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美国的伊拉克战后国家重建战略与政策研究
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摘要
本文研究的核心问题是美国如何进行伊拉克的战后国家重建。以国家重建为基本概念构建理论分析框架,论文试图将宏观层次与微观层次的研究相结合,从大的战略层面和具体的政策执行层面探究美国在伊拉克战后开展的国家重建活动。全文共分为五个部分:
     第一章回顾和梳理了“9·11”事件后美国国家安全战略的转型。以“反恐”为目标的新的美国国家安全战略将恐怖主义与大规模杀伤性武器的结合视为最为主要的威胁,并将“先发制人”的军事打击和推进民主价值观念作为根除恐怖主义的主要手段。在此背景下,美国发动了伊拉克战争,推翻了萨达姆政权并卷入了一场规模庞大的国家重建活动。美国对伊拉克的战后国家重建本质上可以视为是美国主导的伊拉克战后政治转型,其核心目标是在伊拉克建立起西方式的民主体制,从而在中东地区获得推广民主价值观念和维护其地缘政治利益的立足点。从小布什政府到奥巴马政府,美国伊拉克战略的核心目标并未发生变化,推进伊拉克的民主化进程、将伊拉克保持在其战略轨道上构成了这一目标的基本内容。为此,美国从政治、社会、经济三个方面对伊拉克展开了战后国家重建,力图按照自己的战略意图塑造战后的伊拉克国家。
     第二章探究伊拉克战后重建中的核心问题——政治重建。伊拉克战后在国家形态上迅速呈现出“失败国家”化的趋势,其主要原因在于其近现代政治发展史上形成的“强权依赖性”。这种“强权依赖性”的背后反映出的是脆弱的民族国家认同、美国战前战略认知的失误和复杂的地缘政治环境构成了伊拉克战后政治重建的主要困境。面对这一情景,小布什政府的政治重建政策乏善可陈。美国虽然主导伊拉克实现了国家体制的激进转型并且试图通过派出省级重建小组的方式来提高伊拉克政府的治理能力而对伊拉克确立起来的民主制度进行加固,但取得的成效十分有限,伊拉克的民主政治依旧脆弱。
     第三章致力于研究伊拉克战后重建中最为关键和最富挑战性的问题——社会重建。由于战争的原因,数以百万的伊拉克人沦为难民,流离失所,涌向邻国,这构成了美国对伊拉克战后进行社会重建首先需要解决的难题。伊拉克难民问题不仅影响该国的国家重建进程,也关系到周边国家和地区形势的稳定。缺乏一个健全的公民社会则是伊拉克战后社会重建中存在的结构性矛盾,它不仅引发了教派、族群间的冲突,也导致美国主导下建立起来的民主政体难以有效运作。近现代政治发展史上的“强权依赖性”和市场经济的缺位是造成伊拉克公民社会欠缺的重要原因。针对社会重建领域存在的问题,美国国际开发署采取了一系列的政策:通过向难民提供人道主义救援来吸引难民归国和安置伊拉克境内流离失所的人;在此基础上,它又提供资金、技术援助来推动建立伊拉克的公民社会组织和增强其行动能力。但历史发展的惯性使得伊拉克难以在短期内实现社会的全面转型。
     第四章关注伊拉克战后的经济重建问题。美国的伊拉克战后经济重建的主要目标是在该国建立起市场经济体制和控制其蕴藏的丰富的石油资源。然而,长期以来石油为主导的经济结构和国家居于中心地位的分配模式构成了伊拉克战后经济转型的结构性障碍。特别是在经历了与伊朗的战争、入侵科威特导致的国际社会制裁和海湾战争,伊拉克的经济不仅高度军事化,还遭受了致命性的打击。在此情况下,萨达姆政权建立起了食品的定量配给制度并且通过“石油换食品”计划,走私石油和私下进行贸易,获取了巨额的利润。伊拉克国内形成了权贵阶层掌控的石油走私、国际贸易的特权经济渠道和广大民众依靠食品配给勉强度日的双轨制经济,依附——附庸的生产关系至此成型。为了解构这种落后的生产关系,美国试图以推动私营经济发展的方式来对伊拉克经济进行市场化改造。但由于历史长期形成的经济模式和美国能力的限度,伊拉克战后的私营经济虽然有所发展,但石油产业仍是伊拉克经济的支柱性产业。同时,围绕石油资源伊拉克各派势力展开了激烈的争夺,严重制约了石油在战后经济重建与发展中本以发挥的作用。
     第五部分作为本文的结论,从总体上对美国的伊拉克战后重建战略与政策做出了评估,认为美国发动伊拉克战争和对伊拉克进行战后国家重建的战略目的已经初步实现,伊拉克成为美国在中东地区一个重要的战略支点。但鉴于美国战略的收缩和其主导的国家重建超越了伊拉克正常的历史发展进程,进而引发了伊拉克战后局势的持续动荡,美国这一重建活动的战略收益到底如何还有待进一步的观察和研究。
The key problem that this paper studies is how the U.S. carries outnational-rebuilding in post-war Iraq. Based on the concept of national-rebuilding, thepaper builds a theoretical framework, attempts to combine the macro-level andmicro-level research together. It will explore the U.S. national-rebuilding activities inpost-war Iraq from both strategic and specific policy implementation level. The paperis divided into five parts:
     The first chapter reviews the transformation of the U.S. national security strategyafter “9·11”. The new "anti-terrorism" strategy regards the combination of terrorismand weapons of mass destruction as the most major threat, and it adopts a pre-emptivedoctrine and utilizes the promotion of democratic values to anti-terrorism. In thiscontext, the United States launched Iraq war and overthrew Saddam’s regime,involving in a large-scale national reconstruction activities. In essence, the Post-warreconstruction of Iraq could be seen as the political transition leading by the U.S. Thecore objective is to establish a Western-style democratic institution in Iraq so the U.S.can gain a foothold in the Middle East to promote democracy and maintain itsgeopolitical political interests. From Bush administration to the Obama administration,the core goal of the U.S. Iraq strategy has not changed; the main contents areadvancing democratization process in Iraq and keep it on the U.S. strategic orbit.According to this objective, the United States carries out post-war reconstruction inIraq from political, social, and economic aspects, shaping this nation in accordancewith its own strategic interests.
     The second chapter explores the core issue in post-war Iraqreconstruction—political reconstruction. The post-war Iraq appears a trend of being afailed state. The main cause is that it highly depended on the strong power in itsmodern political history. Behind this "power-dependent", it reflects the fragilenation-state identity, pre-war strategic cognitive errors and complex geopoliticalenvironment constitutes major obstacles for the post-war political reconstruction inIraq. Faced with this scenario, the Bush administration's political reconstructionpolicy is inadequate. Although he led Iraq to achieve a radical transformation of thestate system and sent provincial reconstruction teams to improve the governancecapacity of the Iraqi government and to consolidate the democratic system establishedin Iraq, the effects are very limited and the democracy in Iraq is still fragile.
     The third chapter is dedicated to research the most critical and challenging issue inthe post-war Iraq reconstruction—social reconstruction. Due to the war, millions ofIraqis have become refugees, displaced to neighboring countries, which constitutesthe most urgent problem to deal with, when rebuilding the post-war Iraq society. Theproblem of Iraqi refugee not only affects the national reconstruction process, but it isalso related to the stability of the situation in neighboring countries and the region.The lack of a robust civil society is the structural contradiction in the socialreconstruction of post-war Iraq, which not only led to a sectarian, ethnic conflicts, but also have negative influences on the democracy established under the auspices of theUnited States. The power dependence in the modern political history and the absenceof the market economy are two important reasons for the lack of Iraqi civil society.Faced with this situation, the USAID has adopted a series of policies: providinghumanitarian relief to refugees and help the internally displaced persons in Iraq toresettle; on this basis, it also provides capital, technology assistance to promote theestablishment of Iraq civil society organizations and enhance their ability. But theinertia of the historical development of Iraq makes it difficult to achieve acomprehensive social transformation in the short term.
     The fourth chapter focuses on economic reconstruction of post-war Iraq. The U.S.aim of post-war Iraq economic reconstruction is to establish a market economicsystem and control the country's rich oil resources. However, the long—term oil andthe state led economic model constitutes a structural impediments to the economictransformation of post-war Iraq. Experienced a war with Iran, the invasion of Kuwaitled to the international community sanctions and the Gulf War, Iraq's economy is notonly highly militarized, but also suffered a fatal blow. In this case, Saddam Hussein'sregime established a food rationing system and through the “oil-for-food "program, itobtained huge profits. Nomenklatura controlled Iraq's oil smuggling and theprivileged economic channels of international trade while the general public relied onfood rations scrape track economic dependency-forming a patron—client relations.In order to deconstruct this backward relation, the United States tries to promoteprivate economic development in post-war Iraq. However, due to the long history ofthe economic model and capacity limitation of the U.S., the oil industry is still thepillar industry of Iraq economy. At the same time, Iraq's factions forces launched afierce battle around the oil resources and this severely restricted the role of oil couldhave been played in the post-war economic reconstruction and development.
     The fifth chapter as the conclusion part of this paper, it makes an overallassessment of the U.S. post-war Iraq strategies and policies. It concludes that theobjectives of United States launched the Iraq war and carried out post-warreconstruction have been initially achieved, Iraq has became an important strategicfulcrum for the U.S, in the Middle East. But for the U.S. strategic contraction and thisnational reconstruction is beyond the normal process of historical development in Iraq,leading to the continued turmoil of the post-war situation in Iraq, the strategic benefitsof the reconstruction activities remains to be further observation and research.
引文
①[美]弗朗西斯·福山著,黄胜强许铭原译:《国家构建-21世纪的国家治理与世界秩序》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年版,第1页。
    ②相关研究可参见江涛,《后冲突时代的秩序重塑——美国在海外的国家重建行动研究》,北京:世界知识出版社,2009年版。
    ③达巍,李绍先,《脆弱的国家重建——对主权移交之际美国的伊拉克政策评估》,载《现代国际关系》,2004年第4期,第10页。
    ①任晓,沈丁立主编:《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》,上海三联书店,2003年版。
    ②姜琳著,《美国保守主义及其全球战略》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2008年版。
    ③刘国平著,《美国民主制度输出》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006年版。
    ④江涛,《后冲突时代的秩序重塑——美国在海外的国家重建行动研究》,北京:世界知识出版社,2009年版,第20页。
    ①Ho-Won Jeong, Approaches to Peace-building, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2002.
    ②Roland Paris, At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2004.
    ③Elizabeth M. Cousens and Chetan Kumar, with Karin Wermester, Peace-building as Politics: Cultivating Peacein Fragile Societies, London: Lynne Rienner Publisher,2001.
    ④Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in21stCentury, Ithaca: Cornell UniversityPress,2004.
    ⑤Jennifer Milliken, eds., State Failure, Collapse and Reconstruction, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd,2003.
    ⑥Robert C. Orr, Winning the Peace: An American Strategy for Post-Conflict Reconstruction, Washington, D.C.:Center for Strategic and International Studies Press,2004.
    ⑦Sultan Barakat, After the conflict: Reconstruction and Development in the Aftermath of War, New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2005.
    ①Minxin, Pei and Sara Kasper,“Lessons from the Past: the American Recorded of Nation Building”, Policy Brief,May,2003.
    ②James Dobbins, Seth G. Jones, Keith Crane, Beth Cole DeGrasse, The Beginner’s Guide to Nation Building,Santa Monica, California: Rand,2007.
    ③Gary T. Dempsey&Roger W. Fontaine, Fool’s errands: America’s Recent Encounters with Nation Building,Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute,2001.
    ④Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s century of regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq, New York: Henry Holtand Company, LLC,2006.
    ⑤郭孟奇,《伊拉克战后政治重建研究》,西安:西北大学硕士学位论文,2009年。
    ⑥汪波,《美国中东战略下的伊拉克战争与重建》,北京:时事出版社,2007年版。
    ⑦丁隆,郭雅娟,《伊拉克战后政治发展的三个纬度》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2008年第5期,第20-26页。
    ①关于这两个问题,具有代表性的文献有:汪波,《伊拉克战后重建中的政党政治发展》,载《西亚非洲》,2007年第4期,第5-10页。汪波,《伊拉克“后重建时期”的库尔德分离主义新危机》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2010年第3期,第35-44页。敏敬,《伊拉克库尔德自治的最新发展与影响》,载《国际论坛》,2011年第1期,第73-78页。
    ②例如,余泳,《伊拉克战后经济重建之机遇与挑战》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2008年第2期,第34-41页。夏骥,《战争阴影下艰难复苏的伊拉克石油工业》,载《石油化工技术经济》,2005年第5期,第18-58页。李伟建,《伊拉克教派冲突背后的宗教文化博弈及其对地区形势的影响》,载《西亚非洲》,2008年第3期,第44-48页。
    ③Andreas Wimmer,“Democracy and Ethno-Religious Conflict in Iraq”, paper presented at the Center onDemocracy, Development and the Rule of Law, Stanford University, May5,2003.
    ④Penny Green and Tony Ward,“The Transformation of Violence in Iraq”, British Journal of Criminology,2009,p.1-19
    ⑤Erich Herring and Glen Rangwala,“Iraq, Imperialism and Global Governance”, Third World Quarterly, Vol.26,No.4-5,2005, pp.667-683.
    ⑥Christopher O’sullivan and Manaf Damluji,“The Origins of American Power in Iraq,1941-1945”, Peace andChange, Vol.34, No.3, July2009, pp.238-259.
    ①Tareq Y Ismael and Jacqueline S Ismael,“Whither Iraq? Beyond Saddam, Sanctions and Occupation”, ThirdWorld Quarterly, Vol.26, No.4-5,2005, pp.609-629.
    ②Toby Dodge,“Iraq Transitions: from regime change to state collapse”, Third World Quarterly, Vol.26, No.4-5,2005, pp.705-721.
    ③Katia Papagianni:“State Building and Transitional Politics in Iraq: The Perils of a Top-down Transition”,International Studies Perspectives, No.8,2007, pp.253-271.
    ④Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield, The Future of Iraq: Dictatorship, Democracy, or Division? New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2004.
    ⑤相关的讨论见:邵峰,《美国“大中东计划”的实质和发展前景》,载《亚非纵横》,2004年第4期,第1-7页。卢陵,《美国“改造中东”的战略构想》,载《西亚非洲》,2003年第4期,第22-26页。闫文虎,《美国对中东“民主化”改造战略》,载《西亚非洲》,2005年第1期,第44-48页等。
    ①赵伟明,《奥巴马政府的新中东政策》,载《西亚非洲》,2009年第6期,第5-11页。
    ②钱文荣,《浅析奥巴马的新中东政策》,载《和平与发展》,2009年第3期,第26-29页。
    ③杨鸿玺,《奥巴马政府战略变革与中东局势发展》,载《西亚非洲》,2009年第11期,第5-12页。
    ④相关分析可参考:高祖贵,《大中东变局对美国战略的影响》,载《国际问题研究》,2011年第3期,第19-9页。唐宝才主编,《伊拉克战争后动荡的中东》,北京:当代世界出版社,2007年11月版。
    ⑤达巍,李绍先:《脆弱的国家重建——对主权移交之际的美国伊拉克政策评估》,载《西亚非洲》,2004年第4期,第10-16页。
    ⑥这方面的研究论文有:高祖贵,《美国在伊拉克的战略前景》,载《现代国际关系》,2006年第3期,第6-32页。韩志斌,李铁,《“新战略”与美国在伊拉克的困境》,载《国际论坛》,2007年第期,第62-67页。刘会清,韩志斌,《霸权诱惑与战争泥潭的宿命——美国“退出伊拉克战略”评析》,载《西亚非洲》,2007年第11期,第61-65页。田文林,李荣,《浅析美国的伊拉克“退出战略”》,载《现代国际关系》,2009年第10期,第13-18页。
    ⑦对于奥巴马撤军的动因以及后美军时代伊拉克局势发展状况的预测可参见:李国富,《展望2009年伊拉克安全局势》,载《当代世界》,2009年5月,第15-17页。刘忠,杨玲,《伊拉克迎来后美军时代》,载《国际资料信息》,2010年第12期,第9-13页。
    ①Nick Ritchie and Paul Rogers, The Political Road to War with Iraq: Bush,9/11and the drive to overthrowSaddam, Oxon: Routledge,2007.
    ②Erika G. King and Robert A. Wells, Framing the Iraq War Endgame: War’s denouement in and age of terror,New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2009.
    ③参见:Toby Dodge,“The Causes of US Failure in Iraq”, Survival, Vol.49, No.1,2007, pp.85-106. LarryDiamond,“What Went Wrong with Iraq”, Foreign Affairs, September/October,2004, pp.1-13.
    ④这其中具有代表性的报告可参见:James Dobbins, America’s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany toIraq, Santa Monica, California: Rand,2003. James A. Baker and Lee H. Hamilton, The Iraq Study Group Report,New York: Random House,2006.
    ⑤乔治·沃克·布什著,东西网译,《抉择时刻》,中信出版社:2010年版。
    ⑥Aaron Glantz, How America Lost Iraq, New York: Penguin Group,2005.
    ⑦参见陈建民著,《当代中东》,北京大学出版社,2002年版。赵伟明著,《中东问题与美国中东政策》,北京:时事出版社,2006年版。黄兴民著,《中东国家通史:伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆,2002年版。
    ①National Security Council: National Strategy for Victory in Iraq, Washington, DC: November,2005, p.3.
    ①《马克思恩格斯全集》第19卷,北京:人民出版社,1995年版,131页。
    ②阎学通,孙雪峰著,《国际关系研究实用方法》,北京:人民出版社,2001年版,第143-145页。
    ①相关阶段划分参考了钱其琛,《美国国家安全战略调整与新世纪初的国际关系》,载《国际问题研究》,2004年第1期,第2页。
    ②The White House, The State of the Union, Washington D.C.: January29,2002.
    ③Ibid.
    ④The White House, The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, Washington D.C.: September,2002, pp.1-2.
    ②The White House, The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, p.11.
    ③Ibid, pp.13-15.
    ④G. John Ikenberry,“America’s Imperial Ambition”, Foreign Affairs, Vol.81, No.5,2002, p.44.
    ①The White House, National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, Washington: February,2003, p.8.
    ②Ibid. pp.11-12
    ③相关分析参见牛新春,《美国反恐之纲——简析美国<反对恐怖主义国家战略>》,载《现代国际关系》,2003年第3期,第38—40页。
    ①Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State and War: A theoretical Analysis, New York: Columbia University Press,1959.
    ②[美]罗伯特·杰维斯著,秦亚青译,《国际政治中的知觉与错误知觉》,北京:世界知识出版社,2003年版本,第4页。
    ③[美]兹比格纽·布热津斯基著,中国国际问题研究所译,《大棋局:美国的首要地位及其地缘战略》,上海世纪出版集团,2007年版,第44页。
    ①转引自蔡佳禾,《摆动中的回归——保守主义思潮对G.W.布什政府对外政策影响》,载沈丁立、任晓主编《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》,上海三联书店,2003年版,第177页。
    ②相关细致分析可参考薛晨,《社会心理、错误知觉与美国安全观的转变及实践——以九一一事件和伊拉克战争为》,载《世界经济与政治》,2006年第12期,第7—15页。
    ③罗峰,《美国预防性战争的逻辑——基于伊拉克战争的考察》,载《世界经济与政治》,2010年第9期,第66页。
    ①James Dobbins, et al., America’s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq, Santa Monica, California:Rand,2003, p.1.
    ②Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the21stCentury, Ithaca: Cornell UniversityPress,2004, pp.100-1-101.
    ③World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank, Washington, D.C.: World Bank,1998.
    ①参见江涛,《后冲突时代的秩序重塑——美国在海外的国家重建行动研究》,北京:世界知识出版社,2009年版,第64页。
    ②[美]弗朗西斯·福山著,黄胜强、许铭原译,《国家构建——21世纪的国家治理与世界秩序》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年版,第97页。
    ①Larry Diamond,“What went wrong in Iraq”, Foreign Affairs, September/October,2004, p.37.
    ①相关分析参见韩志斌,李铁:《政权移交后的美伊关系探析》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2004年第5期,第22—33页。
    ①ADF, Building on Transition Iraq Civil Society Program Final Evaluation, Final Report, May.24,2007,summary
    ②余泳:《伊拉克战后经济重建之机遇与挑战》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2003年第2期,第34页。
    ①USAID/Iraq Office, USAID-Provincial Economic Growth Program Advancing Private Sector Development inIraq, September2012, pp.3-4
    ②参见IMF网站,http://www.imf.org/external/index.htm,登录时间2013年2月11日。
    ①Morton H. Halperin, Reconstructing Iraq—A Guide to the Issue, Washington D.C.: Open Society Institute andthe United Nations Foundation,2003, Preface.
    ②Toby Dodge,“Iraqi Transitions from Regime Change to State Collapse”, Third World Quarterly, Vol.26, No.4-5,2005, p.707
    ③参见傅梦孜,《保守主义思潮涌动下的美国霸权外交》,载沈丁立、任晓主编《保守主义理念与美国的外交政策》,上海三联书店,2003年版,第211页。
    ①National Security Council, National Strategy for Victory in Iraq, Washington D.C: November2005, p.1.
    ②[美]史蒂文·金泽著,张浩译,《颠覆——从夏威夷到伊拉克》,上海:华东师范大学出版社,2007年版,第291页。
    ③Toby Dodge,“The Cause of U.S. Failure in Iraq”, Survival, Vol.49, No.1,2007, p.85.
    ④相关分析参见韩志斌,李铁,《“新战略”与美国在伊拉克的困境》,载《国际论坛》2007年第3期,第62—67页。
    ①David Hastings Dunn and Andrew Futter,“Short-Term Tactical Gains and Long-Term Strategic Problems: TheParadox of the US Troops Surge in Iraq”, Defense Studies, Vol.10, No.1-2, pp.195-214.
    ②Barack Obama,“Responsibly Ending the War in Iraq”, February27th,2009,http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-of-President-Barack-Obama-Responsibly-Ending-the-War-in-Iraq/,2012年2月11日登录。
    ③The White House, The National Security Strategy, Washington, May,2010.
    ①孙德刚,《美国在伊拉克军事存在的调整:从刚性基地到柔性存在》,载《现代国际关系》,2012年第2期,第55-66页。
    ②U.S. Department of Defense, Sustaining US Global Leadership: Priorities for21stCentury Defense, Washington,January21,2012.
    ③所谓“哈希米”案是指什叶派总理马利基授意伊最高司法机构在2011年12月19日(美军撤离后第二天)以涉嫌恐怖活动为由逮捕逊尼派的副总统哈希米,并于2012年9月对其缺席判处绞刑。哈希米对此指控表示否认,目前他仍在国外避难。
    ④参见[伊拉克]海德,《美国撤军伊拉克后伊朗和沙特的抗衡》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2010年第1期,第15—19页。
    ⑤Richard L. Armitage, and Joseph S. NYE, JR., CSIS Commission on Smart Power, A smarter and more secureAmerica, Washington D.C.: CSIS Press,2007, p.7.
    ①相关分析可参见牛新春,《选择性介入,美国中东政策调整》,载《外交评论》,2012年第2期,第45—54页。
    ②Strategic Framework Agreement for a Relationship of Friendship and Cooperation between the United States ofAmerica and The Republic of Iraq, Baghdad, November17,2008.
    ①Joseph M. Parent and Paul K. Macdonald,“The Wisdom of Retrenchment: America Must Cut Back to MoveForward”, Foreign Affairs, Vol.90, No.6,2011, p.40.
    ②赵伟明,《奥巴马政府的新中东政策》,载《西亚非洲》,2009年第6期,第6页。
    ③上述目标都是美国伊拉克战略追求的核心内容,但随着形势的变化,有关目标的先后内容会发生变化,例如在奥巴马总统时期伊拉克的稳定就摆在了民主化之前。
    ①孙德刚,赵伟明,《中东棋盘上的伊拉克战略地位浅析》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2003年第5期,第11页。
    ②Sami Zubaida,“Community, Class and Minorities”, in Robert A. Fernea and Roger Louis (eds.), The IraqiRevolution of1958: The Old Social Classes Revisited, London: IB Taurus,1991, p.207.
    ①Confidential memorandum of King Faisal I, March1933, quoted in H. Batatu, The Old Social Classes and theRevolutionary Movements of Iraq, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press,1978, pp.6-25.
    ②黄民兴著,《中东国家通史——伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆,2002年版,第185页。
    ①详细内容参见黄民兴著,《中东国家通史——伊拉克卷》,第195-200页。
    ①这两位首相分别是1947年在议会选举中获胜的萨利赫·贾布尔和1948年出任首相一职的穆罕默德·萨德尔。
    ②黄民兴著,《中东国家通史——伊拉克卷》,第285页。
    ③Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and Revolutionary Movements of Iraq, Princeton NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press,1978, p.26.
    ④参见黄民兴著,《中东国家通史——伊拉克卷》,第287—290页。
    ①Gareth Stansfield,“The Transition to Democracy in Iraq: Historical Legacies, Resurgent Identities andReactionary Tendencies”, in Alex Danchev and John MacMillan,(eds.), The Iraq War and Democratic Politics,New York: Routledge,2005, p.139.
    ②转引自[美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿著,王冠华、刘为、沈宗美等校译,《变化社会中的政治秩序》,上海世纪出版集团,2008年版,第63页。
    ①《马克思恩格斯选集(第4卷)》,北京:人民出版社,1972年版,第170页。
    ②Robert I. Rotberg,“The New Nature of Nation-state Failure”, The Washington Quarterly, No.2,2002, pp.85-96.
    ③Robert I. Rotberg," Failed States, Collapsed States, Weak States: Causes and Indicators”, in Robert I. Rotberg,ed., When States Fail: Causes and Consequences, Princeton University Press,2003, pp.2-3..
    ①Stuart E. Eizenstat, John Edward Porter and Feremy M. Weinstein,“Rebuilding Weak States”, Foreign Affairs,Volume84, No.1,2004, pp.136-137.
    ②Clark, Terence,“Post-war Iraq: an assessment”, Asian Affairs, Vol.35, No.1,2004, p.17.
    ③Aaron Glantz, How America Lost Iraq, New York: Penguin Group,2005, p.19.
    ④达巍,李绍先,《脆弱的国家重建——对主权移交之际美国的伊拉克政策评估》,载《西亚非洲》,2004年第4期,第14页。
    ①DoD,“Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq(2005-2009),”www.defenselink.mil/home/features/Iraq-Reports/index.html,登录时间2013年2月12日。
    ②DoD,“Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq,” December,2008,www.defenselink.mil/home/features/Iraq-Reports/index.html,登录时间2013年2月12日。
    ③Penny Green, Tony Ward,“The Transformation of Violence in Iraq”, British Journal of Criminology, No.49,Issue5,2009, pp.609-628.
    ①魏亮,《浅析美军撤离后伊拉克政治重建的安全环境》,载《西亚非洲》,2012年第4期,第84页。
    ②Emma Sky,“Iraq, From Surge to Sovereignty: Winding Down the War in Iraq”, Foreign Affairs, March/April,2011, pp.117-119.
    ①David L. Phillips, Losing Iraq: Inside the Post-war Reconstruction Fiasco, New York: Basic Books,2005, p.135.
    ②Ibid, pp.6-145.
    ③Toby Dodge,“The Cause of US Failure in Iraq”, Survival, Vol.49, No.1,2007, p.93.
    ④Katia Papagianni,“State Building and Transitional Politics in Iraq: The Perils of a Top-down Transition”,International Studies Perspectives, No.8,2007, p.268.
    ①参见约瑟夫·E·斯蒂格利茨,琳达·J·比尔米斯著,卢昌崇、孟韬、李浩译,《三万亿美元的战争——伊拉克战争的真实成本》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2013年版,前言第9页。
    ②[伊拉克]海德,《2010年大选:伊拉克前途命运的转折点》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2011年第1期,第53—61页。
    ③参见敏敬,《伊拉克库尔德自治的最新发展与影响》,载《国际论坛》,2011年第1期,第73—74页。
    ①Perry Williams,“Iraqi Kurds to net$5bn from Oil Contracts”, Middle East Economic Digest, May2008, p.44
    ②相关分析参见汪波,《伊拉克“后重建时期”的库尔德人分离主义新危机》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2010年第3期,第35—44页。
    ③参见本文第一章对该案件的注解。
    ④ETH Zurich,“Iraq after the US Withdraw: Starting into the Abyss”, CSS Analysis in Security Policy, No.113,May2012, p.4.
    ⑤参见魏亮,《浅析美军撤离后伊拉克政治重建的安全环境》,载《西亚非洲》,2012年第4期,第78—79页。
    ①ETH Zurich,“Iraq after the US Withdraw: Starting into the Abyss”, p.3.
    ②肖宪主编,《1945年以来的中东》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年版,第108页。
    ③Chirs Farrands, Society, Modernity and Social Change: Approaches to Nationalism and Identity, New York: St.Martin’s Press, Inc.,1996, p.1.
    ①参见金宜久,《伊斯兰教》,北京:宗教文化出版社,1997年版,第147页。
    ②什叶派圣城除前文提到两处外,还有麦加和伊朗境内的马什哈德。
    ①韩志斌,《民族主义构建中的政治认同:伊拉克复兴党民族主义政治事件个案考察》,载《世界民族》,2006年第1期,第21页。
    ②相关分析参见韩志斌,《伊拉克复兴党民族主义建构进程中的特点》,载《西亚非洲》,2009年第6期,第36—42页。
    ①Adeed Dawisha,“‘Identity’ and Politics Survival in Saddam’s Iraq”, Middle East Journal, Autumn,1999, p.53,
    ②美国在同年的2月曾拟定了一个“大中东计划”,但经舆论披露后,遭到了阿拉伯国家的强烈反对和某些欧洲国家的异议。
    ③详见邵峰,《美国“大中东计划”的实质和发展前景》,载《亚非纵横》2004年第4期,第1—7页。
    ①刘国平著,《美国民主制度输出》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006年版,第95页。
    ②魏亮,李绍先,《伊拉克重建之路剖析》,载《现代国际关系》,2009年第2期,第2页。
    ③参见塞缪尔·亨廷顿著,周琪、刘绯等译,《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》,北京:新华出版社,2002年版,第232页。
    ④唐志超,《破译伊拉克反美抵抗组织》,载《世界知识》,2004年第16期,第27页。
    ①进一步分析见许晓春,葛昕,《从“民主”外交视角对“民主和评论”的再审视》,载《太平洋学报》,2012年第6期,第38——43页。
    ②汪波著,《美国中东战略下的伊拉克战争与重建》,北京:时事出版社,2007年版,第148页。
    ③Thomas E Ricks, Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq, London: Penguin Books,2007, p.376.
    ④National Security Council, National Strategy for Victory in Iraq, Washington D.C: November2005, p.3.
    ①Toby, Dodge,“Iraqi Transitions: From Regime Change to State Collapse”, Third World Quarterly, Vol.25,No.4-5,2005, p.708.
    ②[美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿著,王冠华、刘为、沈宗美等校译,《变化社会中的政治秩序》,上海世纪出版集团,2008年版,第XI页。
    ①Gareth Stamsfield,“Politics and Governance in the New Iraq: Reconstruction of the New versus Resurrection ofthe Old”, in J. Eyal (eds.), War in Iraq: Combat and Consequence, Whitehall Paper No.50, London: Royal UnitedServices Institute,2003, p.67.
    ②Faleh A Jadar, Post-conflict Iraq. A Race for Stability, Reconstruction and Legitimacy, Washington, DC: USInstitute of Peace Special Report, No.120, May,2004, p.14.
    ③汪波,《伊拉克战后政治重建中的政党政治发展》,载《西亚非洲》,2007年第4期,第5页。
    ①[伊拉克]海德,《美国撤军伊拉克后伊朗和沙特的抗衡》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2010年第1期,第19页。
    ②Liz Sly,“Iraq’s relations with Arab world are deteriorating days after Bagdad summit”, The Washington Post,April.5,2012
    ③相关情况参见陈双庆,《叙利亚局势及其未来走向》,载《现代国际关系》,2012年第1期,第43—48页。
    ④参见汪波,《伊拉克“后重建时期”的库尔德族人分离主义危机》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2010年第3期,第35—44页。
    ⑤敏敬,《伊拉克库尔德自治最新发展与影响》,载《国际论坛》,2011年第1期,第78页。
    ①魏亮、李绍先,《伊拉克重建之路剖析》,载《现代国际关系》,2009年第2期,第3页。
    ①Bob Woodward, Bush at a War, Washington D.C.: Simon and Schuster, November2002, p.229.
    ②Nancy Gibbs,“Unfinished Business”, Time,28April2003, p.41.
    ①Rohan Pearce,“Iraqis Demand: Invaders Out Now”, Green Left Weekly,23April2003, pp.2-3.
    ②Daniel Eisenberg,“Can Anyone Govern This Place?” Time,26May2003, p.33.
    ③Daniel N. Posner,“Civil Society and the Reconstruction of Failed States”, in Rotberg(eds.), When States Fail, p.237and240.
    ④Gideon Long,“Iraqis do not Trust US-Led Forces-Survey”, Return,1December2003, p.1.
    ②Mohamed A. El-Khawas,“Nation Building in a War Zone: The US Record in Iraq,2003-2007”, MediterraneanQuarterly, winter2008, p.49.
    ③Eric Davis,“National Assembly Elections: Prelude to Democracy or Instability,” Middle East Policy, No.1,2005, p.12.
    ④Mohamed A. El-Khawas, pp.50-51.
    ①The Institute for international Strategic Studies (IISS), Iraq after the referendum, Washington, DC: Volume11,Issue8, October2005, p.1.
    ②汪波,《美国在伊拉克战后政治重建中的政策失误与挫折分析》,载《国际观察》,2006年第4期,第62页。
    ③详见王锁劳,《伊拉克<联邦法>的由来及其影响》,载《亚非纵横》,2006年第6期,第22页。
    ④高祖贵,《美国在伊拉克的战略前景》,载《现代国际关系》,2006年第3期,第9页。
    ①Toby Dodge,“The Cause of US Failure in Iraq”, Survival, Vol.49, No.1,2007, pp.97-98.
    ①Mohamed A. El-Khawas,“Nation Building in a War Zone: The US Record in Iraq,2003-2007”, MediterraneanQuarterly, winter2008, p.57.
    ②James A. Baker III, Lee H. Hamilton, The Iraq Study Group Report: The Way Forward-A New Approach, NewYork: Vintage Books,2006, p.9.
    ③Olga Oliker et al, U.S. Policy Options for Iraq: A Reassessment, Santa Monica: Rand Corporation,2007, p.23.
    ④Robert M. Perito, Provincial Reconstruction Teams in Iraq, Washington, DC: United States Institute of PeaceSpecial Report185, March2007, p.3.
    ③[美]查尔斯·蒂利著,魏洪钟译,《民主》,上海世纪出版集团,2011年版,第6-8页。
    ①转引自王锁劳,《伊拉克<联邦法>的由来及其影响》,载《亚非纵横》,2006年第6期,第21页
    ②[美]罗伯特·达尔著,李柏光、林猛译,《论民主》,北京:商务印书馆,1999年版,第159页。
    ①Roberta Cohen and John Fawcett,“The Internally Displaced People of Iraq”, Saban Centre, Brookings Institute,Memo No.6, November20,2002.
    ②参见李涛,《伊拉克难民问题及解决前景》,载《西亚非洲》,2010年第11期,第39页。
    ①李涛,《伊拉克难民问题及解决前景》,载《西亚非洲》,2010年第11期,第40页。
    ②Presbyterian World Service&Development,“Iraq: Assistance Needed for Internally Displaced and refugees”,23January,2008.
    ③UNHCR,“Statistics on Displaced Iraqis around the World”, September2007.
    ④Ibid.
    ⑤UNHCR,“Statistics on Displaced Iraqis around the World”, September2007.
    ①Gaith Abdul-Ahad,“Tea and Kidnapping-Behind the Lines of a Civil War”, Guardian,28October2006
    ②Elizabeth Ferris,“The Real Challenge of Internal Displacement in the Future Iraq”, Centre for AmericanProgress, December,2007.
    ③IRIN,“Iraq-Syria Confusion over Syria visa requirements for Iraqi refugees”, September3,2007,引自www.irinews.org,登录时间2013年3月2日。
    ①Francis Fukuyama,“The Primacy of Culture”, Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.1,1995, p.7.
    ②Michael Bernhard,“Civil Society and Democratic Transition in East Central Europe”, Political ScienceQuarterly, Vol.108, No.2, p.308.
    ③Ibid.
    ④Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge: The MIT Press,1994, p.30.
    ②参见亚当·塞利格曼著,景跃进译,邓正来校《近代市民社会概念的缘起——一种社会理论的研究路径》,载杰弗里·亚历山大、邓正来主编:《国家与市民社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,2006年版,第66-67页。
    ③参见杰弗里·亚历山大、邓正来主编:《国家与市民社会——一种社会理论的研究路径》,上海:世纪人民出版社,2006年版,导论,第14页。
    ④参见爱德华·希尔斯著,李强译,《市民社会的美德》,载杰弗里·亚历山大、邓正来主编:《国家与市民社会——一种社会理论的研究路径》,上海:世纪人民出版社,2006年版,第50页。
    ⑤同上,第55页。
    ⑥[美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿著,周琪、刘绯、张立平、王园译,《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》,北京:新华出版社,2002年1月版本,第113页。
    ①Ali R. Abootalebi,“Civil Society, Democracy and the Middle East”, Meria Journal, Vol.2, No.3,1998, p.28.
    ②Isam Al-Khafiaji,“A few Days After: State and Society in a Post-Saddam Iraq”, in TI Dodges and S. Simon(eds), Iraq at the Crossroad: State and Society in the Shadow of Regime Change, London: IISS/Oxford UniversityPress,2003, p.77.
    ③转引自塞缪尔·亨廷顿,2002年,前引书,第189页。
    ④Kazemi, Farhad, and Augustus Richard Norton, Conclusion, Civil Society and Political Reform in the MiddleEast: In Toward Civil Society in the Middle East? A Primer, edited by Jillian Schwedler. Boulder, Colo.: LynneRienner,1995.
    ①汪波著,《美国中东战略下的伊拉克战争与重建》,北京:时事出版社,2007年版,第162页。
    ①Graham E. Fuller, Islamist Politics in Iraq after Saddam Hussein, Special Report108, Washington DC: USIP,August2003, p.1.
    ②Andreas Wimmer,“Democracy and Ethno-Religious Conflict in Iraq”, Paper presented at the Center onDemocracy, Development and Rule of Law, Stanford University, May5,2003, p.3.
    ③Andreas Wimmer, Nationalist Exclusion and Ethnic Conflict: Shadow of Modernity, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press,2002, chap.3and4.
    ①彭树智主编,黄民兴著,《中东国家通史-伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆,2002年版,第179-180页。
    ③Tareq Y. Ismale and Jacqueline S.Ismale, op. cit., p.612
    ①Abbas Alnasrawi, op. cit., p.206.
    ①Isam al-Khafaji,“The Myth of Iraqi Exceptionalism”, Middle East Policy, No.4,2000, p.68
    ②Tareq Y. Ismale and Jacqueline S.Ismale, p.615
    ③Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield, The Future of Iraq: Dictatorship, Democracy, or Division? New York:Palgrave Macmillan, p.203.
    ①彭树智主编,黄民兴著,《中东国家通史-伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆,2002年12月版,第181页。
    ②Reeva Simon, Iraq between the Two World Wars: The Implementation of National Ideology, New York:Columbia University Press,1986, p.81.
    ③Ibid: p.55.
    ④黄民兴,前引书,第211—213页。
    ⑤Liam Anderson and Gareth Stansfield, p.203.
    ①黄民兴,前引书,第235页。
    ①USAID, USAID/Iraq Strategic Direction:2010-2012, Washington DC: USAID, July,2009.
    ①ADF, Building on Transition Iraq Civil Society Program Final Evaluation, Final Report, Vienna: May27,2007,summary.
    ①Derick W. Brinkerhoff and James B. Mayfiled,“Democratic Governance in Iraq? Progress and Peril inReforming State-Society Relations”, Public Admin. Dev,25,2005, p.60.
    ①Derick W. Brinkerhoff and James B. Mayfiled, p.63.
    ②USAID, USAID/Iraq Community Action Program Making Change Happen: Celebrating Four Years of ProgramImplementation2008-2012, p.5.
    ①汪波著,《美国中东战略下的伊拉克战争与重建》,第211-222页。
    ①USAID/Iraq Office, Assessment of Current and Anticipated Economic Priorities in Iraq, p.42.
    ②USAID, USAID/Iraq Community Action Program Making Change Happen: Celebrating Four Years of ProgramImplementation2008-2012, p.13.
    ③Derick W. Brinkerhoff and James B. Mayfiled, p.67.
    ①Zeric Kay, Smith,“The impact of political liberalization and democratization on ethnic conflict in Africa: Anempirical test of common assumptions”, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol.38, No.1,2000, pp.21-39.
    ①田文林,《经济模式·政治结构·价值体系——解读伊拉克民主化困境的三个纬度》,载《现代国际关系》,2005年第5期,第4页。
    ②[美]罗伯特·帕南特著,王列、赖海榕译,《使民主运转起来》,江西人民出版社2001年版,第168页。
    ③参见黄民兴著,《中东国家通史——伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆,2002年版,第179—180页。
    ①参见黄民兴著,《中东国家通史——伊拉克卷》,北京:商务印书馆,2002年版,第237页。
    ①詹晋洁,《分化与整合:二战后伊拉克社会结构分析》,载《哈尔滨工业大学学报(社科版)》,2006年第二期,第32——33页。
    ②Abbas Alnasrawi,“Iraq: Economic Sanctions and Consequences,1990—2000”, Third World Quarterly, Vol.22,No.2,2001, p.206.
    ①Abbas Alnasrawi, The Economy of Iraq: Oil, Wars, Destruction of Development and Prospects,1950—2010,Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,1994, p.108.
    ②Ibid, p.118
    ③Cortright, D and Lopez, G A, The Sanctions Decade: Assessing UN Strategies in the1990s, Boulder, CO: LynneRienner,2000, pp.39-41.
    ①黄明兴著,第333页。
    ②Graham-Brown, S,“Sanctioning Iraq: a failed policy”, Middle East Report,2000, p.11.
    ③Dave Oliver and Peter McPherson,“Restarting the Economy of Iraq”, unpublished manuscript,2003
    ①Christopher Foote, William Block, Keith Crane and Simon Gary,“Economic Policy and Prospects in Iraq”, TheJournal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.18, No.3,2004, p.68.
    ①USAID/Iraq,“USAID-Tijara Program Overview Presentation”, September,2012, p.1.
    ②ICBG, Annual Report2010, p.10.
    ③USAID/Iraq,“USAID-Tijara Program Summary of Achievements”, January2013, p.1.
    ①USAID/Iraq,“USAID-Tijara Program Summary of Achievements”, January2013, p.4.
    ②[美]亨廷顿著,刘军宁译:《第三波——20世纪后期民主化浪潮》,上海三联书店,1998年9月版,第75-76页。
    ③Karl W. Deutsch., Political Community and the North Atlantic Area (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,1957), p.5.
    ④詹姆斯·多尔蒂,小罗伯特·普法尔茨格拉夫著,阎学通,陈寒溪等译:《争论中的国际关系理论》,北京:世界知识出版社,2003年版,第553页。
    ①USAID:“Iraq Provincial Economic Growth Program2009Progress Report”,2009, p.1.
    ①USAID/Iraq Office, Assessment of Current and Anticipated Economic Priorities in Iraq, Oct.4,2012, p.43.
    ②Ibid, p.48
    ③Abbas Alnasrawi, Financing Economic Development in Iraq: The role of oil in a Middle Eastern economy, NewYork: Fredierick A. Praeger,1967, p.101.
    ①Cordesman, Loi, Mausner,“Iraq’s Coming National Challenge: Developing the Petroleum”, Centre for Strategicand International Studies, January5,2011, p.1.
    ②USAID/Iraq Office, Assessment of Current and Anticipated Economic Priorities in Iraq, Oct.4,2012, annex a,p.11.
    ③USAID/Iraq Office, Assessment of Current and Anticipated Economic Priorities in Iraq, Oct.4,2012, annex a,p.12.
    ④International Energy Agency, Iraq Energy Outlook—World Energy Outlook Special Report, Oct.9,2012
    ⑤USAID/Iraq Office, brief.
    ①参见程星原,《伊拉克<石油天然气法>草案及其前景》,载《国际资料信息》,2007年第4期,第5页。
    ②程星原,前引文,第6页。
    ③Perry Williams,“Iraqi Kurds to net$5bn from Oil Contracts”, Middle East Economic Digest, May2008, p.44
    ①敏敬,《石油重镇基尔库克的归属问题及其影响》,载《阿拉伯世界研究》,2010年第3期,第45—50页。
    ②韩凝,《美军撤离后的美伊关系发展》,载《和平与发展》,2013年第1期,第47页。
    ③IEA,“World Energy Outlook Chapter3Oil Market Outlook”, November,2011.
    ④USAID/Iraq Office, Assessment of Current and Anticipated Economic Priorities in Iraq, Oct.4,2012, annex a,p.16.
    ⑤Philippe Le Billion,“Corruption, Reconstruction and Oil Governance in Iraq”, Third World Quarterly, Vol.26,No.4-5,2005, pp.685-703.
    ①参见邵莉,《伊拉克石油政策研究》,西安:陕西师范大学硕士学位论文,2010年,第55页。
    ①仇朝兵,《美国与伊拉克和日本的战后重建:政策、进程与问题》,载《美国研究》,2006年第1期,第41-58页。
    ②相关分析参见赵明昊,《伊拉克战争与美国国内的大战略省思》,载《当代世界》,2012年第1期,第50-54页。
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