长期不同施肥制度下双季稻田土壤肥力与温室气体排放规律的研究
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摘要
粮食安全是当今全球面临的重大挑战之一,然而现代农业生产往往忽视了对土壤质量和生态环境产生的负面影响,研究农业措施的长期效果是关乎农业可持续发展的重要课题。本研究以中国科学院湖南桃源农业生态试验站始于1990年的长期定位施肥试验为研究对象,探讨长期不同施肥制度下双季稻产量和土壤肥力变化趋势、土壤固碳潜力以及温室气体CH4、N20排放与NH3挥发的规律。试验处理如下：①不施肥(CK)；②施用常量化学N、P肥(NP)；③施用常量化学N、K肥(NK)；④施用常量化学N、P、K肥(NPK)；⑤施用常量化学N、P、K肥+全量秸秆还田+绿肥(FOM)；⑥2/3化学N、P肥+1/3化学K肥+1/2秸秆还田+绿肥(ROM)。具体结果如下：
1.1990-2009年,不平衡施肥处理(NP和NK)的早稻和晚稻平均产量分别比对照处理(CK)增加9.2-64.2%和13.6-30.6%。与对照相比,NPK处理的早稻和晚稻产量增加90.2%和46.4%。有机无机配施处理(FOM和ROM)的早稻和晚稻产量分别比对照增加89.6_117.4%和47.6-53.5%。早稻和晚稻的产量均随土壤综合肥力指数的增加呈极显著线性增加的趋势。长期不施肥导致土壤综合肥力显著下降(P<0.05)。与试验前相比,2009年NPK、FOM和ROM处理的土壤综合肥力比试验前显著增加(P<0.05),并达到高肥力水平(0.723-0.787)。不平衡施肥条件下土壤综合肥力指数没有显著增加。土壤磷的有效性是限制水稻增产的关键因素,其中施磷肥处理(NP、NPK、FOM和ROM)的早稻产量呈显著增加的趋势(P<0.05),而不施磷处理(CK和NK)在早稻和晚稻季均无增加趋势。
2.1990-1996、1997-2005和2006-2009年,除CK处理外,所有施肥处理的土壤氮素表观平衡均呈盈余状态,但是氮素盈余量在不同年份变化较大,主要受氮肥投入和作物养分吸收年际变化的影响。FOM和ROM处理氮素表观盈余量在所有年份均高于NP和NPK处理。长期不施用磷肥会导致NK处理的表观磷亏缺程度比CK更加严重。各施磷处理(NP、NPK、FOM和ROM)的土壤磷表观平衡均呈盈余状态,其中1990-2005年FOM处理的磷素盈余量最高,2006-2009年NP处理最高。NP处理在各阶段土壤磷素盈余量均高于NPK处理,主要由于不平衡施肥导致NP处理的作物养分吸收量下降。不施钾处理(NP和CK)的土壤钾素表观亏缺表现为逐渐下降的趋势,主要由于水稻植株的钾吸收量下降。施钾处理(NK、NPK、FOM和ROM)的土壤钾素表观平衡在不同年份波动较大,仅FOM处理在所有阶段均处于盈余状态,且盈余量随着钾肥施用量的不断增加而增加。ROM处理一直处于亏缺状态,但亏缺量逐渐降低。NK和NPK在1990-1996年处于亏缺状态,1997-2005和2006_2009年处于盈余状态,且盈余量逐渐增加。此外,由于NK的养分吸收量明显低于NPK处理,前者的钾素表观平衡量明显高于后者。
3.1999_2009年双季稻系统耕层土壤有机碳(SOC)含量呈逐渐增加的趋势,其中2007-2009年SOC平均含量为0.49-0.80g C kg-1yr-1.CK和NK处理耕层SOC含量饱和值为21.1-22.1g C kg-1,NP和NPK处理为24.5-26.4g C kg-1,而有机无机配施处理(FOM和ROM)为37.5-7.2g C kg-1.2007-2009年,CK处理耕层土壤固碳速率为0.96Mg C ha-1yr-1,其他施肥处理的土壤固碳速率为1.01-1.43Mg C ha-1yr-1.2009年双季稻系统耕层土壤碳储量为36.4-48.2Mg Cha-1,比1999年高15-30%。
4.2007-2009年早稻季和晚稻季田间NH3挥发损失平均分别为12.8-27.3kg Nha-1和17.3-32.7kg N ha-1,分别占施氮量的9.2-33.6%和17.8-32.2%。NH3挥发速率随着田间水层NH4+浓度的增加呈显著增加的趋势(P<0.01)。长期施肥可以显著增加双季稻系统NH3挥发(除早稻季ROM和CK处理间没有显著差异外)。与NPK处理相比,长期不平衡施肥导致累积NH3损失进一步增加。在平衡施用无机肥的基础上增施有机肥(FOM)也可以促进NH3挥发的增加。然而,有机肥替代部分无机化肥(ROM)条件下可以减少NH3挥发损失。NP和NK处理NH3挥发的增加与长期不平衡施肥导致水稻植株氮吸收显著下降有很大关系。
5.2006-2009年稻田CH4排放受施肥和环境条件的影响,具有明显的季节变化规律。除晚稻生育后期外,整个双季稻种植季田间均处于淹水状态。早稻季气温逐渐升高,CH4排放在生育前期缓慢增加,生育中后期出现1_2个排放峰,到生育末期缓慢下降。晚稻季气温逐渐降低,CH4排放表现为先升高后降低的变化趋势,在生育初期CH4排放达到全年最高峰。尤其是有机无机肥配施处理(FOM和ROM)在晚稻移栽后1-2周内出现极为显著的CH4排放峰。晚稻季CH4累积排放通量比早稻季高113-157%,达到显著差异水平(P<0.01)。非水稻种植季田间无水层覆盖,加之气温较低,几乎观测不到CH4排放。CH4年累积排放通量范围为621-1175kg CH4ha-1(CK处理最低,FOM处理最高)。长期施肥可以增加稻田CH4排放通量。与对照处理相比,FOM和ROM处理下全年CH4累积排放通量分别增加89.8%和73.9%。单施化肥处理(NP、NK和NPK)全年CH4累积排放通量较低,仅比对照增加4.4_27.8%。
6.2006-2009年水稻种植季淹水稻田表现为典型的大气N2O微弱的源或汇；非水稻种植季稻田不施肥,但没有水层覆盖,N20排放通量相对较高。N20年累积排放通量范围为1.15-4.11kg N2O-N ha-1(CK最低,FOM最高)。长期施肥对稻田N20排放的季节变化模式无明显影响,但影响其排放量。与对照相比,FOM和ROM处理的全年N20累积排放通量分别增加257%和193%。单施化肥处理的全年N20累积排放通量比对照增加68-158%。
7.全年净综合温室效应和温室气体强度的平均变化范围分别为12587-26066kg CO2-equivalent ha-1yr-1和1.35-2.06CO2-equivalent kg-1grain yield yr-1。长期有机无机配施处理(FOM和ROM)可以显著增加全年净综合温室效应,主要由于淹水条件下有机肥的施用促进CH4的大量排放。与对照相比,NP和NPK处理具有较低的温室气体强度,而FOM和ROM处理较高。
以上研究表明(1)双季稻产量变化趋势受施肥管理措施和土壤肥力变化的显著影响。(2)土壤养分投入和产出的动态平衡不仅受肥料运筹的影响,而且受植株养分吸收的影响,平衡施肥需要考虑生产力的变化(3)双季稻系统耕层有机碳储量呈逐渐增加的趋势。与单施化肥相比,增施秸秆和绿肥等有机物质的施用可以进一步促进土壤固碳。(4)稻田NH3挥发受施肥量和施肥方式的影响。长期平衡施肥可以促进水稻植株氮吸收,减少双季稻系统NH3挥发。(5)稻田CH4和N20排放具有明显的季节变化规律。长期施用化肥不仅可以增加水稻季CH4排放,而且促进非水稻种植季N20的排放。有机肥的施用可以显著增加淹水条件下水稻种植季的CH4排放,导致温室气体强度的增加；平衡施用化肥(尤其是磷肥的施用)可以减缓温室气体强度。因此,为同步实现较高的作物产量和较低的温室气体强度,双季稻系统可采取以下农业管理措施：平衡施肥(尤其是磷肥的施用)、水稻种植季中期烤田替代持续淹水、非水稻种植季秸秆还田替代水稻种植季施用秸秆等。但上述农业措施在双季稻系统中的实际效果,在以后研究中需要进一步验证和探讨。
Food security is one of the major challenges in the modern world. However, the possible negative impacts on soil quality and ecological environment are often ignored in modern agricultural production. Therefore, research about the long-term effects of agricultural measures concerns the sustainable development of agriculture in the future. A20-year field experiment began in1990was carried out in a long-term fertilizer experimental grid at Taoyuan Agro-ecological Experimental Station. It is located at the bottom of slope in a typical hilly agricultural area in Hunan Province, China (28°55'N,111°30'E; altitude:92.2-125.3m), where cropping regime is dominated by the double rice-cropping systems. The primary objective was to examine the effect of long-term fertilization on the trends of crop yields and soil fertility, carbon sequestration in topsoil, and characteristics of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and ammonia (NH3) volatilization in the typical double rice-cropping systems. In this long-term fertilizer experiment, a randomized block experiment with three replicates was established, with six different fertilizer treatments. The treatments included inorganic fertilizer [nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer (NP), nitrogen and potassium fertilizer (NK), and balanced mineral fertilizer (NPK)], combined inorganic/organic fertilizers at full and reduced rate (FOM and ROM), and no fertilizer application as a control (CK). The detailed results were summarized as follows:
1. Over20years, compared with control, the grain yields with imbalanced fertilizer application (NP and NK) were increased by9.2-64.2%and13.6-30.6%in early-and late-rice, respectively, while balanced fertilizer application (NPK) increased the grain yields by90.2%and46.4%. Long-term combined inorganic/organic fertilizer (FOM and ROM) application significantly increased grain yields, which enhanced by89.6-117.4%in early-rice and47.6-53.5%in late-rice as compared to CK. The mean yields in both of early-and late-rice linearly increased with increasing of integrated fertility index. Compared with the initial soil in1990, soil fertility showed a significant downward trend without any fertilizer application (CK) in double rice-cropping systems (P<0.05). The IFI averaged0.644-0.679in the plots with long-term imbalanced fertilizer application, but there was no significant difference in comparison with the initial soil. Compared with the control as well as initial soil, in contrast, long-term balanced mineral fertilizer application and combined inorganic/organic fertilizer application significantly increased IFI,0.723-0.787, which had reached up to the high grade of soil fertility. The rice yields in NP, NPK, FOM, and ROM plots showed significant and positive time trends for early rice-cropping seasons, while there were no any trends in P-omitted plots (N and NK) both in the double rice-cropping seasons. The much lower levels of available soil P in CK and NK plots suggested that soil P deficiency is an important factor limiting increased yields in double rice-cropping systems.
2. In1990-1996,1997-2005and2006-2009, the contents of soil nitrogen in the fertilization treatments were in surplus conditions (except for CK). However, the amounts of nitrogen surplus varied from year to year, mainly associated with the input of nitrogen element through inorganic/organic fertilizer and the output through uptake by rice plants in the double rice-cropping systems. The amounts of nitrogen surplus in FOM and ROM treatments were higher than NP and NPK treatments in all stages. Compared with CK, phosphorous deficit got worse towards the end of the long-term experiment without phosphorous application in NK treatment. Instead, the apparent balances of soil phosphorous in the treatments with phosphorous application (NP, NPK, FOM and ROM) were in surplus conditions. The highest amount of phosphorous surplus was in FOM treatment from1990to2005, while it was in NP2006-2009. The amount of phosphorous surplus was higher in NP than NPK in all stages, because phosphorous uptake by rice plants declined with imbalanced fertilizer application in NP. The potassium deficits in NP and CK plots showed negative time trends in these three stages, mainly because the potassium uptake was limited in these plots. The apparent balances of soil potassium varied from year to year. The amount of potassium surplus was increased with increasing potassium input in FOM treatment in all stages. The balances of soil potassium showed deficit in ROM treatment, but the amount of deficit was decreased in the three stages. The apparent balances of soil potassium showed deficit in NK and NPK treatments in1990-1996, while they were surplus and the amount gradually increased from1997to2005. In addition, the amount of potassium surplus was much higher in NK than NPK, because potassium uptake by rice plants declined with imbalanced fertilizer application in NK.
3. The net ecosystem carbon balance was estimated by the changes in topsoil (0-20cm) organic carbon (SOC) density over the10-yr period1999-2009. Annual increase rate of SOC averaged0.49-0.80g C kg-1yr-1. Annual topsoil SOC sequestration rate was estimated to be0.96t C ha-1yr-1for the control and1.01-1.43t C ha-1yr-1for the fertilizer plots. The topsoil SOC density averaged36.4-48.2t C ha-1in the double rice-cropping systems in2009.
4. The cumulative NH3volatilizations in the fertilizer plots ranged between12.8and27.3kg N ha-1for early-rice season and between17.3and32.7kg N ha-1for late-rice season, or accounted for9.2-33.6%and17.8-32.2%of the applied N, respectively. The NH4+concentration in floodwater, originated mainly from urea hydrolysis, is a predominant factor to NH3losses in the double rice-cropping systems. NH3volatilization rates increased nonlinearly with an increase of NH4+contents in surface water (P<0.01). Long-term fertilization significantly increased NH3volatilization, except for no difference between the control and ROM plots in early-rice season. Compared with the NPK, the cumulative NH3volatilizations tended to be increased with long-term imbalanced mineral fertilizer application in NP and NK treatments, and also can be enhanced by additional organic fertilizer amendment in the FOM plots. Nonetheless, NH3loss was declined when part of the mineral fertilizers in NPK were substituted by organic fertilizer (ROM). The increased NH3volatilization can be ascribed to the significantly decreased N uptake by rice for the NP and NK plots.
5. Rice paddy field is the important source of CH4. During the early-rice growing season under continuous flooding, CH4fluxes were gradually increased in the early stage and stepped down in the late stage. The CH4fluxes dramatically ascended after late-rice transplanting in July. The highest CH4fluxes were observed on days to1-week after rice transplanting then gradually decreased to background levels in the late-rice season. Particularly, a remarkable peak of CH4flux was observed approximately1-2weeks after late-rice transplanting for the plots with combined inorganic/organic fertilizer applications. Substantial CH4emission was observed in late-rice growing season,113-157%greater than those in early-rice season (paired t-test, P<0.001). In the non-rice winter seasons, all field treatment soils acted as small net sink or source of CH4to the atmosphere, which is largely due to drainage. Annual mean CH4emissions ranged from621kg CH4ha-1for the control to1175kg CH4ha-1 for the FOM plots. Long-term inorganic fertilizer application increased CH4emissions by4.4-27.8%as compared to CK. Long-term combined inorganic/organic fertilizer application remarkably increased the CH4emissions by89.8%(FOM) and73.9%(ROM) under continuous waterlogging.
6. During the double-rice growing seasons, N2O emissions from paddy fields were negligible. Substantial N2O emission was observed in the non-rice growing period, although no fertilizer was applied in the winter season. Annual N2O emission averaged1.15-4.11kg N2O-N ha-1in the double rice-cropping systems. Seasonal dynamics of N2O fluxes were insignificantly influenced by long-term fertilizer application, while annual N2O emissions were greatly affected by fertilization. Compared to CK, annual N2O emissions were increased by257%in FOM and193%in ROM under continuous waterlogging. Long-term inorganic fertilizer application increased N2O emission by68-158%in comparison with CK.
7. On average, the net annual global warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) were estimated12587-26066kg CO2-equivalent ha-1yr-1and1.35-2.06kg CO2-equivalents kg-1grain yield yr-1in the double rice-cropping systems. Compared with the control, inorganic fertilizer application slightly increased the net annual GWP, while they were remarkably increased by combined inorganic/organic fertilizer application due to the greatly increased annual CH4emissions during the flooded rice seasons. The GHGI was lower for the NP and NPK plots and higher for the FOM and ROM plots.
First, in conclusion, the trends of crop yield were significantly affected by long-term fertilization and soil fertility. Second, the apparent balances of soil nutrients are not only decided by the practice of fertilizer management, but also influenced by the level of nutrient uptake by plants in the long-term experiment. Third, topsoil C sequestration generally increased in the double rice-cropping systems, and it can be further enhanced by additional organic fertilizers application in comparison with inorganic fertilization. Fourth, NH3volatilizations were not only affected by the rate of fertilizer application, but also influenced by fertilization method. Nitrogen uptake by plants can be enhanced by balanced fertilization and thereby NH3losses were decreased in the double rice-cropping systems. Finally, the seasonal dynamics characteristics of CH4and N2O were identical in the double rice-cropping systems. Compared to CK, long-term inorganic fertilizer application tended to increase CH4emissions during the flooded rice season and significantly increased N2O emissions from drained soils during the non-rice season. However, GHGI can be decreased by balanced inorganic fertilizer application, particularly with P fertilizer supplement. Nonetheless, net GWP and GHGI can be remarkably increased by organic fertilizer application mainly due to the greatly increased CH4emissions during the flooded rice seasons.
In order to simultaneously achieve high crop productivity and low greenhouse gas intensity, we proposed some agricultural management strategies in the double rice-cropping systems, including balanced fertilizer management (particularly P fertilizer supplement), midseason drainage instead of continuous waterlogging, and crop residue incorporated into soil in the non-rice drained season rather than in the flooded rice season. However, the practical results by these strategies need yet to be proved by further experiments in Chinese double rice-cropping systems.
1.1990-2009年,不平衡施肥处理(NP和NK)的早稻和晚稻平均产量分别比对照处理(CK)增加9.2-64.2%和13.6-30.6%。与对照相比,NPK处理的早稻和晚稻产量增加90.2%和46.4%。有机无机配施处理(FOM和ROM)的早稻和晚稻产量分别比对照增加89.6_117.4%和47.6-53.5%。早稻和晚稻的产量均随土壤综合肥力指数的增加呈极显著线性增加的趋势。长期不施肥导致土壤综合肥力显著下降(P<0.05)。与试验前相比,2009年NPK、FOM和ROM处理的土壤综合肥力比试验前显著增加(P<0.05),并达到高肥力水平(0.723-0.787)。不平衡施肥条件下土壤综合肥力指数没有显著增加。土壤磷的有效性是限制水稻增产的关键因素,其中施磷肥处理(NP、NPK、FOM和ROM)的早稻产量呈显著增加的趋势(P<0.05),而不施磷处理(CK和NK)在早稻和晚稻季均无增加趋势。
2.1990-1996、1997-2005和2006-2009年,除CK处理外,所有施肥处理的土壤氮素表观平衡均呈盈余状态,但是氮素盈余量在不同年份变化较大,主要受氮肥投入和作物养分吸收年际变化的影响。FOM和ROM处理氮素表观盈余量在所有年份均高于NP和NPK处理。长期不施用磷肥会导致NK处理的表观磷亏缺程度比CK更加严重。各施磷处理(NP、NPK、FOM和ROM)的土壤磷表观平衡均呈盈余状态,其中1990-2005年FOM处理的磷素盈余量最高,2006-2009年NP处理最高。NP处理在各阶段土壤磷素盈余量均高于NPK处理,主要由于不平衡施肥导致NP处理的作物养分吸收量下降。不施钾处理(NP和CK)的土壤钾素表观亏缺表现为逐渐下降的趋势,主要由于水稻植株的钾吸收量下降。施钾处理(NK、NPK、FOM和ROM)的土壤钾素表观平衡在不同年份波动较大,仅FOM处理在所有阶段均处于盈余状态,且盈余量随着钾肥施用量的不断增加而增加。ROM处理一直处于亏缺状态,但亏缺量逐渐降低。NK和NPK在1990-1996年处于亏缺状态,1997-2005和2006_2009年处于盈余状态,且盈余量逐渐增加。此外,由于NK的养分吸收量明显低于NPK处理,前者的钾素表观平衡量明显高于后者。
3.1999_2009年双季稻系统耕层土壤有机碳(SOC)含量呈逐渐增加的趋势,其中2007-2009年SOC平均含量为0.49-0.80g C kg-1yr-1.CK和NK处理耕层SOC含量饱和值为21.1-22.1g C kg-1,NP和NPK处理为24.5-26.4g C kg-1,而有机无机配施处理(FOM和ROM)为37.5-7.2g C kg-1.2007-2009年,CK处理耕层土壤固碳速率为0.96Mg C ha-1yr-1,其他施肥处理的土壤固碳速率为1.01-1.43Mg C ha-1yr-1.2009年双季稻系统耕层土壤碳储量为36.4-48.2Mg Cha-1,比1999年高15-30%。
4.2007-2009年早稻季和晚稻季田间NH3挥发损失平均分别为12.8-27.3kg Nha-1和17.3-32.7kg N ha-1,分别占施氮量的9.2-33.6%和17.8-32.2%。NH3挥发速率随着田间水层NH4+浓度的增加呈显著增加的趋势(P<0.01)。长期施肥可以显著增加双季稻系统NH3挥发(除早稻季ROM和CK处理间没有显著差异外)。与NPK处理相比,长期不平衡施肥导致累积NH3损失进一步增加。在平衡施用无机肥的基础上增施有机肥(FOM)也可以促进NH3挥发的增加。然而,有机肥替代部分无机化肥(ROM)条件下可以减少NH3挥发损失。NP和NK处理NH3挥发的增加与长期不平衡施肥导致水稻植株氮吸收显著下降有很大关系。
5.2006-2009年稻田CH4排放受施肥和环境条件的影响,具有明显的季节变化规律。除晚稻生育后期外,整个双季稻种植季田间均处于淹水状态。早稻季气温逐渐升高,CH4排放在生育前期缓慢增加,生育中后期出现1_2个排放峰,到生育末期缓慢下降。晚稻季气温逐渐降低,CH4排放表现为先升高后降低的变化趋势,在生育初期CH4排放达到全年最高峰。尤其是有机无机肥配施处理(FOM和ROM)在晚稻移栽后1-2周内出现极为显著的CH4排放峰。晚稻季CH4累积排放通量比早稻季高113-157%,达到显著差异水平(P<0.01)。非水稻种植季田间无水层覆盖,加之气温较低,几乎观测不到CH4排放。CH4年累积排放通量范围为621-1175kg CH4ha-1(CK处理最低,FOM处理最高)。长期施肥可以增加稻田CH4排放通量。与对照处理相比,FOM和ROM处理下全年CH4累积排放通量分别增加89.8%和73.9%。单施化肥处理(NP、NK和NPK)全年CH4累积排放通量较低,仅比对照增加4.4_27.8%。
6.2006-2009年水稻种植季淹水稻田表现为典型的大气N2O微弱的源或汇；非水稻种植季稻田不施肥,但没有水层覆盖,N20排放通量相对较高。N20年累积排放通量范围为1.15-4.11kg N2O-N ha-1(CK最低,FOM最高)。长期施肥对稻田N20排放的季节变化模式无明显影响,但影响其排放量。与对照相比,FOM和ROM处理的全年N20累积排放通量分别增加257%和193%。单施化肥处理的全年N20累积排放通量比对照增加68-158%。
7.全年净综合温室效应和温室气体强度的平均变化范围分别为12587-26066kg CO2-equivalent ha-1yr-1和1.35-2.06CO2-equivalent kg-1grain yield yr-1。长期有机无机配施处理(FOM和ROM)可以显著增加全年净综合温室效应,主要由于淹水条件下有机肥的施用促进CH4的大量排放。与对照相比,NP和NPK处理具有较低的温室气体强度,而FOM和ROM处理较高。
以上研究表明(1)双季稻产量变化趋势受施肥管理措施和土壤肥力变化的显著影响。(2)土壤养分投入和产出的动态平衡不仅受肥料运筹的影响,而且受植株养分吸收的影响,平衡施肥需要考虑生产力的变化(3)双季稻系统耕层有机碳储量呈逐渐增加的趋势。与单施化肥相比,增施秸秆和绿肥等有机物质的施用可以进一步促进土壤固碳。(4)稻田NH3挥发受施肥量和施肥方式的影响。长期平衡施肥可以促进水稻植株氮吸收,减少双季稻系统NH3挥发。(5)稻田CH4和N20排放具有明显的季节变化规律。长期施用化肥不仅可以增加水稻季CH4排放,而且促进非水稻种植季N20的排放。有机肥的施用可以显著增加淹水条件下水稻种植季的CH4排放,导致温室气体强度的增加；平衡施用化肥(尤其是磷肥的施用)可以减缓温室气体强度。因此,为同步实现较高的作物产量和较低的温室气体强度,双季稻系统可采取以下农业管理措施：平衡施肥(尤其是磷肥的施用)、水稻种植季中期烤田替代持续淹水、非水稻种植季秸秆还田替代水稻种植季施用秸秆等。但上述农业措施在双季稻系统中的实际效果,在以后研究中需要进一步验证和探讨。
Food security is one of the major challenges in the modern world. However, the possible negative impacts on soil quality and ecological environment are often ignored in modern agricultural production. Therefore, research about the long-term effects of agricultural measures concerns the sustainable development of agriculture in the future. A20-year field experiment began in1990was carried out in a long-term fertilizer experimental grid at Taoyuan Agro-ecological Experimental Station. It is located at the bottom of slope in a typical hilly agricultural area in Hunan Province, China (28°55'N,111°30'E; altitude:92.2-125.3m), where cropping regime is dominated by the double rice-cropping systems. The primary objective was to examine the effect of long-term fertilization on the trends of crop yields and soil fertility, carbon sequestration in topsoil, and characteristics of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and ammonia (NH3) volatilization in the typical double rice-cropping systems. In this long-term fertilizer experiment, a randomized block experiment with three replicates was established, with six different fertilizer treatments. The treatments included inorganic fertilizer [nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer (NP), nitrogen and potassium fertilizer (NK), and balanced mineral fertilizer (NPK)], combined inorganic/organic fertilizers at full and reduced rate (FOM and ROM), and no fertilizer application as a control (CK). The detailed results were summarized as follows:
1. Over20years, compared with control, the grain yields with imbalanced fertilizer application (NP and NK) were increased by9.2-64.2%and13.6-30.6%in early-and late-rice, respectively, while balanced fertilizer application (NPK) increased the grain yields by90.2%and46.4%. Long-term combined inorganic/organic fertilizer (FOM and ROM) application significantly increased grain yields, which enhanced by89.6-117.4%in early-rice and47.6-53.5%in late-rice as compared to CK. The mean yields in both of early-and late-rice linearly increased with increasing of integrated fertility index. Compared with the initial soil in1990, soil fertility showed a significant downward trend without any fertilizer application (CK) in double rice-cropping systems (P<0.05). The IFI averaged0.644-0.679in the plots with long-term imbalanced fertilizer application, but there was no significant difference in comparison with the initial soil. Compared with the control as well as initial soil, in contrast, long-term balanced mineral fertilizer application and combined inorganic/organic fertilizer application significantly increased IFI,0.723-0.787, which had reached up to the high grade of soil fertility. The rice yields in NP, NPK, FOM, and ROM plots showed significant and positive time trends for early rice-cropping seasons, while there were no any trends in P-omitted plots (N and NK) both in the double rice-cropping seasons. The much lower levels of available soil P in CK and NK plots suggested that soil P deficiency is an important factor limiting increased yields in double rice-cropping systems.
2. In1990-1996,1997-2005and2006-2009, the contents of soil nitrogen in the fertilization treatments were in surplus conditions (except for CK). However, the amounts of nitrogen surplus varied from year to year, mainly associated with the input of nitrogen element through inorganic/organic fertilizer and the output through uptake by rice plants in the double rice-cropping systems. The amounts of nitrogen surplus in FOM and ROM treatments were higher than NP and NPK treatments in all stages. Compared with CK, phosphorous deficit got worse towards the end of the long-term experiment without phosphorous application in NK treatment. Instead, the apparent balances of soil phosphorous in the treatments with phosphorous application (NP, NPK, FOM and ROM) were in surplus conditions. The highest amount of phosphorous surplus was in FOM treatment from1990to2005, while it was in NP2006-2009. The amount of phosphorous surplus was higher in NP than NPK in all stages, because phosphorous uptake by rice plants declined with imbalanced fertilizer application in NP. The potassium deficits in NP and CK plots showed negative time trends in these three stages, mainly because the potassium uptake was limited in these plots. The apparent balances of soil potassium varied from year to year. The amount of potassium surplus was increased with increasing potassium input in FOM treatment in all stages. The balances of soil potassium showed deficit in ROM treatment, but the amount of deficit was decreased in the three stages. The apparent balances of soil potassium showed deficit in NK and NPK treatments in1990-1996, while they were surplus and the amount gradually increased from1997to2005. In addition, the amount of potassium surplus was much higher in NK than NPK, because potassium uptake by rice plants declined with imbalanced fertilizer application in NK.
3. The net ecosystem carbon balance was estimated by the changes in topsoil (0-20cm) organic carbon (SOC) density over the10-yr period1999-2009. Annual increase rate of SOC averaged0.49-0.80g C kg-1yr-1. Annual topsoil SOC sequestration rate was estimated to be0.96t C ha-1yr-1for the control and1.01-1.43t C ha-1yr-1for the fertilizer plots. The topsoil SOC density averaged36.4-48.2t C ha-1in the double rice-cropping systems in2009.
4. The cumulative NH3volatilizations in the fertilizer plots ranged between12.8and27.3kg N ha-1for early-rice season and between17.3and32.7kg N ha-1for late-rice season, or accounted for9.2-33.6%and17.8-32.2%of the applied N, respectively. The NH4+concentration in floodwater, originated mainly from urea hydrolysis, is a predominant factor to NH3losses in the double rice-cropping systems. NH3volatilization rates increased nonlinearly with an increase of NH4+contents in surface water (P<0.01). Long-term fertilization significantly increased NH3volatilization, except for no difference between the control and ROM plots in early-rice season. Compared with the NPK, the cumulative NH3volatilizations tended to be increased with long-term imbalanced mineral fertilizer application in NP and NK treatments, and also can be enhanced by additional organic fertilizer amendment in the FOM plots. Nonetheless, NH3loss was declined when part of the mineral fertilizers in NPK were substituted by organic fertilizer (ROM). The increased NH3volatilization can be ascribed to the significantly decreased N uptake by rice for the NP and NK plots.
5. Rice paddy field is the important source of CH4. During the early-rice growing season under continuous flooding, CH4fluxes were gradually increased in the early stage and stepped down in the late stage. The CH4fluxes dramatically ascended after late-rice transplanting in July. The highest CH4fluxes were observed on days to1-week after rice transplanting then gradually decreased to background levels in the late-rice season. Particularly, a remarkable peak of CH4flux was observed approximately1-2weeks after late-rice transplanting for the plots with combined inorganic/organic fertilizer applications. Substantial CH4emission was observed in late-rice growing season,113-157%greater than those in early-rice season (paired t-test, P<0.001). In the non-rice winter seasons, all field treatment soils acted as small net sink or source of CH4to the atmosphere, which is largely due to drainage. Annual mean CH4emissions ranged from621kg CH4ha-1for the control to1175kg CH4ha-1 for the FOM plots. Long-term inorganic fertilizer application increased CH4emissions by4.4-27.8%as compared to CK. Long-term combined inorganic/organic fertilizer application remarkably increased the CH4emissions by89.8%(FOM) and73.9%(ROM) under continuous waterlogging.
6. During the double-rice growing seasons, N2O emissions from paddy fields were negligible. Substantial N2O emission was observed in the non-rice growing period, although no fertilizer was applied in the winter season. Annual N2O emission averaged1.15-4.11kg N2O-N ha-1in the double rice-cropping systems. Seasonal dynamics of N2O fluxes were insignificantly influenced by long-term fertilizer application, while annual N2O emissions were greatly affected by fertilization. Compared to CK, annual N2O emissions were increased by257%in FOM and193%in ROM under continuous waterlogging. Long-term inorganic fertilizer application increased N2O emission by68-158%in comparison with CK.
7. On average, the net annual global warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) were estimated12587-26066kg CO2-equivalent ha-1yr-1and1.35-2.06kg CO2-equivalents kg-1grain yield yr-1in the double rice-cropping systems. Compared with the control, inorganic fertilizer application slightly increased the net annual GWP, while they were remarkably increased by combined inorganic/organic fertilizer application due to the greatly increased annual CH4emissions during the flooded rice seasons. The GHGI was lower for the NP and NPK plots and higher for the FOM and ROM plots.
First, in conclusion, the trends of crop yield were significantly affected by long-term fertilization and soil fertility. Second, the apparent balances of soil nutrients are not only decided by the practice of fertilizer management, but also influenced by the level of nutrient uptake by plants in the long-term experiment. Third, topsoil C sequestration generally increased in the double rice-cropping systems, and it can be further enhanced by additional organic fertilizers application in comparison with inorganic fertilization. Fourth, NH3volatilizations were not only affected by the rate of fertilizer application, but also influenced by fertilization method. Nitrogen uptake by plants can be enhanced by balanced fertilization and thereby NH3losses were decreased in the double rice-cropping systems. Finally, the seasonal dynamics characteristics of CH4and N2O were identical in the double rice-cropping systems. Compared to CK, long-term inorganic fertilizer application tended to increase CH4emissions during the flooded rice season and significantly increased N2O emissions from drained soils during the non-rice season. However, GHGI can be decreased by balanced inorganic fertilizer application, particularly with P fertilizer supplement. Nonetheless, net GWP and GHGI can be remarkably increased by organic fertilizer application mainly due to the greatly increased CH4emissions during the flooded rice seasons.
In order to simultaneously achieve high crop productivity and low greenhouse gas intensity, we proposed some agricultural management strategies in the double rice-cropping systems, including balanced fertilizer management (particularly P fertilizer supplement), midseason drainage instead of continuous waterlogging, and crop residue incorporated into soil in the non-rice drained season rather than in the flooded rice season. However, the practical results by these strategies need yet to be proved by further experiments in Chinese double rice-cropping systems.
引文
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