肯尼迪政府时期美国对非政策研究
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摘要
1960年,非洲大陆先后有17个国家宣布独立,历史上被称为“非洲年”。是年底,肯尼迪当选为美国第35任总统。非洲国家掀起的蓬勃发展的民族解放运动,以其变化之快,波及范围之广立即引起世界社会的广泛关注,特别聚焦了战后两大超级大国美苏的目光。在当时冷战背景下,美苏都希望通过自己的力量影响非洲国家独立后的发展道路,将非洲的独立运动纳入到各自的战略轨道上来,扩大自己在非洲的话语权、影响力和领导力,将对方排挤在非洲之外。
肯尼迪上台后,他客观分析了世界历史发展的趋势,积极回应非洲国家在政治、经济和文化上的需求,提出了针对“新非洲”的对非新政策,达到了既团结非洲、又遏制苏联,同时也有效蚕食了欧洲前殖民国家在非洲的势力范围。本文主要从六个方面进行论述：
第一章,简要回顾肯尼迪执政前夕的美国对非政策,也就是对六十年代前的美国对非政策有一个宏观的梳理。从总体上看,这一时期的美国对非政策是美国漠视非洲大陆事务,而将非洲管理权依托于欧洲同盟国。这种分析不仅对肯尼迪执政前夕的美国对非政策有一个背景的了解,而且也可以看出肯尼迪执政时期的美国对非政策的变化。
第二章,主要考察肯尼迪“非洲观”的形成,系统分析肯尼迪在担任参议院议员和参议院非洲事务委员会主席期间就非洲大陆以及非洲事务所发表的有关非洲的观点和基本认识,并就肯尼迪非洲观的形成过程有一个总结和概括。肯尼迪是一位有思想见地、有活力以及个性较强的政治人物,其对外政策深深打上了他个人的烙印,研究肯尼迪执政前夕的非洲观对于我们深入了解肯尼迪执政时期美国对非政策有重要意义,其对非思想具有一定的继承性。
第三章,主要分析肯尼迪执政时期美国对非洲政治诉求的回应。政治独立是非洲国家的第一需要。针对非洲国家民族独立的愿望,肯尼迪政府积极支持非洲国家的民族解放运动和民族主义在非洲的发展,容忍真正的、非洲部分国家所倡导的中立主义和不结盟运动,并通过总统个人外交拉近与非洲领导人以及与非洲国家之间的关系。同时,我们要看到,肯尼迪政府所追求的拉拢非洲和团结非洲的思想是美国与苏联进行争夺的需要,遏制苏联是美国对非政策的出发点和落脚点,本文选择了美苏在加纳、几内亚的争夺以及对非洲领空权的争夺这两个实例说明美苏在非的冷战。美国在非洲与苏联进行争夺的同时,也不希望与苏联国家在非洲出现争锋相对和剑拨弩张的程度,主要表现在限制军备竞赛在非洲扩张以及和平解决非洲内部危机问题等。
第四章,主要研究肯尼迪执政时期美国对非洲发展需求的反应。非洲国家独立后都面临着发展民族经济和提高人民生活的重大任务。针对这一形势,肯尼迪政府将美国的对非援助思想由以前的军事援助转移到发展援助,增加发展援助的数量,扩大发展援助在美国对外援助的份额。肯尼迪政府还通过对外援助制度化以及增加对非援助的辐射面来试图影响非洲的发展。由于非洲基础薄弱以及外部环境的因素,肯尼迪政府的对非援助没有达到理想的目标,但对非援助却扮演了重要的政策工具。
第五章,主要探讨肯尼迪政府对非洲国家独立后人才需求的满足,这也就是一项肯尼迪政府影响深远的政策决定——和平队的创建。本章对和平队的初创以及在非洲国家的初期活动做了一个系统的研究,指出,和平队组织者和参与人都反对和平队的政策工具作用,但和平队队员在异国他乡志愿服务的过程中,自然不自然的扮演了美国政策工具的角色,实现了工具性和社会性的统一。由于和平队是着眼于基层的民间活动,在一定程度上弥补了政府关系的不足,有效的传播了美国的民主和价值观。但和平队在其发展中也面临着仓促上阵和难以克服的文化差异的问题等。
第六章,将肯尼迪的对非政策放在美国的全球战略以及美国对非政策的长时段进行评述。综合分析肯尼迪执政时期的美国对非政策对非洲大陆、对当时和未来美非关系以及对冷战局势以及未来世界格局的影响,同时将肯尼迪执政时期的美国对非政策放在美国的全球战略中来思考,从而得出结论说,肯尼迪时期的对非政策是现代意义上美国对非政策的开始,它倡导形成的理解、尊重和重视非洲的精神不仅达到了美国的冷战需要,而且为未来美国对非政策奠定了思想基础。
肯尼迪政府时期的美国对非政策无论对美国的对非政策而言还是对非洲大陆而言都是一个重要的转型时期。肯尼迪政府时期的美国对非政策开创了现代意义上的美国对非政策的新篇章,而这一时期,非洲国家也是从殖民奴役转到独立自主的发展之路。因此研究这一时期的美国对非政策不仅对于我们全面认识美国对非政策的发展有一个清晰的理解,而且对于我国在复杂条件下,如何运作大国关系和发展与非洲国家之间的关系都提供了重要的借鉴意义。
In1960, there had been17countries on the African continent declared independence, so it is historically known as the "Year of Africa". At the end of the year, Kennedy was elected as the35th president of the United States. The booming development of African countries'national liberation movement immediately aroused widespread concern in the international community, especially from two post-war superpowers, the United States and Soviet Union. Under the background of the cold war, both of the two countries wanted to affect the path of development of the independent African countries by their own strength, integrate the African independence movements into their own strategy design, expand their right of speech, influence and leadership in Africa as well as put the opposite party out of Africa.
After Kennedy came to power, he objectively analyzed the development trend of the world history, responded positively to the political, economical and cultural demands from the African countries and proposed a new policy towards "New Africa". Thereby achieved the intention to unite Africa, contain Soviet Union and also effectively compress the former colonialist powers'influence in Africa. This thesis is mainly discussing from six aspects.
The first chapter briefly reviews the US policy towards Africa on the eve of Kennedy administration. Generally speaking, the United States didn't give too much attention to the business in the African continent but entrusted it to the European allies. This analysis not only introduced the background of the United States'policy towards Africa before Kennedy administration, but also analyzed the change of the US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration.
The second chapter mainly reviews the formation of Kennedy's "Perspective on Africa", systematically analyzes Kennedy's views towards the African continent and the business in Africa when he served as the senate and the chairman of the African Affairs Committee under the Senate Commission. Besides, summarizes the forming process of Kennedy's "Perspective on Africa". Kennedy was a dynamic political figure with a thoughtful mind and strong character. Therefore, his foreign policy was deeply influenced by his personal character. So the analysis of the "Perspective on Africa" before Kennedy Administration will help us have a deeply understand the US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration.
The third chapter mainly analyzes the United States'response to Africa's political aspirations during the Kennedy Administration. The political independence is the most important matter for African countries. In view of the national independence desire in African countries, the Kennedy administration positively supported the national liberation movement and nationalism in African countries, tolerated the existence of the neutralism and the Non-Aligned Movement which been advocated by some African countries. In addition, Kennedy also tried to keep a close relation with the African leaders through individual diplomacy. Meanwhile, we must see that the Kennedy Administration's effort to unite the African countries is stemming from the competition with Soviet Union while how to contain the Soviet influence is the starting point of the US policy towards Africa. This thesis chooses the US-Soviet competition in Ghana and Guinea as well as the contest over the African airspace as two examples to illustrate the cold war in Africa. Although the United States was competing with Soviet Union in Africa, but it didn't want to keep a hostile condition with Soviet Union there. This mainly manifested in the limitation of the armament competition in Africa and the resolution of the African internal crisis.
The fourth chapter mainly discusses the Kennedy Administration's response to Africa's development aspirations. After obtaining the independence, almost all the African countries were facing the significant duty to develop the national economy and improve people's living. In this regard, the Kennedy Administration transformed the mode of the aid to Africa from the military assistance to the development assistance and increased the shares of the development assistance in the US foreign aid. In order to affect the development of Africa, the Kennedy Administration also attempted to make the foreign aid been institutionalized and expanded the scope of the aid to Africa. Because of the weak foundation in Africa as well as the factors of external environment, the Kennedy Administration failed to achieve the ideal goal by the aid to Africa, however, the foreign aid had actually acted as an important policy instrument.
The fifth chapter focuses on how the Kennedy Administration satisfied the African countries'demand for talent after they had achieved independence. That is one of the Kennedy Administration's far-reaching policy decisions:the foundation of the Peace Corps. This chapter systematically studies the creation of the Peace Corps and its initial activities in African countries. It should be noted that both the organizers and the participants were opposed to make the Peace Corps became the policy instrument, however, during the process of the voluntary service in foreign countries, these team members unconsciously acted as the US policy instrument. Since the Peace Corps focused on the civilian activities in the grass roots, which to a certain extent made up the shortage of government relations and spread the US democracy and values effectively. But the Peace Corps also faced several problems in its development, such as inadequate preparation and formidable cultural difference.
The sixth chapter discusses Kennedy's policy towards Africa under basis of the US global strategy and its long-term policy. When we comprehensively analyze the influence of the Kennedy Administration's policy towards Africa on the African continent, US-Africa relations as well as the cold war situation and the future world pattern, we should find that the US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration should be considered on the basis of the US global strategy. Therefore, we may say, Kennedy's policy towards Africa is the start of the US policy towards Africa in the modern significance. The spirit of understanding, respect and appreciation towards Africa which it had advocated not only met the needs of the United States during the cold war, but also laid the ideological foundation for the future US policy towards Africa.
The US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration is an important transitional period for the African continent as well as the United States'own policy. The Kennedy Administration's policy towards Africa ushered a new chapter of the US policy towards Africa in the modern sense. During this period, the African countries which had been colonized also achieved their independence. Therefore, the study of the Kennedy Administration's policy towards Africa not only contributes a comprehensive understanding of the development of the US policy towards Africa, but also provides one important reference for our operation and the development of the relationship with the big powers as well as the African countries.
肯尼迪上台后,他客观分析了世界历史发展的趋势,积极回应非洲国家在政治、经济和文化上的需求,提出了针对“新非洲”的对非新政策,达到了既团结非洲、又遏制苏联,同时也有效蚕食了欧洲前殖民国家在非洲的势力范围。本文主要从六个方面进行论述：
第一章,简要回顾肯尼迪执政前夕的美国对非政策,也就是对六十年代前的美国对非政策有一个宏观的梳理。从总体上看,这一时期的美国对非政策是美国漠视非洲大陆事务,而将非洲管理权依托于欧洲同盟国。这种分析不仅对肯尼迪执政前夕的美国对非政策有一个背景的了解,而且也可以看出肯尼迪执政时期的美国对非政策的变化。
第二章,主要考察肯尼迪“非洲观”的形成,系统分析肯尼迪在担任参议院议员和参议院非洲事务委员会主席期间就非洲大陆以及非洲事务所发表的有关非洲的观点和基本认识,并就肯尼迪非洲观的形成过程有一个总结和概括。肯尼迪是一位有思想见地、有活力以及个性较强的政治人物,其对外政策深深打上了他个人的烙印,研究肯尼迪执政前夕的非洲观对于我们深入了解肯尼迪执政时期美国对非政策有重要意义,其对非思想具有一定的继承性。
第三章,主要分析肯尼迪执政时期美国对非洲政治诉求的回应。政治独立是非洲国家的第一需要。针对非洲国家民族独立的愿望,肯尼迪政府积极支持非洲国家的民族解放运动和民族主义在非洲的发展,容忍真正的、非洲部分国家所倡导的中立主义和不结盟运动,并通过总统个人外交拉近与非洲领导人以及与非洲国家之间的关系。同时,我们要看到,肯尼迪政府所追求的拉拢非洲和团结非洲的思想是美国与苏联进行争夺的需要,遏制苏联是美国对非政策的出发点和落脚点,本文选择了美苏在加纳、几内亚的争夺以及对非洲领空权的争夺这两个实例说明美苏在非的冷战。美国在非洲与苏联进行争夺的同时,也不希望与苏联国家在非洲出现争锋相对和剑拨弩张的程度,主要表现在限制军备竞赛在非洲扩张以及和平解决非洲内部危机问题等。
第四章,主要研究肯尼迪执政时期美国对非洲发展需求的反应。非洲国家独立后都面临着发展民族经济和提高人民生活的重大任务。针对这一形势,肯尼迪政府将美国的对非援助思想由以前的军事援助转移到发展援助,增加发展援助的数量,扩大发展援助在美国对外援助的份额。肯尼迪政府还通过对外援助制度化以及增加对非援助的辐射面来试图影响非洲的发展。由于非洲基础薄弱以及外部环境的因素,肯尼迪政府的对非援助没有达到理想的目标,但对非援助却扮演了重要的政策工具。
第五章,主要探讨肯尼迪政府对非洲国家独立后人才需求的满足,这也就是一项肯尼迪政府影响深远的政策决定——和平队的创建。本章对和平队的初创以及在非洲国家的初期活动做了一个系统的研究,指出,和平队组织者和参与人都反对和平队的政策工具作用,但和平队队员在异国他乡志愿服务的过程中,自然不自然的扮演了美国政策工具的角色,实现了工具性和社会性的统一。由于和平队是着眼于基层的民间活动,在一定程度上弥补了政府关系的不足,有效的传播了美国的民主和价值观。但和平队在其发展中也面临着仓促上阵和难以克服的文化差异的问题等。
第六章,将肯尼迪的对非政策放在美国的全球战略以及美国对非政策的长时段进行评述。综合分析肯尼迪执政时期的美国对非政策对非洲大陆、对当时和未来美非关系以及对冷战局势以及未来世界格局的影响,同时将肯尼迪执政时期的美国对非政策放在美国的全球战略中来思考,从而得出结论说,肯尼迪时期的对非政策是现代意义上美国对非政策的开始,它倡导形成的理解、尊重和重视非洲的精神不仅达到了美国的冷战需要,而且为未来美国对非政策奠定了思想基础。
肯尼迪政府时期的美国对非政策无论对美国的对非政策而言还是对非洲大陆而言都是一个重要的转型时期。肯尼迪政府时期的美国对非政策开创了现代意义上的美国对非政策的新篇章,而这一时期,非洲国家也是从殖民奴役转到独立自主的发展之路。因此研究这一时期的美国对非政策不仅对于我们全面认识美国对非政策的发展有一个清晰的理解,而且对于我国在复杂条件下,如何运作大国关系和发展与非洲国家之间的关系都提供了重要的借鉴意义。
In1960, there had been17countries on the African continent declared independence, so it is historically known as the "Year of Africa". At the end of the year, Kennedy was elected as the35th president of the United States. The booming development of African countries'national liberation movement immediately aroused widespread concern in the international community, especially from two post-war superpowers, the United States and Soviet Union. Under the background of the cold war, both of the two countries wanted to affect the path of development of the independent African countries by their own strength, integrate the African independence movements into their own strategy design, expand their right of speech, influence and leadership in Africa as well as put the opposite party out of Africa.
After Kennedy came to power, he objectively analyzed the development trend of the world history, responded positively to the political, economical and cultural demands from the African countries and proposed a new policy towards "New Africa". Thereby achieved the intention to unite Africa, contain Soviet Union and also effectively compress the former colonialist powers'influence in Africa. This thesis is mainly discussing from six aspects.
The first chapter briefly reviews the US policy towards Africa on the eve of Kennedy administration. Generally speaking, the United States didn't give too much attention to the business in the African continent but entrusted it to the European allies. This analysis not only introduced the background of the United States'policy towards Africa before Kennedy administration, but also analyzed the change of the US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration.
The second chapter mainly reviews the formation of Kennedy's "Perspective on Africa", systematically analyzes Kennedy's views towards the African continent and the business in Africa when he served as the senate and the chairman of the African Affairs Committee under the Senate Commission. Besides, summarizes the forming process of Kennedy's "Perspective on Africa". Kennedy was a dynamic political figure with a thoughtful mind and strong character. Therefore, his foreign policy was deeply influenced by his personal character. So the analysis of the "Perspective on Africa" before Kennedy Administration will help us have a deeply understand the US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration.
The third chapter mainly analyzes the United States'response to Africa's political aspirations during the Kennedy Administration. The political independence is the most important matter for African countries. In view of the national independence desire in African countries, the Kennedy administration positively supported the national liberation movement and nationalism in African countries, tolerated the existence of the neutralism and the Non-Aligned Movement which been advocated by some African countries. In addition, Kennedy also tried to keep a close relation with the African leaders through individual diplomacy. Meanwhile, we must see that the Kennedy Administration's effort to unite the African countries is stemming from the competition with Soviet Union while how to contain the Soviet influence is the starting point of the US policy towards Africa. This thesis chooses the US-Soviet competition in Ghana and Guinea as well as the contest over the African airspace as two examples to illustrate the cold war in Africa. Although the United States was competing with Soviet Union in Africa, but it didn't want to keep a hostile condition with Soviet Union there. This mainly manifested in the limitation of the armament competition in Africa and the resolution of the African internal crisis.
The fourth chapter mainly discusses the Kennedy Administration's response to Africa's development aspirations. After obtaining the independence, almost all the African countries were facing the significant duty to develop the national economy and improve people's living. In this regard, the Kennedy Administration transformed the mode of the aid to Africa from the military assistance to the development assistance and increased the shares of the development assistance in the US foreign aid. In order to affect the development of Africa, the Kennedy Administration also attempted to make the foreign aid been institutionalized and expanded the scope of the aid to Africa. Because of the weak foundation in Africa as well as the factors of external environment, the Kennedy Administration failed to achieve the ideal goal by the aid to Africa, however, the foreign aid had actually acted as an important policy instrument.
The fifth chapter focuses on how the Kennedy Administration satisfied the African countries'demand for talent after they had achieved independence. That is one of the Kennedy Administration's far-reaching policy decisions:the foundation of the Peace Corps. This chapter systematically studies the creation of the Peace Corps and its initial activities in African countries. It should be noted that both the organizers and the participants were opposed to make the Peace Corps became the policy instrument, however, during the process of the voluntary service in foreign countries, these team members unconsciously acted as the US policy instrument. Since the Peace Corps focused on the civilian activities in the grass roots, which to a certain extent made up the shortage of government relations and spread the US democracy and values effectively. But the Peace Corps also faced several problems in its development, such as inadequate preparation and formidable cultural difference.
The sixth chapter discusses Kennedy's policy towards Africa under basis of the US global strategy and its long-term policy. When we comprehensively analyze the influence of the Kennedy Administration's policy towards Africa on the African continent, US-Africa relations as well as the cold war situation and the future world pattern, we should find that the US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration should be considered on the basis of the US global strategy. Therefore, we may say, Kennedy's policy towards Africa is the start of the US policy towards Africa in the modern significance. The spirit of understanding, respect and appreciation towards Africa which it had advocated not only met the needs of the United States during the cold war, but also laid the ideological foundation for the future US policy towards Africa.
The US policy towards Africa during the Kennedy Administration is an important transitional period for the African continent as well as the United States'own policy. The Kennedy Administration's policy towards Africa ushered a new chapter of the US policy towards Africa in the modern sense. During this period, the African countries which had been colonized also achieved their independence. Therefore, the study of the Kennedy Administration's policy towards Africa not only contributes a comprehensive understanding of the development of the US policy towards Africa, but also provides one important reference for our operation and the development of the relationship with the big powers as well as the African countries.
引文
1 《环球时报》,2013年5月29日。
2 梁根成,《美国与非洲》,北京大学出版社,1991年版,第58页。
3 Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A History, New York:Cambridge University Press, pp.9,15.
4Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower s Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961, p.56.
5 Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A history, New York:Cambridge University Press, pp.84-87.
6 Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A history, New York:Cambridge University Press, pp.99,104-105.
7 Emerson, Africa and United States Policy, Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall,1967, p.15.
8 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961.p.66.
9 Landrum R. Bolling with Craig Smith, Private Foreign Aid:U.S. Philanthropy for Relief and Development, Boulder,1982, pp.65,76-78.
10 Mckinley, Edward H., The Lure of Africa:American interests in Tropical Africa,1919-1939, New York:Bobbs-Merrill,1974, pp.12-13.
11 Address by Henry S. Villard, Assistant Chief of the State Department's Division of Near Eastern Affairs, August 19,1943, Department of State Press Release No.345(August 18,1945, Quoted in Emerson, Africa and United State Policy, p.18.
12 Munene, G. Macharia, The Truman Administration and Decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa, 1945-1952, Ph.D. Dissertation, Ohio University,1986, pp.24-25.
13 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.105.
14 Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years,1956-1961:Waging Peace, Garden City,1965, p.370.
15 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.107.
16 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.109.
17 U.S. Department of commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1966,87th Edition, Washington,1966, p.868.
18 U.S. Department of commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United State, 1961,82nd Edition, Wasington,1961, p.867.
19 Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years,1953-1956:Mandate for change, Garden City, 1963,p.247.
20 FRUS,1952-1954, Vol.2, National Security Affairs, Part 1, Washington,1984, p.384.
21 Letter from Aisenhower to General Alfred Gruenther, November 10,1954, Whitman File, DDEL.
22 FRUS,1952-1954, Vol.11, Part 1,p.60,65.
23 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.136.
24 432nd Meeting of the NSC, January 14,1960, Box 12, NSC Series, Whitman File, DDEL.
25 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.171.
26 Paterson, Thomas G, Kennedy's Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.255.
27 Alfred O. Hero, American Negroes and U.S. Foreign Policy:1937-1967, Journal of Conflict Resolution 13:2 June 1969, p.223,235.
28 Norman P. Roberts, The changed images of Africa in Some selected American media from 1930 to 1969, Ph.D. Dissertation, American University 1971, pp.139-146,125-136.
29 397th meeting of the NSC, February 26,1959, NSC Summaries of Discussions, Box 11,NSC Series, Whitman File, DDEL.
30 Chester Bowles, Promises to keep:My Years in Public Office,1941-1969, p.249
31 Memorandum of telephone conversation between Eisenhower and Herter, October 13,1960, Presidential Telephone Calls, July 1960—January 20,1961, Box 10, Herter Papers, DDEL.
32 Telegram from the U.S. delegation at the North Atlantic Council Ministerial Meeting to the State department, May 5,1956.
33 FRUS:1952-1954, Vol.2, Part 1, p.561.
34 432nd meeting of the NSC, January 14,1956, NSC Summaries of Discussions, Box 12, NSC Series, Whiteman File, DDEL.
35 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,世界知识出版社,1960年版,第12页。
36 Richard J.Walton:Cold War and Counterrevolution, the Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, Viking Press,1972, p.202.
37 Richard J. Walton:Cold War and Counterrevolution, the Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, Viking Press,1972, p.203.
39 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.4.
40 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第28页。
41 “全非人民大会新闻公报”,第1卷,第2期,第3页；转引于北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第155页。
42 《世界报》,1959年4月17日,第4页。
43 Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, "American leadership for Peace," University of Pennsylvania, October 18,1959,Speech File, PPP, JFKL
44 "The Choice in Aisa—Democratic Development in India" Speech of Hon. John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senate, March 25,1958, P.3, PPP, JFKL
45 Millikan and Rostow, A Proposal, New York,1957, pp.66-67.
46 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第148页。
47 Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and The Color line, Harvard University Press,2001, p.138.
48 "The White Redoubt,"28 June 1962,enclosed in owen to McGhee et al.,6 July 1962,NSF, box2, JFKL
49 Paterson, Confronting Castro,241(Dulles); Hunt, Ideology and U. S. Foreign policy,166-167
50 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第21页。
51 Michael O'Brien, Rethinking Kennedy:An Interpretive Biography, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago,2009, p.156.
52 Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and The Color line, Harvard University Press,2001, p.137.
53 J. Richard Snyder, Introduction, In John F. Kennedy:Person, Policy, Presidency, ed. Snyder(Wilmington, Del:Scholarly Resources,1988), X;
54 Michael O'Brien, Rethinking Kennedy:An Interpretive Biography, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago,2009, p.154.
55 Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, Los Angeles, Nov.l,1960
56 小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第463页。
"John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy,1963, pp.483-496.
58 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第21页。
59 John W.Spanier, American Foreign Policy since World War Ⅱ, New York:Praeger,1960, p.143.
60 [美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略—肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第80页。
61 [美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略—肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第91页。
62 Advance copy of his report on his trip to the Middle and for East by Hon. John F. Kennedy Mutual Broadcasting Network, Nov 14,1951, PPP, JFKL
63 David Halberstam, the best and the brightest, NewYork,1972, p.19.
64 Advance copy of his report on his trip to the Middle and for East by Hon. John F. Kennedy Mutual Broadcasting Network, Nov 14,1951, PPP, JFKL.
65 Sorensen, Let the Word Go forth:The Speeches, Statements, and writings of John F. Kennedy, New York:Delacorte Press,1988, p.330.
66 Letter to John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State, From senator John F. Kennedy, May 7,1953, PPP, JFKL.
67 Edited draft of Report on Trip to Middle and Far East, November 3,1951, PPP, JFKL.
68 [苏]赫鲁晓夫,《赫鲁晓夫言论》第13集,世界知识出版社,1966年版,第280页。
69 John W. Spanier, American Foreign Policy since World War Ⅱ, New York:Praeger,1960, p.143.
70 "Facing Facts on Algeria," Remarks by Senator John F. Kennedy, United States Senate, July 2, 1957,p.4,PPP,JFKL.
71 同上
72 San Francisco Examiner, July 11,1957.
72 尼克松告诉华盛顿专栏作家皮尔森,他非常生气。在阿尔及利亚演说前一周,在他飞往美国马萨诸塞州的普利茅斯的航班上,他就告诉几位新闻记者,“除非美国劝阻法国给予阿尔及利亚某种形式的独立,在北非法国领地所有的痛苦将要被打破。”尼克松说,他吃惊的是,上一周,年轻肯尼迪关于阿尔及利亚的演说出现在媒体上。根据尼克松观点,肯尼迪的演说和他在给新闻记者所表达的意见是一样的。尼克松告诉皮尔森,他控告波士顿的新闻记者将他的消息泄露给肯尼迪。
74 Los Angeles Herald-Express, July 5,1957.
75 Dulles'Remarks:Drew Pearson column, undated, Speech File, Algeria, PPP, JFKL. Acheson's commentary:Dean Acheson, Power and Diplomacy, pp.126-127.
76 Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983, p.21.
77 See Speech Files, PPP, JFKL, July 23,1957.
78 Time, Dec 12,1957.
79 Chester Bowles to John F. Kennedy, July 23,1957, PPP, JFKL.
80 Oral History of Dean Acheson, JFKL.
81 See Kennedy's second address on Algeria in "Facing Facts on Algeria," Speeches of the Hon. John F. Kennedy, July 8,1957, Algeria Speech File, PPP, JFKL.
82 New York Time, July 10,1957.
83 Oral history of Philip M. Kaiser, JFKL:He had a warm feeling for this young, Vigorous man who'd caught the imagination of the Africans. It all began with the Algeria speech.
84 Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p.511.
85 Holden Robert to John F. Kennedy, Dec 19,1962, Angola:National Security Files JFKL.
86 Oral history of Mongi Slim, JFKL. Telephone Interview:Lorna Hahn, April 6,1976, Washington, D.C.
87 Eric Sevareid, CBS Radio News Analysis, March 18,1958,File:Eric Sevareid's News Analysis, PPP, JFKL.
88 Burned Hands Across the Sea, Time 70, July 15,1957, p.18.
89 John F. Kennedy to Barbara Ward, July 9,1959, File:Foreign Relation, PPP, JFKL.
90 Harris L. Wofford, Jr., Of Kennedy and Kings, pp.11-99.
91 Kennedy quoted in Harris Wofford, Of Kennedys & Kings:Making Sense of the Sixties; Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press,1980, pp.36-37.
92 阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第336页。
93 John F. Kennedy Campaign Speech at the National Council of Women, New York,12 October 1960, in Sorensen, Let the Word Go forth:The Speeches, Statements, and writings of John F. Kennedy, New York:Delacorte Press,1988, pp.365-369.
94 Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983, p.32.
95 Remark of vice President Richard M. Nixon on CBS Television, November 3,1960; Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983, p.33.
96 《参考消息》,1960年10月16日,第四版。
97 Interview:W. W. Witman Ⅲ, March 8,1976,Washington, D. C. Witman, Who was the director of the Office of North African Affair in the State Department, accompanied the Ben Bella entourage to the White House in July 1963.
98 FrankChurch,"Our over involvement in Africa,"CongressionalRecord,Feb.l7,1965,pp.2869-2871
99 Kweku Anyani to John F. Kennedy, Nov.23,1960, General correspondence File:1960, PPP, JFKL.
10 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第63页。
101 Department of State Bulletin, February 27,1961.
102 Bowels, Chester. Africa's Challenge to America, Los Angeles:University of California Press, 1956, p.129.
103 Report, Foreign Service Institute, House Committee on Foreign Affairs,1961, p.3.
104 State Department Press Release, No.92, February 27,1961.
105 Department of State News Letter, No.67, November 1966, p.36.
16 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第437页。
107 Khrushchev's Speech of January 6,1961:A Summary and Interpretive Analysis,87TH Congress 1st Session Senate, Document NO.14.
Robert McNamara quoted by Peter W. Rodman, More Precious than Peace:The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World (New York:C. Scribner's Sons,1994), p.95.
109 Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era, p.3.
110 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961—1963, Africa, p.53.
111 1961年1月29日,肯尼迪在国会发表的演说
112 肯尼迪的就职演说,引自于约翰·肯尼迪著,《扭转颓势》,沙地译,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1976年,第6—-9页。
113 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第225页。
114 Memorandum Prepared by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, FRUS, p.311.
115 同上
116 Memorandum on the Substance of Discussions at the Department of State-Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting, FRUS, p.308.
117 Memorandum on the Substance of Discussions at the Department of State-Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting, FRUS, p.308.
118 National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS, p.320.
119 Paterson, Thomas G., Kennedy's Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.282.
120 Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara. FRUS.
121 State Department Paper, "Africa:Guidelines for Policy and Operations," March 1962. National Security Files, Box 2:"Africa", Folder "General,3/62-4/62", JFKL.
122 Letter from the Under Secretary of State (Bowles) to the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatric), FRUS, p.289.
123 Letter from the Consultative Group on Arms Limitation in Africa to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams), FRUS, p.305.
125 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Morocco, FRUS, p.15.
126 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.17.
127 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Algeria, FRUS, p.18.
128 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Algeria, FRUS, p.28.
129 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Mali, FRUS, p.30.
130 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), FRUS, p.33.
(?)Circular Telegram from the Department of State to Certain Diplomatic Posts, FRUS, p.40.
132 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,北京知识出版社,第28页。
133 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第515页。
134 Brief of a National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS, p.284.
135 Speech, March 24,1961, State Department Press Release, No.156.
136 施莱辛格编,《世界强权动力学：1945—1973年美国外交政策历史文献》,第五卷,第641-642页。
137 Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Satterthwaite) to Secretary of State Rusk, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.47.
138 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in France, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.52.
139 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.53.
140 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in France, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.54.
141 Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.56.
142 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.57.
143 Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy,1961, p.315.
144 Wall, France, the United States and the Algerian, pp.244-245.
145 《外国著名战争》,商务印书馆,1993,第530页
146 Telegram From the Embassy in France to the Department of State, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.64.
147 Circular Telegram From the Department of State to Certain Diplomatic Posts, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p.65.
148 Memorandum From Robert W. Komer and Harold H. Saunders of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.70.
149 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in France, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.73.
150 Special National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa
151 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.88.
152 Paterson, Thomas G., Kennedys Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.253.
153 Bowles to Kennedy, n.d., Report on a Mission to Africa, October 17-November 9,1962, DDRS.
154 Rodman, Peter W. More Precious Than Peace:The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World. New York:C. Scribner's Sons,1994.
155 Foreign Policy Bulletin, March 15,1961, p.103;United States Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Nomination of Dean Rusk, Secretary of State-Designate, Hearing, January 21,1961,pp.31-32.
156 Record of 508th Meeting of NSC, January 22,1963.
157 Thomas Paterson, Kennedy and Global Crisis, p.22.
158 Summary of President Kennedy's Remarks to the 496th NSC meeting, January 18,1962
159 Memorandum From the President's Deputy Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kaysen) to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.379.
160 Memorandum of Conversation, June 21,1961.
161 Public Papers of the Presidents:John F. Kennedy,1963, p.16.
162 Telegram 331, Washington to Conakry, October 23,1962, NSF, box102, Guinea, General, 10/12/62-10/31/62 Folder, JFKL.
163 Nkrumah. K., Africa Must Unite, London:Panaf,1963, pp.221-222.
164 National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS, p.299.
165 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.409.
166 Report Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.7.
167 Paper by the Officer in Charge of Tunisian Affairs (Stackhouse), FRUS, p.5.
169 Data from the Office of Protocol, Foreign visitors Section, State Department, Washington, D.C.
170 Ronald J. Nurse, Critic of Colonialism:JFK and Algerian Independence," The Historian 39(Februrary 1977), pp.307-326.
171 Attwood to Ball, May12,1961, Box 100, NSF:Ghana. See Also William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks:A Personal Adventure(New York,1967)
172 Shriver to Kennedy, June 20,1961, Box 284, NSF:Departments and Agencies
173 Paterson, Thomas G., Kennedy's Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.248.
174 Circular Telegram from the Department of State to Certain African Posts, FRUS, p.332.
175 转印于小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第437页。
176 小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第465页。
177 Memorandum, Neutralism and Foreign Aid, Rostow to Kennedy, September 27,1961, DDRS
178 Larry Grubbs, Literally a continent to win:The United States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963, p. ii.
179 [美]约翰·肯尼迪,《扭转颓势》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1976年版,第144页。
180 Report of the Study Mission to Africa,1955, op. cit., p.149.
181 Report of the Study Mission to Africa and the Near East,1957,op. cit., p.27.
182 Report of the Study Mission to Africa,1960, op. cit., p.7.
183 Public papers of the Presidents of the United States John F. Kennedy, Vol,l, pp.340-343.
184 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.411.
185 Circular Telegram from the Department of State, March 17,1961, FRUS
186 同上
187 Africa Task Force Report, December 31,1960, Box 1073. Pre-President Papers:Harris Woffard address to Columbia University.
188 Martin Staniland, American Intellectuals and Africa Nationalists,1955-1970, New haven and London,1991, pp.29-31.
189 Arnold Rivkin, Africa and the West, New York,1962, pp.viii.
190 Arnold Rivkin, Africa and the West, New York,1962, pp.142-143.
191 Larry Benjamin Grubbs, "Literally a Continent to win":The united States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963, p.88.
192 Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era, p.79.
193 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第469页。
194 Leo Tansky, "Soviet Foreign Aid to Less Developed countries", in U.S., Congress, Joint Economic Committee, New Direction in the Soviet Economy, p.951.
195 美国国际开发署、国防部：《美国收支平衡：前景与政策》,第65—66页。
196 [美]沃伦·克里斯托弗,《美国新外交：经济、防务、民主——美国前国务卿克里斯托弗回忆录》,新华出版社,1999年版,第357页。
197 [美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略——肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第203页。
Briefing Paper Prepared in the Department of State, FRUS, p.1.
199 Memorandum from Secretary of State Rusk to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.399.
200 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.411.
201 Report Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.7.
202 National Security Action Memorandum No.16, FRUS, p.281.
203 Memorandum from Secretary of State Rusk to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.282.
204 Paper Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.294.
205 Vernon Mckay, The African Operations of the United States Government, in The United States and Africa. ed. Goldschmidt. pp.275.281-284.
206 U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, pp.872-875.
207 Report to the Congress on the Foreign Assistance Program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Office,1963, p.44.
208 The Foreign Assistance Program, Annual Report to the Congress for Fiscal Year 1963, p.12.
Foreign Assistance 1964:Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relation, United States Senate, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1964, p.2.
210 Memorandum of Conversation, Call by Nigerian Economic Mission", July 7,1961, Box144, NSF, JFKL.
211 Shepard, Robert B. Nigeria, Africa, and the United States, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press,1991, p.22.
212 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.5.
213 Grain to Libya to Relieve Shortage Created by Drought, in The Department of State Bulletin, February 27,1961, p.313.
214 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第484页。
215 Memorandum from Manning Williams of the Operations Coordinating Board to Executive Office of the Operations Coordinating Board Smith
216 United States and Morocco sign food for peace Agreement, in Department of State Bulletin, May 22,1961,p.772.
217 The Nineteenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on Under Public Law 480,83d congress, p.75.
213 Ibezim Chukwumerije, The New Frontier and Africa, Ph. D. Dissertation, p.177.
219 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Ghana, FRUS, p.386.
22.Rivkin,The African Presence in World Affairs,London:Free Press of Glencoe,pp.245-248.
221 William Bundy in Memorandum of conversation, February 25,1961, Meeting Between the Secretaries of State and Defense and the Director of the Bureau of the Budget on the Military Assistance Program, FRUS.
222 Larry Benjamin Grubbs, literally a Continent to win:The United States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963,p.66.
223 Kennedy, "foreign aid", in the department of state Bulletin, April 10,1961, p.508.
224 Bowels, "Foreign Aid:The Great Decision of the sixties," p.706.
225 Chester Bowels, "Why Foreign Aid", in The Department of State Bulletin, May 20,1963, p.778.
226 Paper Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.294.
227 Memorandum from William H. Brubeck of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.424.
228 Memorandum from the President's Special Assistant (Dungan) to President Kennedy, FRUS, 1961-1963, p.329.
229 United States Foreign Policy, Hearings, op.cit., p.428.
230 Report of the Study Mission to Africa, op. cit.,1960, p.9.
231 Rostow Memorandum to Kennedy, March 13,1961, Box 325, NSF, JFKL.
232 Memorandum from the President's Deputy Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Rostow) to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), FRUS, p.290.
233 Telegram from The Embassy in the United Kingdom to the Department of State, March 28,1961.
234 the Foreign Assistance Program, Annual Report to the Congress for Fiscal Year 1963.
235 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.411.
236 Report to Congress on the Foreign assistance program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office:1963.
237 Larry Benjamin Grubbs, "Literally a Continent to win":The united States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963, pp.93-94.
238 Foreign Assistance and related Agencies Appropriations for 1964:Hearings before the Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate, Eighty-eighth Congress, first session, Washington D.C.
239 "Report of G. Mennen Williams on his third trip to Africa, Sep 29 to Oct 26,1961", November 28,1961, Box2, NSF, JFKL.
240 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.9.
241 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.8.
242 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新
知三联书店,1981年版,第485页。
243 Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, University of Michigan Students Union Building Steps, Ann Arbor, Michigan, October 14,1960.
244 Sargent Shriver, Point of the Lance, New York:Harper and Row,1964, p.11.
245 Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country:An Oral History of the Peace corps, New York:William Morrow and Company,1991, p.17.
246 Ashabranner. Brent, A Moment in History:The First Ten Years of the Peace Corps, New York: Doubleday & Company,1971, pp.315-316.
247 [美]亨利·斯蒂尔·康马杰：《美国精神》,盛葵阳、南木译,光明日报出版社,1988年版,第27页。
248 [美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版,第192 页。
249 转印自[美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版,第213—214页；Whyte, Organization Man; Goodman, Growing Up Absurd; Riesman, with Glazier and Denney, Lonely Crowd,18; Galbraith, Affluent Society, p.140,159.
250 Irving Bernstein, Promises Kept:John F. Kennedy's New Frontier, Oxford University Press, 1991, p.260.
251 [美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版,第173页。
252 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fires, p.294.
253 Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country:An Oral History of the Peace corps, New York:William Morrow and Company,1991, p.36.
254 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.157.
255 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p.75.
256 刘国柱,《美国文化的新边疆——冷战时期的和平队研究》,中国社会科学出版社,2005年版,第126页。
257 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p.89.
258 Minutes of meeting, Bradley Patterson, December 6,1961, Bush Papers, Box 2, "Director's StaffMeeting Records,10/2/61-1/8/62", JFKL.
259 Shriver, Report to the President on the Peace Corps, JFKL, Box85.
260 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.7.
261 梁根成,《美国与非洲——第二次世界大战结束至80年代后期美国对非洲的政策》,北京大学出版社,1991年版,第61页。
262 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p.15.
263 Meridan Bennett and Maureen J. Carroll, Ethiopia Overseas Evaluation:1967, pp.25,46.
264 George H.Dune,S.J.,Evaluation of the Afghanistan and Ethiopia Projects at Georgetown University, pp.1,16, Georgetown University Archives)
265 Harris Wofiford, Report on a New Frontier, March 11,1961, PP.2-3, Box298, Chester Bowles Papers, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
266 Harris Wofford OH Interview, JFKL.
267 Selassie and Wofford are Quoted in Ethiopia Herald, September 21,1962, Martha Stonequist Papers, Saratoga, NY
268 Harris Wofford, Report on the peace corps in Ethiopia, May 25,1963, p.4.
269 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.294.
270 John Rex, Why Stay?:A Point of View, March 12,1964, pp.1-2.
271 John Rex, Report on Debre Berhan, October 5,1962; Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lightingfire,p.295.
272 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.296.
273 John Rex to family, October 1,1962; Lynn and Mary Lou Linman to Friends, January 4,1963. Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.296.
274 Mary Lou, Linman, Teaching in Ethiopia, Manuscript, p.2.
275 Mary Lou, Linman, Peace corps Teacher, Manuscript, p.1.
276 Ron Kazarian to family, October 3,1963; Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.298.
277 John Rex to family, October 24,1962; Bob Savage to family, October 26,1962. Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire,p.298.
278 Ron Kazarian to family, October 24,1962.
279 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.299.
280 Coates Redmon, Come as you are, New York,1986, p.160.
281 Stonequist to family, November 3,1962.
282 Ron Kazarian to family, November 29,1962.
283 John Rex to family, December 3,1962.
284 Ron Kazarian to family, December 15,1962.
285 Martha Stonequist to Mother and Dad, January 17,1963.
286 John Rex to family, May 9,1963.
287 Ibid.
288 Kazarian to family, May 16,1963; Kazarian to family, May 21,1963.
289 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.307.
290 Linda and Gary Bergthold to family, November 25,1963; Carolyn Wood to mother, November 23,1963,Carolyn Wood Kneedler Paper, Palo Alto, CA. For reaction of Peace Corps Volunteers Worldwide to the death of President Kennedy, see Small Staff Meeting, November 26,1963, Files of Bill Moyers, LBJL.
291 Jane Campbell, Completion of Service Conference Report-Ethiopia, p.1-2.
292 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.316.
293 Ibid.
294 王晓德,为《美国文化的新边疆》写序,第3页。
295 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fires, p.312.
296 The Department of State Bulletin, July 18,1966, p.95.
297 Lucas, Payne and Lowther, Kevin, Keeping Kennedy's Promise, The Peace Corps:Unmet Hope of the New Frontier, Colorado:Westview Press,1978, p.89.
298 The World Bank, World Development Report,1980, Washington D.C.:The World Bank,1980, p.1.
299 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.iii.
300 Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era, p.143.
301 Kennedy, Public papers,1961, p.134.
302 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p. ii.
303 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.158.
304 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第484页。
305 Gary May, Passing the torch and lighting fires:the Peace corps, p.289.
306 Sargent Shriver, The Peace Corps'First Two Years, John F. Kennedy Library,Box86
307 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p. ix.
308 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第431页。
309 Attword, Willam. The Reds and the Blacks, New York:Harper & Row Publishers,1967, p.17.
310 Attwood, The Reds and The Blacks, p.146.
311 Tom Mboya, recorded interview by Gordon P. Hagberg,10 March 1965, John F. Kennedy Oral History Program, JFKL.
313 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第431页。
314 Memorandum from the President's Special Assistant (Schlesinger) to Attorney General Kennedy, FRUS, p.496.
315 Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara, FRUS, p.498.
316 Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams) to Secretary of State Rusk, FRUS, p.328.
317 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第443页。
318 Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams) to Secretary of State Rusk, FRUS, p.338.
319 Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, p.477.
320 Ronald W. Walters, The Formulation of United States Foreign policy toward Africa, 1958-1963, p.435-436.
321 外交部档案馆馆藏,驻英代办处研究室编,时事研究参考资料之一,《美英在非洲矛盾的发展》,1961年4月12日。
322 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS,1961-1963, p.292.
323 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS,1961-1963, p.402.
324 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS,1961-1963, p.292.
1. Annual Report to The Congress for Fiscal Year 1963:The foreign Assistance Program, U.S. Government Printing office.
2. A report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963.
3. Declassified Documents Reference System (DDRS)
4. Department of State Bulletin,1961.
5. Department of State Bulletin,1963.
6. Eighteenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law 480(1963.1.1-1963.6.30), U.S. Government Printing Office,1963
7. Foreign Relations of the United States,1961-1963, Volume XXI, Africa, United States Government Printing Office, Washington,1995.
8. House of Representatives, Document No.94, Our Foreign Assistance Act, Message from the President of the United States.
9. House of Representatives, Report No 1107, foreign assistance and related agencies appropriation bill,1962.
10. House Report No.1115, Peace Corps Act, Report of the committee on foreign affairs on H.R.7500.
11. National Security Action Memoranda.
12. Nineteenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law 480(1963.7.1-1963.12.30), U.S. Government Printing Office,1964.
13. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy.
14. Report on the Congress on the Foreign Assistance Program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office:1963.
15. Report by the president to the Congress for the Year1962:U.S.Participation in the UN, Department of State Publication 7610.
16. Report by the president to the Congress for the Year 1963:U.S.Participation in the UN, Department of State Publication 7675.
17. Report to the Congress on the Foreign Assistance Program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Office,1963.
18. Senate, Report No.2177, Foreign Aid and Related Agencies Appropriation Bill,1963.
19. Seventeenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law480(1962.7.1-1962.12.30),U.S. Government Printing Office,1963.
20. State Department Press Release.
21. The Peace Corps, Report of the Committee on Foreign relation United States Senate on S.2000.
22. Twentieth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law 480(1964.1.1-1964.6.30), U. S. Government Printing Office,1964.
23. United States Contribution to International organization for the fiscal year 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963.
1. Arnold Rivkin, Africa and the West, New York,1962.
2. Arthur M. Schlesinger JR. A Thousand Days, John F. Kennedy in The White House, Ander Deutsch,1965.
3. Ashabranner. Brent, A Moment in History:The First Ten Years of the Peace Corps, New York:Doubleday & Company,1971.
4. Attword, Willam. The Reds and the Blacks, New York:Harper and Row Publishers,1967.
5. Bowels, Chester. Africa's Challenge to America, Los Angeles:University of California Press,1956.
6. Bruce Miroff, Pragmatic illusions-the Presidential Politics of John F. Kennedy, David McKay Company Inc,1976.
7. Donald C. Lord, John F. Kennedy:The politics of confrontation and conciliation, Barron's Woodbury, N.Y.
8. David Burner, John F. Kennedy and a New Generation, Library of American Biography,1988.
9. David Halberstam, the best and the brightest, New York,1972.
10.Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years,1956-1961:Waging Peace, Garden City,1965.
11.Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A History, New York: Cambridge University Press.
12.Emerson, Africa and United States Policy, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1967.
13. Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fires.
14. Irving Bernstein, Promises Kept:John F. Kennedy's New Frontier, Oxford University Press,1991.
15. Jim F. Heath, Decade of Disillusionment Kennedy-Johnson Years, Indiana University Press,1975.
16. John W.Spanier, American Foreign Policy since World War II, New York: Praeger,1960.
17. Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country:An Oral History of the Peace Corps, New York:William Morrow and Company,1991.
18.Landrum R. Boiling with Craig Smith, Private Foreign Aid:U.S. Philanthropy for Relief and Development, Boulder,1982.
19.Lucas, Payne and Lowther, Kevin, Keeping Kennedy's Promise, The Peace Corps:Unmet Hope of the New Frontier, Colorado:Westview Press,1978.
20. Martin Staniland, American Intellectuals and Africa Nationalists,1955-1970, New haven and London,1991.
21. Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era.
22. Michael O'Brien, Rethinking Kennedy:An Interpretive Biography, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago,2009.
23.Mckinley, Edward H., The Lure of Africa:American interests in Tropical Africa,1919-1939, New York:Bobbs-Merrill,1974.
24. Paterson, Thomas G, Kennedy s Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy, 1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983.
25. Peter W. Rodman, More Precious than Peace:The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World, New York:C. Scribner's Sons,1994.
26. Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press,1985.
27. Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983.
28. Richard J. Walton:Cold War and Counterrevolution, the Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, Viking Press,1972.
29. Rivkin, The African Presence in World Affairs, London:Free Press of Glencoe.
30. Sargent Shriver, Point of the Lance, New York:Harper and Row,1964.
31. Schraeder, Peter J. United States Foreign Policy toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis, and Change. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994.
32.Shepard, Robert B. Nigeria, Africa, and the United States, Bloomington and Indianapolis:Indiana University Press,1991.
33. Sorensen, Let the Word Go forth:The Speeches, Statements, and writings of John F. Kennedy, New York:Delacorte Press,1988.
34. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and The Color line, Harvard University Press,2001.
35. Wall, Irwin M. France, the United States and the Algerian War, Berkeley: University of California Press,2001.
36. W.W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and foreign Aid, University of Texas Austin,1985.
37. The World Bank, World Development Report,1980, Washington D.C.:The World Bank,1980.
38. To Touch the World:the Peace Corps Experience.
1. Ann Katherine Ziker,Race,Conservative politics,and U.S.foreign policy in the postcolonial World, Doctor of Philosophy,Rice University,2008.
2. Gordon Oliver Daniels, A Great Injustice to Cheddi Jagon:the Kennedy administration and British Guiana:1961-1963, Doctor of Philosophy, the University of Mississippi,2000.
3. Ibezim Chukwumerije, The New Frontier and Africa, Ph. D. Dissertation.
4. Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent" Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961.
5. Larry Benjamin Grubbs, "literally a Continent to win":The United States,Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963,Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History University of South Carolina,2003.
6. Luis Nano Rodrigues, To the "Top of the Mountain" and "Down to the valley":the United States and Portugal during the Kennedy Presidency, Doctor of Philosophy, University of Wisconsin-Madison,2000.
7. Mahoney, Richard Doyle, the Kennedy Policy in the congo 1961-1963,PH.D,1980, The Johns Hopkins University.
8. Munene, G. Macharia, The Truman Administration and Decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa,1945-1952, Ph.D. Dissertation, Ohio University,1986.
9. Norman P. Roberts, The changed images of Africa in Some selected American media from 1930 to 1969, Ph.D. Dissertation, American University,1971.
10. Philip Emil Muehlebck, Beting on The Dark Horse:John F. Kennedy's Courting African nationalist Leaders, Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University, Doctor of Philosophy,2007.
11. Walters, Ronald William, The Formulation of United States Foreign policy toward Africa 1958-1963, Thesis(Ph. D),1971.
1. Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa(1912-1966), Prime Minister, Federal Republic of Nigeria (1957-1966).
2. Dean G. Acheson(1893-1971), Presidential adviser on foreign affairs.
3. Habib Bourguiba, Jr.(1927-),Tunisian Ambassador to the United States (1961-1963).
4. Herve Alphand(1907-1994), French Ambassador to the United States (1956-1965).
5. Mongi Slim, JFKL. Telephone interview:Lorna Hahn, April 6,1976, Washington, D.C.
6. McGeorge Bundy(1919-1996), Government official. Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs (1961-1966).
7. Philip M. Kaiser, JFKL:He had a warm feeling for this young, Vigorous man who'd caught the imagination of the Africans. It all began with the Algeria speech.
8. Stephen Ailes(1921-2001), Under Secretary (1961-1964).
9. Interview:W. W. Witman III, March 8,1976,Washington, D. C. Witman, Who was the director of the Office of North African Affair in the State Department, accompanied the Ben Bella entourage to the White House in July 1963.
1. Los Angeles Herald-Express
2. New York Times
3. San Francisco Examiner
外交部档案馆馆藏,驻英代办处研究室编印的“时事研究参考资料之一”,《美英在非洲矛盾的发展》。
梁根成,《美国与非洲——第二次世界大战结束至80年代后期美国对非洲的政策》,北京大学出版社,1991年版。
刘国柱,《美国文化的新边疆——冷战时期的和平队研究》,中国社会科学出版社,2005年版。
王慧英,《肯尼迪与美国的对外经济援助》,中国社会科学出版社,2007年版。
赵慧杰,《列国志：阿尔及利亚》,社会科学文献出版社,2006年4月出版。
北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,世界知识出版社,1960年版。
[美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略—肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版。
[法]安德烈莫鲁瓦,《美国史——从威尔逊到肯尼迪》,上海人民出版社,1976年版。
[英]布莱恩·拉平著, 《帝国斜阳》,上海人民出版社,1996年版。
[美]戴维斯, 《肯尼迪家族》,上海人民出版社,1987年版。
[苏]赫鲁晓夫,《赫鲁晓夫言论》(第十三集),世界知识出版社,1966年版。
[美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版。
[美]罗伯特·达莱克著,《肯尼迪传》,中信出版社,2005年版。
[俄]尼基塔·谢·赫鲁晓夫,《赫鲁晓夫回忆录》,社会科学文献出版社,2006年版。
[美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版。
[美]约翰·H·戴维斯,《肯尼迪家族》,谷辛亥、陈英如、徐竞雄、薛传稳译,上海人民出版社,1987年版。
[美]约翰·肯尼迪,《扭转颓势》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1976年版。
[挪]文安立,《全球冷战：美苏对第三世界的干涉与当代世界的形成》,牛 可译,世界图书出版社,2012年版。
[美]沃伦·克里斯托弗,《美国新外交：经济、防务、民主——美国前国务卿克里斯托弗回忆录》,新华出版社,1999年版。
戴超武,“肯尼迪—约翰逊时期的外交与第三世界”,《美国研究》2006年第2期。
梁根成,“肯尼迪和约翰逊政府对南部非洲的政策’”,《外交评论》(《外交学院学报》),1989年第3期。
刘国柱,“和平队与肯尼迪政府的冷战战略”, 《南开大学学报》2001年第五期。
梅亦竹,“肯尼迪对外政策思想的若干考察”,《国际问题研究》1962年第1期。
孙艳姝,“试析肯尼迪政府的对外援助政策”,东北师范大学2004年硕士论文。
杨娟,“经济援助与肯尼迪对非洲外交战略”,河北师范大学2005年硕士论文。
赵丽丽,“480与肯尼迪—约翰逊时期的对外粮食援助”,河北师范大学2007年硕士论文。
《人民日报》
《参考消息》
《环球时报》
2 梁根成,《美国与非洲》,北京大学出版社,1991年版,第58页。
3 Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A History, New York:Cambridge University Press, pp.9,15.
4Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower s Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961, p.56.
5 Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A history, New York:Cambridge University Press, pp.84-87.
6 Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A history, New York:Cambridge University Press, pp.99,104-105.
7 Emerson, Africa and United States Policy, Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall,1967, p.15.
8 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961.p.66.
9 Landrum R. Bolling with Craig Smith, Private Foreign Aid:U.S. Philanthropy for Relief and Development, Boulder,1982, pp.65,76-78.
10 Mckinley, Edward H., The Lure of Africa:American interests in Tropical Africa,1919-1939, New York:Bobbs-Merrill,1974, pp.12-13.
11 Address by Henry S. Villard, Assistant Chief of the State Department's Division of Near Eastern Affairs, August 19,1943, Department of State Press Release No.345(August 18,1945, Quoted in Emerson, Africa and United State Policy, p.18.
12 Munene, G. Macharia, The Truman Administration and Decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa, 1945-1952, Ph.D. Dissertation, Ohio University,1986, pp.24-25.
13 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.105.
14 Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years,1956-1961:Waging Peace, Garden City,1965, p.370.
15 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.107.
16 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.109.
17 U.S. Department of commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1966,87th Edition, Washington,1966, p.868.
18 U.S. Department of commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United State, 1961,82nd Edition, Wasington,1961, p.867.
19 Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years,1953-1956:Mandate for change, Garden City, 1963,p.247.
20 FRUS,1952-1954, Vol.2, National Security Affairs, Part 1, Washington,1984, p.384.
21 Letter from Aisenhower to General Alfred Gruenther, November 10,1954, Whitman File, DDEL.
22 FRUS,1952-1954, Vol.11, Part 1,p.60,65.
23 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.136.
24 432nd Meeting of the NSC, January 14,1960, Box 12, NSC Series, Whitman File, DDEL.
25 Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent":Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961. p.171.
26 Paterson, Thomas G, Kennedy's Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.255.
27 Alfred O. Hero, American Negroes and U.S. Foreign Policy:1937-1967, Journal of Conflict Resolution 13:2 June 1969, p.223,235.
28 Norman P. Roberts, The changed images of Africa in Some selected American media from 1930 to 1969, Ph.D. Dissertation, American University 1971, pp.139-146,125-136.
29 397th meeting of the NSC, February 26,1959, NSC Summaries of Discussions, Box 11,NSC Series, Whitman File, DDEL.
30 Chester Bowles, Promises to keep:My Years in Public Office,1941-1969, p.249
31 Memorandum of telephone conversation between Eisenhower and Herter, October 13,1960, Presidential Telephone Calls, July 1960—January 20,1961, Box 10, Herter Papers, DDEL.
32 Telegram from the U.S. delegation at the North Atlantic Council Ministerial Meeting to the State department, May 5,1956.
33 FRUS:1952-1954, Vol.2, Part 1, p.561.
34 432nd meeting of the NSC, January 14,1956, NSC Summaries of Discussions, Box 12, NSC Series, Whiteman File, DDEL.
35 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,世界知识出版社,1960年版,第12页。
36 Richard J.Walton:Cold War and Counterrevolution, the Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, Viking Press,1972, p.202.
37 Richard J. Walton:Cold War and Counterrevolution, the Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, Viking Press,1972, p.203.
39 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.4.
40 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第28页。
41 “全非人民大会新闻公报”,第1卷,第2期,第3页；转引于北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第155页。
42 《世界报》,1959年4月17日,第4页。
43 Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, "American leadership for Peace," University of Pennsylvania, October 18,1959,Speech File, PPP, JFKL
44 "The Choice in Aisa—Democratic Development in India" Speech of Hon. John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senate, March 25,1958, P.3, PPP, JFKL
45 Millikan and Rostow, A Proposal, New York,1957, pp.66-67.
46 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第148页。
47 Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and The Color line, Harvard University Press,2001, p.138.
48 "The White Redoubt,"28 June 1962,enclosed in owen to McGhee et al.,6 July 1962,NSF, box2, JFKL
49 Paterson, Confronting Castro,241(Dulles); Hunt, Ideology and U. S. Foreign policy,166-167
50 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第21页。
51 Michael O'Brien, Rethinking Kennedy:An Interpretive Biography, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago,2009, p.156.
52 Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and The Color line, Harvard University Press,2001, p.137.
53 J. Richard Snyder, Introduction, In John F. Kennedy:Person, Policy, Presidency, ed. Snyder(Wilmington, Del:Scholarly Resources,1988), X;
54 Michael O'Brien, Rethinking Kennedy:An Interpretive Biography, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago,2009, p.154.
55 Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, Los Angeles, Nov.l,1960
56 小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第463页。
"John F. Kennedy, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy,1963, pp.483-496.
58 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,世界知识出版社,第21页。
59 John W.Spanier, American Foreign Policy since World War Ⅱ, New York:Praeger,1960, p.143.
60 [美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略—肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第80页。
61 [美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略—肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第91页。
62 Advance copy of his report on his trip to the Middle and for East by Hon. John F. Kennedy Mutual Broadcasting Network, Nov 14,1951, PPP, JFKL
63 David Halberstam, the best and the brightest, NewYork,1972, p.19.
64 Advance copy of his report on his trip to the Middle and for East by Hon. John F. Kennedy Mutual Broadcasting Network, Nov 14,1951, PPP, JFKL.
65 Sorensen, Let the Word Go forth:The Speeches, Statements, and writings of John F. Kennedy, New York:Delacorte Press,1988, p.330.
66 Letter to John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State, From senator John F. Kennedy, May 7,1953, PPP, JFKL.
67 Edited draft of Report on Trip to Middle and Far East, November 3,1951, PPP, JFKL.
68 [苏]赫鲁晓夫,《赫鲁晓夫言论》第13集,世界知识出版社,1966年版,第280页。
69 John W. Spanier, American Foreign Policy since World War Ⅱ, New York:Praeger,1960, p.143.
70 "Facing Facts on Algeria," Remarks by Senator John F. Kennedy, United States Senate, July 2, 1957,p.4,PPP,JFKL.
71 同上
72 San Francisco Examiner, July 11,1957.
72 尼克松告诉华盛顿专栏作家皮尔森,他非常生气。在阿尔及利亚演说前一周,在他飞往美国马萨诸塞州的普利茅斯的航班上,他就告诉几位新闻记者,“除非美国劝阻法国给予阿尔及利亚某种形式的独立,在北非法国领地所有的痛苦将要被打破。”尼克松说,他吃惊的是,上一周,年轻肯尼迪关于阿尔及利亚的演说出现在媒体上。根据尼克松观点,肯尼迪的演说和他在给新闻记者所表达的意见是一样的。尼克松告诉皮尔森,他控告波士顿的新闻记者将他的消息泄露给肯尼迪。
74 Los Angeles Herald-Express, July 5,1957.
75 Dulles'Remarks:Drew Pearson column, undated, Speech File, Algeria, PPP, JFKL. Acheson's commentary:Dean Acheson, Power and Diplomacy, pp.126-127.
76 Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983, p.21.
77 See Speech Files, PPP, JFKL, July 23,1957.
78 Time, Dec 12,1957.
79 Chester Bowles to John F. Kennedy, July 23,1957, PPP, JFKL.
80 Oral History of Dean Acheson, JFKL.
81 See Kennedy's second address on Algeria in "Facing Facts on Algeria," Speeches of the Hon. John F. Kennedy, July 8,1957, Algeria Speech File, PPP, JFKL.
82 New York Time, July 10,1957.
83 Oral history of Philip M. Kaiser, JFKL:He had a warm feeling for this young, Vigorous man who'd caught the imagination of the Africans. It all began with the Algeria speech.
84 Schlesinger, A Thousand Days, p.511.
85 Holden Robert to John F. Kennedy, Dec 19,1962, Angola:National Security Files JFKL.
86 Oral history of Mongi Slim, JFKL. Telephone Interview:Lorna Hahn, April 6,1976, Washington, D.C.
87 Eric Sevareid, CBS Radio News Analysis, March 18,1958,File:Eric Sevareid's News Analysis, PPP, JFKL.
88 Burned Hands Across the Sea, Time 70, July 15,1957, p.18.
89 John F. Kennedy to Barbara Ward, July 9,1959, File:Foreign Relation, PPP, JFKL.
90 Harris L. Wofford, Jr., Of Kennedy and Kings, pp.11-99.
91 Kennedy quoted in Harris Wofford, Of Kennedys & Kings:Making Sense of the Sixties; Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press,1980, pp.36-37.
92 阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第336页。
93 John F. Kennedy Campaign Speech at the National Council of Women, New York,12 October 1960, in Sorensen, Let the Word Go forth:The Speeches, Statements, and writings of John F. Kennedy, New York:Delacorte Press,1988, pp.365-369.
94 Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983, p.32.
95 Remark of vice President Richard M. Nixon on CBS Television, November 3,1960; Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983, p.33.
96 《参考消息》,1960年10月16日,第四版。
97 Interview:W. W. Witman Ⅲ, March 8,1976,Washington, D. C. Witman, Who was the director of the Office of North African Affair in the State Department, accompanied the Ben Bella entourage to the White House in July 1963.
98 FrankChurch,"Our over involvement in Africa,"CongressionalRecord,Feb.l7,1965,pp.2869-2871
99 Kweku Anyani to John F. Kennedy, Nov.23,1960, General correspondence File:1960, PPP, JFKL.
10 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第63页。
101 Department of State Bulletin, February 27,1961.
102 Bowels, Chester. Africa's Challenge to America, Los Angeles:University of California Press, 1956, p.129.
103 Report, Foreign Service Institute, House Committee on Foreign Affairs,1961, p.3.
104 State Department Press Release, No.92, February 27,1961.
105 Department of State News Letter, No.67, November 1966, p.36.
16 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第437页。
107 Khrushchev's Speech of January 6,1961:A Summary and Interpretive Analysis,87TH Congress 1st Session Senate, Document NO.14.
Robert McNamara quoted by Peter W. Rodman, More Precious than Peace:The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World (New York:C. Scribner's Sons,1994), p.95.
109 Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era, p.3.
110 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961—1963, Africa, p.53.
111 1961年1月29日,肯尼迪在国会发表的演说
112 肯尼迪的就职演说,引自于约翰·肯尼迪著,《扭转颓势》,沙地译,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1976年,第6—-9页。
113 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第225页。
114 Memorandum Prepared by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, FRUS, p.311.
115 同上
116 Memorandum on the Substance of Discussions at the Department of State-Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting, FRUS, p.308.
117 Memorandum on the Substance of Discussions at the Department of State-Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting, FRUS, p.308.
118 National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS, p.320.
119 Paterson, Thomas G., Kennedy's Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.282.
120 Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara. FRUS.
121 State Department Paper, "Africa:Guidelines for Policy and Operations," March 1962. National Security Files, Box 2:"Africa", Folder "General,3/62-4/62", JFKL.
122 Letter from the Under Secretary of State (Bowles) to the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatric), FRUS, p.289.
123 Letter from the Consultative Group on Arms Limitation in Africa to the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams), FRUS, p.305.
125 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Morocco, FRUS, p.15.
126 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.17.
127 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Algeria, FRUS, p.18.
128 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Algeria, FRUS, p.28.
129 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Mali, FRUS, p.30.
130 Memorandum from Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), FRUS, p.33.
(?)Circular Telegram from the Department of State to Certain Diplomatic Posts, FRUS, p.40.
132 北京编译社译,《美国对非洲的外交政策——美国西北大学非洲研究计划处研究报告》,1960年,北京知识出版社,第28页。
133 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第515页。
134 Brief of a National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS, p.284.
135 Speech, March 24,1961, State Department Press Release, No.156.
136 施莱辛格编,《世界强权动力学：1945—1973年美国外交政策历史文献》,第五卷,第641-642页。
137 Memorandum From the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Satterthwaite) to Secretary of State Rusk, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.47.
138 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in France, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.52.
139 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.53.
140 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in France, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.54.
141 Memorandum From Robert W. Komer of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.56.
142 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.57.
143 Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy,1961, p.315.
144 Wall, France, the United States and the Algerian, pp.244-245.
145 《外国著名战争》,商务印书馆,1993,第530页
146 Telegram From the Embassy in France to the Department of State, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.64.
147 Circular Telegram From the Department of State to Certain Diplomatic Posts, FRUS, 1961-1963, Africa, p.65.
148 Memorandum From Robert W. Komer and Harold H. Saunders of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.70.
149 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in France, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.73.
150 Special National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa
151 Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Tunisia, FRUS,1961-1963, Africa, p.88.
152 Paterson, Thomas G., Kennedys Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.253.
153 Bowles to Kennedy, n.d., Report on a Mission to Africa, October 17-November 9,1962, DDRS.
154 Rodman, Peter W. More Precious Than Peace:The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World. New York:C. Scribner's Sons,1994.
155 Foreign Policy Bulletin, March 15,1961, p.103;United States Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Nomination of Dean Rusk, Secretary of State-Designate, Hearing, January 21,1961,pp.31-32.
156 Record of 508th Meeting of NSC, January 22,1963.
157 Thomas Paterson, Kennedy and Global Crisis, p.22.
158 Summary of President Kennedy's Remarks to the 496th NSC meeting, January 18,1962
159 Memorandum From the President's Deputy Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kaysen) to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.379.
160 Memorandum of Conversation, June 21,1961.
161 Public Papers of the Presidents:John F. Kennedy,1963, p.16.
162 Telegram 331, Washington to Conakry, October 23,1962, NSF, box102, Guinea, General, 10/12/62-10/31/62 Folder, JFKL.
163 Nkrumah. K., Africa Must Unite, London:Panaf,1963, pp.221-222.
164 National Intelligence Estimate, FRUS, p.299.
165 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.409.
166 Report Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.7.
167 Paper by the Officer in Charge of Tunisian Affairs (Stackhouse), FRUS, p.5.
169 Data from the Office of Protocol, Foreign visitors Section, State Department, Washington, D.C.
170 Ronald J. Nurse, Critic of Colonialism:JFK and Algerian Independence," The Historian 39(Februrary 1977), pp.307-326.
171 Attwood to Ball, May12,1961, Box 100, NSF:Ghana. See Also William Attwood, The Reds and the Blacks:A Personal Adventure(New York,1967)
172 Shriver to Kennedy, June 20,1961, Box 284, NSF:Departments and Agencies
173 Paterson, Thomas G., Kennedy's Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy,1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983, p.248.
174 Circular Telegram from the Department of State to Certain African Posts, FRUS, p.332.
175 转印于小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第437页。
176 小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第465页。
177 Memorandum, Neutralism and Foreign Aid, Rostow to Kennedy, September 27,1961, DDRS
178 Larry Grubbs, Literally a continent to win:The United States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963, p. ii.
179 [美]约翰·肯尼迪,《扭转颓势》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1976年版,第144页。
180 Report of the Study Mission to Africa,1955, op. cit., p.149.
181 Report of the Study Mission to Africa and the Near East,1957,op. cit., p.27.
182 Report of the Study Mission to Africa,1960, op. cit., p.7.
183 Public papers of the Presidents of the United States John F. Kennedy, Vol,l, pp.340-343.
184 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.411.
185 Circular Telegram from the Department of State, March 17,1961, FRUS
186 同上
187 Africa Task Force Report, December 31,1960, Box 1073. Pre-President Papers:Harris Woffard address to Columbia University.
188 Martin Staniland, American Intellectuals and Africa Nationalists,1955-1970, New haven and London,1991, pp.29-31.
189 Arnold Rivkin, Africa and the West, New York,1962, pp.viii.
190 Arnold Rivkin, Africa and the West, New York,1962, pp.142-143.
191 Larry Benjamin Grubbs, "Literally a Continent to win":The united States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963, p.88.
192 Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era, p.79.
193 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第469页。
194 Leo Tansky, "Soviet Foreign Aid to Less Developed countries", in U.S., Congress, Joint Economic Committee, New Direction in the Soviet Economy, p.951.
195 美国国际开发署、国防部：《美国收支平衡：前景与政策》,第65—66页。
196 [美]沃伦·克里斯托弗,《美国新外交：经济、防务、民主——美国前国务卿克里斯托弗回忆录》,新华出版社,1999年版,第357页。
197 [美]阿兰·内文斯编,《和平战略——肯尼迪言论集》,北京知识出版社,1963年版,第203页。
Briefing Paper Prepared in the Department of State, FRUS, p.1.
199 Memorandum from Secretary of State Rusk to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.399.
200 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.411.
201 Report Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.7.
202 National Security Action Memorandum No.16, FRUS, p.281.
203 Memorandum from Secretary of State Rusk to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.282.
204 Paper Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.294.
205 Vernon Mckay, The African Operations of the United States Government, in The United States and Africa. ed. Goldschmidt. pp.275.281-284.
206 U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, pp.872-875.
207 Report to the Congress on the Foreign Assistance Program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Office,1963, p.44.
208 The Foreign Assistance Program, Annual Report to the Congress for Fiscal Year 1963, p.12.
Foreign Assistance 1964:Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relation, United States Senate, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1964, p.2.
210 Memorandum of Conversation, Call by Nigerian Economic Mission", July 7,1961, Box144, NSF, JFKL.
211 Shepard, Robert B. Nigeria, Africa, and the United States, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press,1991, p.22.
212 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.5.
213 Grain to Libya to Relieve Shortage Created by Drought, in The Department of State Bulletin, February 27,1961, p.313.
214 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第484页。
215 Memorandum from Manning Williams of the Operations Coordinating Board to Executive Office of the Operations Coordinating Board Smith
216 United States and Morocco sign food for peace Agreement, in Department of State Bulletin, May 22,1961,p.772.
217 The Nineteenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on Under Public Law 480,83d congress, p.75.
213 Ibezim Chukwumerije, The New Frontier and Africa, Ph. D. Dissertation, p.177.
219 Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in Ghana, FRUS, p.386.
22.Rivkin,The African Presence in World Affairs,London:Free Press of Glencoe,pp.245-248.
221 William Bundy in Memorandum of conversation, February 25,1961, Meeting Between the Secretaries of State and Defense and the Director of the Bureau of the Budget on the Military Assistance Program, FRUS.
222 Larry Benjamin Grubbs, literally a Continent to win:The United States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963,p.66.
223 Kennedy, "foreign aid", in the department of state Bulletin, April 10,1961, p.508.
224 Bowels, "Foreign Aid:The Great Decision of the sixties," p.706.
225 Chester Bowels, "Why Foreign Aid", in The Department of State Bulletin, May 20,1963, p.778.
226 Paper Prepared by the Policy Planning Council, FRUS, p.294.
227 Memorandum from William H. Brubeck of the National Security Council Staff to President Kennedy, FRUS, p.424.
228 Memorandum from the President's Special Assistant (Dungan) to President Kennedy, FRUS, 1961-1963, p.329.
229 United States Foreign Policy, Hearings, op.cit., p.428.
230 Report of the Study Mission to Africa, op. cit.,1960, p.9.
231 Rostow Memorandum to Kennedy, March 13,1961, Box 325, NSF, JFKL.
232 Memorandum from the President's Deputy Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Rostow) to the President's Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Bundy), FRUS, p.290.
233 Telegram from The Embassy in the United Kingdom to the Department of State, March 28,1961.
234 the Foreign Assistance Program, Annual Report to the Congress for Fiscal Year 1963.
235 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS, p.411.
236 Report to Congress on the Foreign assistance program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office:1963.
237 Larry Benjamin Grubbs, "Literally a Continent to win":The united States, Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963, pp.93-94.
238 Foreign Assistance and related Agencies Appropriations for 1964:Hearings before the Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate, Eighty-eighth Congress, first session, Washington D.C.
239 "Report of G. Mennen Williams on his third trip to Africa, Sep 29 to Oct 26,1961", November 28,1961, Box2, NSF, JFKL.
240 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.9.
241 Allen J. Ellender, A Report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963, p.8.
242 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新
知三联书店,1981年版,第485页。
243 Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy, University of Michigan Students Union Building Steps, Ann Arbor, Michigan, October 14,1960.
244 Sargent Shriver, Point of the Lance, New York:Harper and Row,1964, p.11.
245 Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country:An Oral History of the Peace corps, New York:William Morrow and Company,1991, p.17.
246 Ashabranner. Brent, A Moment in History:The First Ten Years of the Peace Corps, New York: Doubleday & Company,1971, pp.315-316.
247 [美]亨利·斯蒂尔·康马杰：《美国精神》,盛葵阳、南木译,光明日报出版社,1988年版,第27页。
248 [美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版,第192 页。
249 转印自[美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版,第213—214页；Whyte, Organization Man; Goodman, Growing Up Absurd; Riesman, with Glazier and Denney, Lonely Crowd,18; Galbraith, Affluent Society, p.140,159.
250 Irving Bernstein, Promises Kept:John F. Kennedy's New Frontier, Oxford University Press, 1991, p.260.
251 [美]雷迅马,《作为意识形态的现代化》,牛可译,中央编译出版社,2003年版,第173页。
252 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fires, p.294.
253 Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country:An Oral History of the Peace corps, New York:William Morrow and Company,1991, p.36.
254 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.157.
255 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p.75.
256 刘国柱,《美国文化的新边疆——冷战时期的和平队研究》,中国社会科学出版社,2005年版,第126页。
257 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p.89.
258 Minutes of meeting, Bradley Patterson, December 6,1961, Bush Papers, Box 2, "Director's StaffMeeting Records,10/2/61-1/8/62", JFKL.
259 Shriver, Report to the President on the Peace Corps, JFKL, Box85.
260 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.7.
261 梁根成,《美国与非洲——第二次世界大战结束至80年代后期美国对非洲的政策》,北京大学出版社,1991年版,第61页。
262 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p.15.
263 Meridan Bennett and Maureen J. Carroll, Ethiopia Overseas Evaluation:1967, pp.25,46.
264 George H.Dune,S.J.,Evaluation of the Afghanistan and Ethiopia Projects at Georgetown University, pp.1,16, Georgetown University Archives)
265 Harris Wofiford, Report on a New Frontier, March 11,1961, PP.2-3, Box298, Chester Bowles Papers, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
266 Harris Wofford OH Interview, JFKL.
267 Selassie and Wofford are Quoted in Ethiopia Herald, September 21,1962, Martha Stonequist Papers, Saratoga, NY
268 Harris Wofford, Report on the peace corps in Ethiopia, May 25,1963, p.4.
269 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.294.
270 John Rex, Why Stay?:A Point of View, March 12,1964, pp.1-2.
271 John Rex, Report on Debre Berhan, October 5,1962; Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lightingfire,p.295.
272 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.296.
273 John Rex to family, October 1,1962; Lynn and Mary Lou Linman to Friends, January 4,1963. Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.296.
274 Mary Lou, Linman, Teaching in Ethiopia, Manuscript, p.2.
275 Mary Lou, Linman, Peace corps Teacher, Manuscript, p.1.
276 Ron Kazarian to family, October 3,1963; Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.298.
277 John Rex to family, October 24,1962; Bob Savage to family, October 26,1962. Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire,p.298.
278 Ron Kazarian to family, October 24,1962.
279 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.299.
280 Coates Redmon, Come as you are, New York,1986, p.160.
281 Stonequist to family, November 3,1962.
282 Ron Kazarian to family, November 29,1962.
283 John Rex to family, December 3,1962.
284 Ron Kazarian to family, December 15,1962.
285 Martha Stonequist to Mother and Dad, January 17,1963.
286 John Rex to family, May 9,1963.
287 Ibid.
288 Kazarian to family, May 16,1963; Kazarian to family, May 21,1963.
289 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.307.
290 Linda and Gary Bergthold to family, November 25,1963; Carolyn Wood to mother, November 23,1963,Carolyn Wood Kneedler Paper, Palo Alto, CA. For reaction of Peace Corps Volunteers Worldwide to the death of President Kennedy, see Small Staff Meeting, November 26,1963, Files of Bill Moyers, LBJL.
291 Jane Campbell, Completion of Service Conference Report-Ethiopia, p.1-2.
292 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fire, p.316.
293 Ibid.
294 王晓德,为《美国文化的新边疆》写序,第3页。
295 Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fires, p.312.
296 The Department of State Bulletin, July 18,1966, p.95.
297 Lucas, Payne and Lowther, Kevin, Keeping Kennedy's Promise, The Peace Corps:Unmet Hope of the New Frontier, Colorado:Westview Press,1978, p.89.
298 The World Bank, World Development Report,1980, Washington D.C.:The World Bank,1980, p.1.
299 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.iii.
300 Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era, p.143.
301 Kennedy, Public papers,1961, p.134.
302 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p. ii.
303 To Touch the World:the Peace corps experience, p.158.
304 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第484页。
305 Gary May, Passing the torch and lighting fires:the Peace corps, p.289.
306 Sargent Shriver, The Peace Corps'First Two Years, John F. Kennedy Library,Box86
307 Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, 1985, p. ix.
308 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第431页。
309 Attword, Willam. The Reds and the Blacks, New York:Harper & Row Publishers,1967, p.17.
310 Attwood, The Reds and The Blacks, p.146.
311 Tom Mboya, recorded interview by Gordon P. Hagberg,10 March 1965, John F. Kennedy Oral History Program, JFKL.
313 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第431页。
314 Memorandum from the President's Special Assistant (Schlesinger) to Attorney General Kennedy, FRUS, p.496.
315 Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff to Secretary of Defense McNamara, FRUS, p.498.
316 Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams) to Secretary of State Rusk, FRUS, p.328.
317 [美]小阿瑟·M·施莱辛格著,《一千天——约翰·菲·肯尼迪在白宫》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,1981年版,第443页。
318 Memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs (Williams) to Secretary of State Rusk, FRUS, p.338.
319 Quoted in Branch, Parting the Waters, p.477.
320 Ronald W. Walters, The Formulation of United States Foreign policy toward Africa, 1958-1963, p.435-436.
321 外交部档案馆馆藏,驻英代办处研究室编,时事研究参考资料之一,《美英在非洲矛盾的发展》,1961年4月12日。
322 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS,1961-1963, p.292.
323 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS,1961-1963, p.402.
324 Memorandum of Conversation, FRUS,1961-1963, p.292.
1. Annual Report to The Congress for Fiscal Year 1963:The foreign Assistance Program, U.S. Government Printing office.
2. A report on United States Foreign Operation in Africa, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963.
3. Declassified Documents Reference System (DDRS)
4. Department of State Bulletin,1961.
5. Department of State Bulletin,1963.
6. Eighteenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law 480(1963.1.1-1963.6.30), U.S. Government Printing Office,1963
7. Foreign Relations of the United States,1961-1963, Volume XXI, Africa, United States Government Printing Office, Washington,1995.
8. House of Representatives, Document No.94, Our Foreign Assistance Act, Message from the President of the United States.
9. House of Representatives, Report No 1107, foreign assistance and related agencies appropriation bill,1962.
10. House Report No.1115, Peace Corps Act, Report of the committee on foreign affairs on H.R.7500.
11. National Security Action Memoranda.
12. Nineteenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law 480(1963.7.1-1963.12.30), U.S. Government Printing Office,1964.
13. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:John F. Kennedy.
14. Report on the Congress on the Foreign Assistance Program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office:1963.
15. Report by the president to the Congress for the Year1962:U.S.Participation in the UN, Department of State Publication 7610.
16. Report by the president to the Congress for the Year 1963:U.S.Participation in the UN, Department of State Publication 7675.
17. Report to the Congress on the Foreign Assistance Program for Fiscal Year 1962, U.S. Government Office,1963.
18. Senate, Report No.2177, Foreign Aid and Related Agencies Appropriation Bill,1963.
19. Seventeenth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law480(1962.7.1-1962.12.30),U.S. Government Printing Office,1963.
20. State Department Press Release.
21. The Peace Corps, Report of the Committee on Foreign relation United States Senate on S.2000.
22. Twentieth Semiannual Report on Activities Carried on under public Law 480(1964.1.1-1964.6.30), U. S. Government Printing Office,1964.
23. United States Contribution to International organization for the fiscal year 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office,1963.
1. Arnold Rivkin, Africa and the West, New York,1962.
2. Arthur M. Schlesinger JR. A Thousand Days, John F. Kennedy in The White House, Ander Deutsch,1965.
3. Ashabranner. Brent, A Moment in History:The First Ten Years of the Peace Corps, New York:Doubleday & Company,1971.
4. Attword, Willam. The Reds and the Blacks, New York:Harper and Row Publishers,1967.
5. Bowels, Chester. Africa's Challenge to America, Los Angeles:University of California Press,1956.
6. Bruce Miroff, Pragmatic illusions-the Presidential Politics of John F. Kennedy, David McKay Company Inc,1976.
7. Donald C. Lord, John F. Kennedy:The politics of confrontation and conciliation, Barron's Woodbury, N.Y.
8. David Burner, John F. Kennedy and a New Generation, Library of American Biography,1988.
9. David Halberstam, the best and the brightest, New York,1972.
10.Dwight D. Eisenhower, The White House Years,1956-1961:Waging Peace, Garden City,1965.
11.Duignan and Gann, The United States and Africa:A History, New York: Cambridge University Press.
12.Emerson, Africa and United States Policy, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1967.
13. Gary May, Passing the Torch and Lighting fires.
14. Irving Bernstein, Promises Kept:John F. Kennedy's New Frontier, Oxford University Press,1991.
15. Jim F. Heath, Decade of Disillusionment Kennedy-Johnson Years, Indiana University Press,1975.
16. John W.Spanier, American Foreign Policy since World War II, New York: Praeger,1960.
17. Karen Schwarz, What You Can Do for Your Country:An Oral History of the Peace Corps, New York:William Morrow and Company,1991.
18.Landrum R. Boiling with Craig Smith, Private Foreign Aid:U.S. Philanthropy for Relief and Development, Boulder,1982.
19.Lucas, Payne and Lowther, Kevin, Keeping Kennedy's Promise, The Peace Corps:Unmet Hope of the New Frontier, Colorado:Westview Press,1978.
20. Martin Staniland, American Intellectuals and Africa Nationalists,1955-1970, New haven and London,1991.
21. Michael E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology:American Social Science and "National Building" in the Kennedy Era.
22. Michael O'Brien, Rethinking Kennedy:An Interpretive Biography, Ivan R. Dee, Chicago,2009.
23.Mckinley, Edward H., The Lure of Africa:American interests in Tropical Africa,1919-1939, New York:Bobbs-Merrill,1974.
24. Paterson, Thomas G, Kennedy s Quest For Victory:American Foreign Policy, 1961-1963, New York:Oxford University Press,1983.
25. Peter W. Rodman, More Precious than Peace:The Cold War and the Struggle for the Third World, New York:C. Scribner's Sons,1994.
26. Rice, The Bold Experiment:JFK'S Peace Corps, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press,1985.
27. Richard D. Mahoney, JFK Ordeal in Africa, Oxford University Press,1983.
28. Richard J. Walton:Cold War and Counterrevolution, the Foreign Policy of John F. Kennedy, Viking Press,1972.
29. Rivkin, The African Presence in World Affairs, London:Free Press of Glencoe.
30. Sargent Shriver, Point of the Lance, New York:Harper and Row,1964.
31. Schraeder, Peter J. United States Foreign Policy toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis, and Change. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1994.
32.Shepard, Robert B. Nigeria, Africa, and the United States, Bloomington and Indianapolis:Indiana University Press,1991.
33. Sorensen, Let the Word Go forth:The Speeches, Statements, and writings of John F. Kennedy, New York:Delacorte Press,1988.
34. Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and The Color line, Harvard University Press,2001.
35. Wall, Irwin M. France, the United States and the Algerian War, Berkeley: University of California Press,2001.
36. W.W. Rostow, Eisenhower, Kennedy and foreign Aid, University of Texas Austin,1985.
37. The World Bank, World Development Report,1980, Washington D.C.:The World Bank,1980.
38. To Touch the World:the Peace Corps Experience.
1. Ann Katherine Ziker,Race,Conservative politics,and U.S.foreign policy in the postcolonial World, Doctor of Philosophy,Rice University,2008.
2. Gordon Oliver Daniels, A Great Injustice to Cheddi Jagon:the Kennedy administration and British Guiana:1961-1963, Doctor of Philosophy, the University of Mississippi,2000.
3. Ibezim Chukwumerije, The New Frontier and Africa, Ph. D. Dissertation.
4. Kenneth A. Kresse, Containing Nationalism "on the dark continent" Eisenhower's Policy Toward Africa,1953-1961.
5. Larry Benjamin Grubbs, "literally a Continent to win":The United States,Development, and the Cold War in Africa,1961-1963,Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History University of South Carolina,2003.
6. Luis Nano Rodrigues, To the "Top of the Mountain" and "Down to the valley":the United States and Portugal during the Kennedy Presidency, Doctor of Philosophy, University of Wisconsin-Madison,2000.
7. Mahoney, Richard Doyle, the Kennedy Policy in the congo 1961-1963,PH.D,1980, The Johns Hopkins University.
8. Munene, G. Macharia, The Truman Administration and Decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa,1945-1952, Ph.D. Dissertation, Ohio University,1986.
9. Norman P. Roberts, The changed images of Africa in Some selected American media from 1930 to 1969, Ph.D. Dissertation, American University,1971.
10. Philip Emil Muehlebck, Beting on The Dark Horse:John F. Kennedy's Courting African nationalist Leaders, Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University, Doctor of Philosophy,2007.
11. Walters, Ronald William, The Formulation of United States Foreign policy toward Africa 1958-1963, Thesis(Ph. D),1971.
1. Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa(1912-1966), Prime Minister, Federal Republic of Nigeria (1957-1966).
2. Dean G. Acheson(1893-1971), Presidential adviser on foreign affairs.
3. Habib Bourguiba, Jr.(1927-),Tunisian Ambassador to the United States (1961-1963).
4. Herve Alphand(1907-1994), French Ambassador to the United States (1956-1965).
5. Mongi Slim, JFKL. Telephone interview:Lorna Hahn, April 6,1976, Washington, D.C.
6. McGeorge Bundy(1919-1996), Government official. Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs (1961-1966).
7. Philip M. Kaiser, JFKL:He had a warm feeling for this young, Vigorous man who'd caught the imagination of the Africans. It all began with the Algeria speech.
8. Stephen Ailes(1921-2001), Under Secretary (1961-1964).
9. Interview:W. W. Witman III, March 8,1976,Washington, D. C. Witman, Who was the director of the Office of North African Affair in the State Department, accompanied the Ben Bella entourage to the White House in July 1963.
1. Los Angeles Herald-Express
2. New York Times
3. San Francisco Examiner
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