岩体内部破损、边坡局部崩滑、边坡大面积失稳、破坏体解体形成岩石碎屑流、沿山体高速运移刮铲山体表层破损岩体、减速堆积堵塞河道几个阶段。计算结果与实际情况符合程度较高。
Seismic-induced layered rock slope failure is a common type of geo-hazard worldwide, it can cause severe damage for human ware fare. Research on its failure mechanism involves several different scientific topics and has been one of the most complex problems in the geotechnical research field. Up till now the methods used in the seismic-induced layered rock slope failure mechanism are borrowed from the research on soil slope dynamic failure, these methods, however, cannot properly represent either the geological characteristic, or the failure process of rock masses with rock layers and joints in them. To concur this shortage above, this thesis focus on explaining the dynamic failure mechanism of layered rock slope with the respect of the natural rock mass structuralcharacteristic, by utilizing the theory of geotechnical analysis, rock mechanics, rock fracture mechanics, as well as physical and numerical model tests, to study the seismic-induced failure mechanism of three basic type of layered rock slope:bedding slope, inverse slope and level slope.
Based on the theory of rock-joint structural control, analyzed the basic joint structure network of the three type of layered rock slope, and divided the rock joints in the layered rock slope into two predominant kind:rock plane and secondary rock joint. The research showed that these two predominant rock joint types are basically vertically lied to each other, and both two types consist of unattached part and attached part inside them. The study on the effect of the secondary rock joint shows that this kind of joint plays an very important role on the control of the rock slope safety. And the study on the effect of the rock plane shows that the attached part inside the rock planes serve to remarkably increase the safety of the rock slope.
Based on the theory of rock mechanics and rock fracture mechanics, the failure process of rock joint is deduced, and proved by some rock fracture tests carried by former researchers. The theoretical results show that rock fracture can only produce Mode I tensile failure, and the so-called Mode II'shear'failure proposed and claimed by some researchers is essentially the combination and connection of numerous small Mode I tensile fracture. The dimension of the so-called'mode II rock fracture'is beyond the dimension of the concept of classic fracture mechanics, therefore is not real'shear fracture'. This difference reveals that the rock fracture mechanics should be viewed as a certain type of material scientific theory whose study dimension isbetweenmicroscopic and macroscopic. The fracture processing formula and failing judgment are developed for the microscopic rock plane fracture under different type of stress conditions and with different strength compared with the intact rock, and its processing form is carefully studied and explained by rock fracture mechanics. The results show that the strength of the non-through rock plane is essentially controlled by the stress conditions of the rock plane; and the rock plane fracture failure type can be affected by the ratio of the strength of the rock plane and the strength of the intact rock. Improved the structural stress compute model for the formation of secondary rock joint, and studied the fracture process of the secondary rock joint under different structural stress condition. By utilizing the theory of rock fracture mechanics, found two explanations of why secondary rock joint usually cannot cut through multiple rock layers, these are:1) secondary rock joint cannot cut through the already unattached open rock plane; and2) when the secondary rock joint progress and encounter the attached rock plane, the secondary rock joint will continue to progress along the rock plane in spite of the stress condition it is behold, this is due to the fact that in the reality, the strength of the attached rock plane is far smaller than the strength of the intact rock.
This thesis identified the characteristics of the dynamic failure of the bedding slope, inverse slope, and level slope, and improved the basic compute model of these three type of rock slope. Based on the theory of rock-joint structural control, classified and analyzed the rock plane and secondary rock joint dynamic failure mechanism during the process of the seismic-induced three basic type of layered rock slope failure.
Two basic type of layered rock slope physical model-the sliding and inverse slope with rock plane and secondary rock joint in them-were built of synthetic material, and tested in the centrifuge testing system to witness the failure process of the rock slope during earthquake. Basic rock sample tests and fracture progressing tests to the synthetic rock mass material proved that the material recipe, the casting procedure, and the newly invented method to build closed rock plane and secondary rock joint are suitable for presenting the important characteristics of real layered rock mass. The synthetic material is made of gypsum, sand and pure water with certain mix ratio through straight casting procedure, its physical and mechanical properties are similar with sandstone; New methods are invented to make the rock plane with no gap; the attached parts inside the rock plane are made with good position control and strength control. several advances are made for the centrifuge testing system to enable the dynamic test for rock like material and rock slope model:a brand new model loading plate was designed and built; and a new monitoring system was designed and set up to acquire the accurate breakage time of the rock joints inside the physical model during the test. The results of the centrifuge dynamic tests reveal that the topographic amplification effect of the layered rock slope is related to the frequency and amplitude of the input seismic motion, the reason for these relations can be united to the damping function of the slope on the topographicamplification effect:the damping function of the slope is related to the input motion, and as the damping function grows bigger, the amplification effect becomes more obvious. Moreover, the test results show that the secondary rock joint inside the rock slope physical model plays a very important role on both the dynamic response and the dynamic failure process of the two different rock slope type, it serves to decrease the dynamic stability of the two type of the rock slope.
The hybrid finite-discrete model simulation method is provided and improved to simulate the seismic-induced layered rock slope failure process, in which PFC2D is used as discrete element simulation software and FLAC is used as finite element simulation software. The relationship between the property of the PFC2D intact rock model(which is the union of numerous particles) and the property of the PFC2D particles is carefully studied, and the Smooth Joint Contact Model of the PFC2D is improved in order to add attached and unattached rock plane and secondary rock joint into the PFC2D intact rock model, this improved model is tested by carrying out several group of certain numerical test and comparing the test results with the theoretical results deduced in this thesis, and the result shows close agreement between them.
The hybrid finite-discrete element models for bedding slope, inverse slope and level slope are built and tested under horizontal seismic load, the failure process and the effect of rock plane properties and secondary rock joint properties to the dynamic failure process and safety of these three type of layered rock slope are carefully studied, the tests results are as below:
During the dynamic failure process, the bedding slope mainly had sliding movement along the failure plane which is the combination of the opened rock planes and secondary rock joints. Some of the attached rock planes failed in shear, but there are also ineligible number of attached rock planes failed in tension; the secondary rock joints mainly failed in tension, rarely in shear. The strength of the attached rock plane and the continuity rate of rock plane effect the dynamic stability of the sliding rock slope significantly, while the shear strength of the unattached rock plane barely has any effect; the strength of the attached secondary rock joint and the spacing of the secondary rock joint effect the slope's dynamic behavior significantly, while the shear strength of the unattached secondary rock joint serves very small effect. Tests results shows that a large number of rock planes inside the bedding rock slope failed in tension even under the horizontal seismic load used by this thesis, which failed to be revealed in the original failure mechanism theory of bedding slope failing in pure sliding along the rock planes. Therefore, the tensile strength should be treated as one of the controlling factors to the dynamic stability of bedding rock slope under seismic load. The failure process of the bedding slope during the simulation is a gradual process, as the seismic input motion ramped, the failing zone of the slope extended from the surface of the rock slope gradually to the inner of the rock slope, and multiple cut-through failure plane formed during the failure process, due to the internal breakage of the rock masses. Therefore, the classic slope stability analysis method cannot cover the actual dynamic stability of rock slope, because it usually consider the rock slope fails along one single potential failure plane, and calculate the slope stability with this pre-specified failure mode. In order to solve this problem, an amended rock slope sliding failure criterion is invented and tested by several simulation results. This amended failure criterion include two valuation parameters:1) the critical amplitude of the seismic input motion for the rock slope to form the first cut-through failure plane; and2) the volume of the failing rock mass cut by this failure plane. By using this criterion, both the dynamic stability and the predicted destructive range of the rock slope can be judge properly.
During the dynamic failure process, the inverse slope mainly had toppling failure along the step-path failure plane at the bottom of the rock slope. The rock plane mainly had shear failure during the failure process, with less amount of tensile failure also, and most of the tensile failure of the rock plane occurs in the crest part of the rock slope on top. The rock mass on the top of the rock slope generally broke along the secondary rock joints, to form numerous tensile cracks, and the whole rock mass on top toppled during the failure process, generated large rotation; the secondary rock joints at the bottom part of the rock slope generated both shear and tensile cracks, and had obvious slipping movement but with very small rotation. The strength of the attached rock plane and the continuity rate of rock plane effect the dynamic stability of the toppling rock slope significantly, while the shear strength of the unattached rock plane barely has any effect; the strength of the attached secondary rock joints, the shear strength of the unattached secondary rock joints and the spacing of the secondary rock joints all had relatively small effect the slope's dynamic behavior. During the dynamic test, the rock mass nearly the crest of the slope first generated secondary joint tensile failure, which cut the rock layers through and made connections with unattached rock planes, made the rock mass have the tendency to topple; as the dynamic input motion ramped, the secondary joints inside the bottom of the rock slope started to fail in shear or tension, and a cut-through failure plane beneath the inverse rock layers was formed gradually, enable the rock layers at the bottom to slide along this failure plane, and triggered the total toppling failure of the whole slope. This failure process is basically inversed to the failure process of inverse rock slope under static load, which by static analysis shows that the inverse rock slope usually failure firstly at the bottom, inducing support loss for the upper layers, and then the upper layers bend and topple gradually. This difference above reveals two major facts for the dynamic failure mechanism of inverse rock slope:1) the presence of the secondary rock joints can severely affect the failure mechanism of inverse rock slope; and2) the static failure process and the dynamic failure process of inverse rock slope are very different from each other, cannot be treated as the same.
During the dynamic failure process, level slope generated many internal breakages inside the rock mass, which include both shear and tensile failure of rock joints, and the tensile failure is superior in number. The rock mass first formed a large number of open cracks whose orientation are nearly vertical, and as those open cracks grows longer and the number grows bigger, they can connect with each other to form a macroscopic'shear'failure plane inside the rock slope, which eventually cut through the rock slope in a shape of circle. The dynamic stability of the level slope is controlled mainly by the strength of the secondary rock joints, and the size of the failing rock mass is strongly affected by the thickness of the weak rock mass on the surface of the level slope, when the thickness is bigger, the size of the failing rock mass during when dynamic failure occurs grows larger. To the contrary, the shear strength of the rock planes barely has any effect on the stability of the level slope. However, the dip angle of the level rock slope serves to effect the permanent displacement of the slope during the dynamic failure process, as the dip angle changes the level slope from slice-bedding to flat-inverse, the permanent displacement of the level slope under the same seismic load at the same time decreases in negative exponent form. Therefore, level rock slopes with a relatively small change of the dip angle of the layered rock masses could have a very different critical permanent displacement when the slopes are on the threshold of failing, and it is impossible to find one unique critical value for all level slopes to be used to judge their dynamic stability.
Finally, one example simulation work is worked out to illustrate the properness of the combined finite-discrete element method on simulating layered rock slope dynamic failure process. The Sunjiayuan level rock slope failure during the Wenchuan Earthquake is picked as this demonstration work, and the horizontal Wenchuan Earthquake record is used as the input motion for this test. The failure process of the Sunjiayuan level rock slope numerical model shows that during the earthquake, the upper part of the rock slope failed of sliding along the circle-like failure plane, and rush down along the mountain, shoveling weak rock masses on the surface of the mountain, blocked the river downside, then stopped and deposited along the valley. The test result shows good consistency with the actual event.
以结构面网络控制理论为指导思想,系统分析了三种层状节理岩体高边坡的岩体结构面网络发育特征和物理力学性质,将结构面分为层面和正交次级节理面两大类,认为层面和正交次级节理均存在着贯通部分和非贯通部分;着重强调了正交次级节理对岩体边坡地震动力稳定性的影响；指出岩体结构面的非贯通部分所具有的强度对岩体边坡地震动力稳定性的贡献十分显著。
运用岩体力学理论和岩石断裂力学理论,通过理论推导和对前人试验结果的分析,明确了岩石材料内部的微裂纹只能产生Ⅰ型张拉破坏,而所谓的岩石裂纹Ⅱ型剪切破坏,实际上是由无数微观的Ⅰ型张拉破坏面连接而成的细观破坏面,其尺度已经超出经典材料断裂力学微观尺度研究范畴,不属于真正意义上的裂纹Ⅱ型剪切破坏,从而说明岩石断裂力学实际上是一门介于微观和宏观尺度之间的材料科学。推导了层状岩体层面内部细观裂纹扩展贯通的断裂力学计算公式和破坏判据,研究了在不同应力条件下和不同的层面强度条件下层面内部裂纹扩展贯通的规律。研究结果证明,层面的强度与受力状态相关,并且层面强度与完整岩块强度的比值会影响层面的扩展模式。改进了层状岩体内部正交次级节理形成机制构造力学模型,并分析了不同构造力学条件下正交次级节理扩展的断裂力学机制。利用岩石断裂力学理论从力学角度系统研究和总结了为何层状岩体中的正交次级节理无法穿透层面切割多层岩石。研究结果表明,产生这种现象的原因主要有：正交次级节理无法穿透已经产生贯通的层面；由于非贯通层面断裂韧度远低于完整岩块断裂韧度,因此正交次级节理在扩展至与非贯通层面交汇时,无论处于何种应力状态,均会优先沿层面延伸方向产生扩展,使层面逐渐贯通,而无法切穿非贯通层面进而切割多层岩石。
总结了顺层、逆层和近水平层状节理岩体高边坡地震动力破坏基本特征,改进了各类边坡的地震动力破坏模型。以结构面网络控制理论为指导,分别对顺层、逆层和近水平层状节理岩体高边坡在地震动力作用下内部层面和正交次级节理面的破坏模式进行了详细的分类研究,通过研究证明,对于顺层节理岩体高边坡,在水平地震动力作用下其内部非贯通层面部位也可能处于受拉应力状态,产生张拉破坏,并非只能产生剪切破坏。通过分析指出,贯通结构面由于胶结或填充作用所具有的微小抗拉强度不能在动力破坏分析过程中被忽视,因为当抗拉强度丧失后,贯通结构面的抗剪强度也会显著减小。为此,提出了考虑贯通结构面动力破坏过程中抗拉强度与抗剪强度关系的改进Mohr-Coulomb破坏准则。
使用相似材料制作了含有非连续的层面和非贯通的次级节理顺层和逆层岩质边坡物理模型,并对其进行了离心机动力试验研究。对岩石相似材料的常规试验和裂纹扩展试验结果证明本文所设计的岩石相似材料制作方法和闭合接触层面和次级节理制作方法能够较好的反映真实层状节理岩体的物理力学特性。岩石相似材料采用石膏和细砂及水的混合物通过标准化的制备方法制成,其物理力学特性与沉积砂岩近似：设计了新的工艺和新的方法,首次实现了完全闭合接触的贯通层面的制作；实现了层面非贯通部位的精确位置控制和较为精确的强度控制；设计并改进了离心机试验系统,其中改进了试验加载平台,使其适用于岩体边坡模型动力试验；设计了新的裂隙扩展监测装置,用于监测边坡层面的准确破坏时刻。离心机模型试验结果证明：①边坡地形放大效应与地震动力输入频率和振幅有关,并分析推断产生这种现象的原因为边坡阻尼的影响,阻尼不是常数,与震动频率有关,并且阻尼越大,边坡的地形放大效应越明显；②层状岩体中广泛发育的正交次级节理对层状岩质边坡的动力响应和动力破坏均存在显著的影响,含有正交次级节理的边坡模型动力稳定性小于不含有正交次级节理的边坡模型。
完善了使用非连续性介质模拟方法和连续性介质模拟方法进行层状节理岩体高边坡建模进行耦合计算的原理及具体实现方法。其中非连续介质建模部分采用PFC2D软件,连续性介质建模部分采用FLAC软件。系统研究了由颗粒集合体粘结而成的PFC2D岩块模型中颗粒细观参数与模型宏观参数之间的关系；改进了非贯通Smooth Joint接触模型破坏准则,设计了两种在PFC2D层状岩体模型内部表达层状岩体内部正交次级节理的方法,即通过折减层间岩块强度的隐式方法,和使用改进的Smooth Joint接触模型显式添加正交次级节理的方法：建立了PFC2D层状岩体模型,通过对模型进行单轴抗压试验,并与岩石断裂力学理论计算结果相对比,证明了该模型的适用型。
分别建立了顺层、逆层、近水平层状节理岩体高边坡PFC2D/FLAC耦合计算模型,进行了边坡地震动力破坏过程数值模拟,分析了各类边坡地震动力破坏的基本模式,并针对层状节理岩体中层面和正交次级节理的参数对边坡地震动力破坏过程的影响进行了试验研究,研究结果如下：
在地震动力破坏过程中,顺层节理岩体边坡主要沿层面与正交次级节理组合而成的破坏面产生滑动破坏。内部非贯通层面不只会产生剪切破坏,而且会产生张拉破坏；正交次级节理主要产生张拉破坏,几乎不存在剪切破坏。非贯通层面部分的强度和层面贯通率对顺层边坡地震动力稳定性的影响十分明显,贯通层面摩擦角的影响较小；非贯通正交次级节理强度和节理间距对边坡地震动力稳定性、破坏模式、破坏范围均有着显著的影响：贯通正交次级节理的摩擦角对边坡地震动力过程几乎不产生影响。试验结果证明,层状岩体中广泛发育的正交次级节理对顺层岩体边坡地震动力破坏模式影响显著,在进行顺层节理岩体边坡地震动力稳定性分析时,必须考虑正交次级节理的发育对其破坏模式和稳定性的影响。实验结果还证明,顺层岩体边坡地震动力顺层滑动破坏机理的传统理论存在着漏洞,顺层边坡内部的层面,即使在如本文所施加的水平地震动力作用下,仍然可以产生张拉破坏,因此在对边坡地震动力稳定性的研究中,必须考虑层面抗拉强度的影响。试验中顺层节理岩体高边坡的动力破坏是一个渐进的过程,随着地震动力输入的增强,边坡破坏区域由表层区域逐渐向边坡内部扩展,边坡在破坏过程中内部会形成多条贯通破坏面,破坏区域的岩体在地震动力作用过程中也会产生内部的解体。因此,传统的只针对某一指定潜在破坏面进行的顺层边坡地震动力稳定性分析,只能计算出边坡沿着该指定破坏面破坏的情况下的稳定性,但这不能完整的表达边坡的实际动力稳定性。为此,设计了一种新的顺层节理岩体边坡动力稳定性判定方法,采用两个基本参数进行破坏判别：①边坡内部形成首条贯通破坏面所需的地震动力输入强度；②首条贯通破坏面所围破坏区域大小。该判定方法既可以判断边坡的动力稳定性,又可以判断边坡失稳后破坏范围的大小。
在地震动力破坏过程中,逆层节理岩体高边坡主要产生倾倒破坏,内部层面主要产生剪切破坏和张拉破坏,以剪切破坏为主,张拉破坏所占比例很小,并且均集中于逆层边坡坡体顶部位置。坡顶岩层主要产生沿正交次级节理的张拉破坏,形成转动位移,产生宏观的倾倒；而坡底的正交次级节理既会产生张拉破坏,也会产生剪切破坏,坡底岩层产生的转动位移很小,而滑动位移趋势明显。非贯通层面部分的强度和层面贯通率对逆层边坡地震动力稳定性的影响十分明显,而贯通层面部分的抗剪强度的影响较小。非贯通正交次级节理强度、贯通正交次级节理抗剪强度、正交次级节理间距三个参数均会对边坡地震动力稳定性产生一定的影响,但影响的程度十分有限。在地震动力作用下逆层边坡坡顶岩层内的正交次级节理首先产生张拉破坏,使顶部岩体产生倾倒趋势,然后才是边坡底部岩层内部的正交次级节理产生剪切破坏和张拉破坏,使底部岩体形成贯通破坏面,产生滑动位移。而对逆层边坡的传统静力学分析认为在静力条件下,边坡底部岩体首先产生破坏,导致上覆岩体失去支撑形成倾倒破坏。这一破坏顺序的差别充分反映出了正交次级节理的存在对边坡地震动力破坏过程的影响,并体现出了逆层边坡静力破坏与动力破坏过程的区别。
在地震动力破坏过程中,近水平层状节理岩体边坡内部岩体产生了大量的渐进式破坏,其中包含了张拉破坏和剪切破坏,以张拉破坏为主。岩体首先产生大量的近竖直方向延伸的宏观张拉裂缝,随着这些裂缝数量的增加和密度的增大,相互连接形成宏观的剪切破坏面,构成了圆弧状的破坏面。随着正交次级节理强度的提升,边坡的地震动力稳定性相应提升。边坡表层破碎岩体的厚度在很大程度上控制着边坡产生整体破坏的破坏范围,随着厚度的增大,破坏范围相应增大。贯通层面抗剪强度对边坡地震动力稳定性、动力破坏过程的影响非常小。随着层面倾角的变化,边坡逐渐从顺层缓倾过渡到逆层缓倾,在相同地震强度作用下边坡地震永久位移随着倾角的减小逐渐减小,并呈现近似指数关系。因此,在进行近水平层状节理岩体边坡地震动力稳定性分析过程中,无法找出一个固定的永久位移阀值,来统一判断不同倾角边坡的临界失稳状态。
选取在5.12汶川地震中产生破坏的四川省北川县孙家园滑坡为计算实例,建立其FLAC/PFC2D耦合模型进行地震动力破坏过程数值模拟。模拟结果显示,孙家园滑坡在汶川地震作用下,先后经历岩体内部破损、边坡局部崩滑、边坡大面积失稳、破坏体解体形成岩石碎屑流、沿山体高速运移刮铲山体表层破损岩体、减速堆积堵塞河道几个阶段。计算结果与实际情况符合程度较高。
Seismic-induced layered rock slope failure is a common type of geo-hazard worldwide, it can cause severe damage for human ware fare. Research on its failure mechanism involves several different scientific topics and has been one of the most complex problems in the geotechnical research field. Up till now the methods used in the seismic-induced layered rock slope failure mechanism are borrowed from the research on soil slope dynamic failure, these methods, however, cannot properly represent either the geological characteristic, or the failure process of rock masses with rock layers and joints in them. To concur this shortage above, this thesis focus on explaining the dynamic failure mechanism of layered rock slope with the respect of the natural rock mass structuralcharacteristic, by utilizing the theory of geotechnical analysis, rock mechanics, rock fracture mechanics, as well as physical and numerical model tests, to study the seismic-induced failure mechanism of three basic type of layered rock slope:bedding slope, inverse slope and level slope.
Based on the theory of rock-joint structural control, analyzed the basic joint structure network of the three type of layered rock slope, and divided the rock joints in the layered rock slope into two predominant kind:rock plane and secondary rock joint. The research showed that these two predominant rock joint types are basically vertically lied to each other, and both two types consist of unattached part and attached part inside them. The study on the effect of the secondary rock joint shows that this kind of joint plays an very important role on the control of the rock slope safety. And the study on the effect of the rock plane shows that the attached part inside the rock planes serve to remarkably increase the safety of the rock slope.
Based on the theory of rock mechanics and rock fracture mechanics, the failure process of rock joint is deduced, and proved by some rock fracture tests carried by former researchers. The theoretical results show that rock fracture can only produce Mode I tensile failure, and the so-called Mode II'shear'failure proposed and claimed by some researchers is essentially the combination and connection of numerous small Mode I tensile fracture. The dimension of the so-called'mode II rock fracture'is beyond the dimension of the concept of classic fracture mechanics, therefore is not real'shear fracture'. This difference reveals that the rock fracture mechanics should be viewed as a certain type of material scientific theory whose study dimension isbetweenmicroscopic and macroscopic. The fracture processing formula and failing judgment are developed for the microscopic rock plane fracture under different type of stress conditions and with different strength compared with the intact rock, and its processing form is carefully studied and explained by rock fracture mechanics. The results show that the strength of the non-through rock plane is essentially controlled by the stress conditions of the rock plane; and the rock plane fracture failure type can be affected by the ratio of the strength of the rock plane and the strength of the intact rock. Improved the structural stress compute model for the formation of secondary rock joint, and studied the fracture process of the secondary rock joint under different structural stress condition. By utilizing the theory of rock fracture mechanics, found two explanations of why secondary rock joint usually cannot cut through multiple rock layers, these are:1) secondary rock joint cannot cut through the already unattached open rock plane; and2) when the secondary rock joint progress and encounter the attached rock plane, the secondary rock joint will continue to progress along the rock plane in spite of the stress condition it is behold, this is due to the fact that in the reality, the strength of the attached rock plane is far smaller than the strength of the intact rock.
This thesis identified the characteristics of the dynamic failure of the bedding slope, inverse slope, and level slope, and improved the basic compute model of these three type of rock slope. Based on the theory of rock-joint structural control, classified and analyzed the rock plane and secondary rock joint dynamic failure mechanism during the process of the seismic-induced three basic type of layered rock slope failure.
Two basic type of layered rock slope physical model-the sliding and inverse slope with rock plane and secondary rock joint in them-were built of synthetic material, and tested in the centrifuge testing system to witness the failure process of the rock slope during earthquake. Basic rock sample tests and fracture progressing tests to the synthetic rock mass material proved that the material recipe, the casting procedure, and the newly invented method to build closed rock plane and secondary rock joint are suitable for presenting the important characteristics of real layered rock mass. The synthetic material is made of gypsum, sand and pure water with certain mix ratio through straight casting procedure, its physical and mechanical properties are similar with sandstone; New methods are invented to make the rock plane with no gap; the attached parts inside the rock plane are made with good position control and strength control. several advances are made for the centrifuge testing system to enable the dynamic test for rock like material and rock slope model:a brand new model loading plate was designed and built; and a new monitoring system was designed and set up to acquire the accurate breakage time of the rock joints inside the physical model during the test. The results of the centrifuge dynamic tests reveal that the topographic amplification effect of the layered rock slope is related to the frequency and amplitude of the input seismic motion, the reason for these relations can be united to the damping function of the slope on the topographicamplification effect:the damping function of the slope is related to the input motion, and as the damping function grows bigger, the amplification effect becomes more obvious. Moreover, the test results show that the secondary rock joint inside the rock slope physical model plays a very important role on both the dynamic response and the dynamic failure process of the two different rock slope type, it serves to decrease the dynamic stability of the two type of the rock slope.
The hybrid finite-discrete model simulation method is provided and improved to simulate the seismic-induced layered rock slope failure process, in which PFC2D is used as discrete element simulation software and FLAC is used as finite element simulation software. The relationship between the property of the PFC2D intact rock model(which is the union of numerous particles) and the property of the PFC2D particles is carefully studied, and the Smooth Joint Contact Model of the PFC2D is improved in order to add attached and unattached rock plane and secondary rock joint into the PFC2D intact rock model, this improved model is tested by carrying out several group of certain numerical test and comparing the test results with the theoretical results deduced in this thesis, and the result shows close agreement between them.
The hybrid finite-discrete element models for bedding slope, inverse slope and level slope are built and tested under horizontal seismic load, the failure process and the effect of rock plane properties and secondary rock joint properties to the dynamic failure process and safety of these three type of layered rock slope are carefully studied, the tests results are as below:
During the dynamic failure process, the bedding slope mainly had sliding movement along the failure plane which is the combination of the opened rock planes and secondary rock joints. Some of the attached rock planes failed in shear, but there are also ineligible number of attached rock planes failed in tension; the secondary rock joints mainly failed in tension, rarely in shear. The strength of the attached rock plane and the continuity rate of rock plane effect the dynamic stability of the sliding rock slope significantly, while the shear strength of the unattached rock plane barely has any effect; the strength of the attached secondary rock joint and the spacing of the secondary rock joint effect the slope's dynamic behavior significantly, while the shear strength of the unattached secondary rock joint serves very small effect. Tests results shows that a large number of rock planes inside the bedding rock slope failed in tension even under the horizontal seismic load used by this thesis, which failed to be revealed in the original failure mechanism theory of bedding slope failing in pure sliding along the rock planes. Therefore, the tensile strength should be treated as one of the controlling factors to the dynamic stability of bedding rock slope under seismic load. The failure process of the bedding slope during the simulation is a gradual process, as the seismic input motion ramped, the failing zone of the slope extended from the surface of the rock slope gradually to the inner of the rock slope, and multiple cut-through failure plane formed during the failure process, due to the internal breakage of the rock masses. Therefore, the classic slope stability analysis method cannot cover the actual dynamic stability of rock slope, because it usually consider the rock slope fails along one single potential failure plane, and calculate the slope stability with this pre-specified failure mode. In order to solve this problem, an amended rock slope sliding failure criterion is invented and tested by several simulation results. This amended failure criterion include two valuation parameters:1) the critical amplitude of the seismic input motion for the rock slope to form the first cut-through failure plane; and2) the volume of the failing rock mass cut by this failure plane. By using this criterion, both the dynamic stability and the predicted destructive range of the rock slope can be judge properly.
During the dynamic failure process, the inverse slope mainly had toppling failure along the step-path failure plane at the bottom of the rock slope. The rock plane mainly had shear failure during the failure process, with less amount of tensile failure also, and most of the tensile failure of the rock plane occurs in the crest part of the rock slope on top. The rock mass on the top of the rock slope generally broke along the secondary rock joints, to form numerous tensile cracks, and the whole rock mass on top toppled during the failure process, generated large rotation; the secondary rock joints at the bottom part of the rock slope generated both shear and tensile cracks, and had obvious slipping movement but with very small rotation. The strength of the attached rock plane and the continuity rate of rock plane effect the dynamic stability of the toppling rock slope significantly, while the shear strength of the unattached rock plane barely has any effect; the strength of the attached secondary rock joints, the shear strength of the unattached secondary rock joints and the spacing of the secondary rock joints all had relatively small effect the slope's dynamic behavior. During the dynamic test, the rock mass nearly the crest of the slope first generated secondary joint tensile failure, which cut the rock layers through and made connections with unattached rock planes, made the rock mass have the tendency to topple; as the dynamic input motion ramped, the secondary joints inside the bottom of the rock slope started to fail in shear or tension, and a cut-through failure plane beneath the inverse rock layers was formed gradually, enable the rock layers at the bottom to slide along this failure plane, and triggered the total toppling failure of the whole slope. This failure process is basically inversed to the failure process of inverse rock slope under static load, which by static analysis shows that the inverse rock slope usually failure firstly at the bottom, inducing support loss for the upper layers, and then the upper layers bend and topple gradually. This difference above reveals two major facts for the dynamic failure mechanism of inverse rock slope:1) the presence of the secondary rock joints can severely affect the failure mechanism of inverse rock slope; and2) the static failure process and the dynamic failure process of inverse rock slope are very different from each other, cannot be treated as the same.
During the dynamic failure process, level slope generated many internal breakages inside the rock mass, which include both shear and tensile failure of rock joints, and the tensile failure is superior in number. The rock mass first formed a large number of open cracks whose orientation are nearly vertical, and as those open cracks grows longer and the number grows bigger, they can connect with each other to form a macroscopic'shear'failure plane inside the rock slope, which eventually cut through the rock slope in a shape of circle. The dynamic stability of the level slope is controlled mainly by the strength of the secondary rock joints, and the size of the failing rock mass is strongly affected by the thickness of the weak rock mass on the surface of the level slope, when the thickness is bigger, the size of the failing rock mass during when dynamic failure occurs grows larger. To the contrary, the shear strength of the rock planes barely has any effect on the stability of the level slope. However, the dip angle of the level rock slope serves to effect the permanent displacement of the slope during the dynamic failure process, as the dip angle changes the level slope from slice-bedding to flat-inverse, the permanent displacement of the level slope under the same seismic load at the same time decreases in negative exponent form. Therefore, level rock slopes with a relatively small change of the dip angle of the layered rock masses could have a very different critical permanent displacement when the slopes are on the threshold of failing, and it is impossible to find one unique critical value for all level slopes to be used to judge their dynamic stability.
Finally, one example simulation work is worked out to illustrate the properness of the combined finite-discrete element method on simulating layered rock slope dynamic failure process. The Sunjiayuan level rock slope failure during the Wenchuan Earthquake is picked as this demonstration work, and the horizontal Wenchuan Earthquake record is used as the input motion for this test. The failure process of the Sunjiayuan level rock slope numerical model shows that during the earthquake, the upper part of the rock slope failed of sliding along the circle-like failure plane, and rush down along the mountain, shoveling weak rock masses on the surface of the mountain, blocked the river downside, then stopped and deposited along the valley. The test result shows good consistency with the actual event.
引文
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