尤金·奥尼尔欲望悲剧研究
摘要
20世纪初,美国经济的飞速发展、国家的动荡不安为文学的繁荣提供了肥沃的土壤,在戏剧方面涌现出了尤金·奥尼尔(1888-1953)这样的一代巨匠。作为美国现代戏剧的奠基人和缔造者,奥尼尔一生致力于不断探索“当今社会的病态。”他的作品侧重于表现人物的内心世界,通过对人物复杂、扭曲的心理描写来折射社会现实,而“欲望”一词则是贯穿于其悲剧中的主旋律。
奥尼尔认为欲望是导致人物行为的主要动机。他将欲望这一主题与戏剧的最佳表现形式悲剧结合在一起,创作了一系列欲望悲剧。他笔下的人物有各种各样的欲望,精神上他们希望关爱,期望理解,渴望归宿,物质上他们受到实利主义的腐蚀,为了聚敛财富不惜出卖灵魂。奥尼尔关注他的同胞们的困境,力劝他们寻求灵魂的归属,探求人生的真谛。
本论文由五部分组成。
引言部分首先对欲望一词进行定义。在奥尼尔剧中,“欲望”(desire)一词含义相当丰富,既可以指爱情,也可以指肉欲,还可以指物欲,以及强烈的控制欲。其次,引言分析了奥尼尔欲望悲剧的演变。之后,文献综述部分对中外奥尼尔研究的历史及现状进行简要梳理,为后文的论述奠定基础。最后陈述了本研究的意义和目的。
第一章分别从家庭与社会两方面探讨了欲望导致的悲剧性后果,指出奥尼尔的创作犹如一面镜子,照出了美国社会浮华下的真相。
在家庭悲剧中,奥尼尔主要从婚姻关系以及其他家庭关系出发反映和揭露社会现实。首先,奥尼尔深受易卜生等前人的影响,认为婚姻的不幸很大程度上导致了家庭悲剧。在他的剧中鲜有幸福美满的爱情与婚姻。由于受到清教思想的腐蚀,夫妻、恋人之间的正常欲望被压抑甚至扭曲,阻碍了他们的交流和沟通,导致关系的疏离。由于他们无法在婚姻中寻求安慰和解脱,爱情和婚姻最终会走向冷漠、猜忌、仇恨和其他极端。其次,除了婚姻关系之外,欲望也影响了其他家庭成员关系。奥尼尔细腻入微地剖析了父母与了女之间、兄弟姐妹之间等出于无法沟通导致的孤独和痛苦,深刻揭示了欲望的压抑与扭曲给人带来的精神创伤。他描写的家庭悲剧是整个美国社会的缩影。
在社会悲剧中,奥尼尔分别揭示了精神与物质的欲望导致的悲剧性结局。
一方面,在物质文明高度发展的社会中,人类作为世界上唯一的高等动物,却失去了精神支柱,找不到自己的归属。他们向往天边外的风景,渴望掌握自己的命运,却为此备受挫折和磨难。奥尼尔描写了不同阶层和种族的人寻求社会认可的痛苦过程。这些没有家园的灵魂并不是个别的现象,而是普遍存在于整个社会。虽然他们的精神探索都以失败告终,但毫无疑问,奥尼尔对此持积极的态度。因为如果人不注重自己的精神世界,无疑使自己论为低等动物。
另一方面,奥尼尔对拜金主义盛行的美国社会进行了无情的嘲弄。在奥尼尔所有欲望主题的悲剧中,数量最多、占比重最大的即是对占有者无限膨胀的物欲的揭露。艺术家们为了物质的贪欲付出了高昂的代价,出卖了自己的灵魂。最终,他们泯灭了艺术才华,彻底丧失了诗人气质。商人们对金钱的狂热崇拜使他们不择手段聚敛财富,最终实利主义导致了他们的毁灭。可悲的是,这些目光短浅、精神上畸形的实利主义者却被视为“美国社会的栋梁。”
第二章从分别从社会视角和心理视角阐释了欲望悲剧产生的原因。奥尼尔的人物从未摆脱欲望的影响,他们被不同的欲望驱使去实现自己的目标。
从社会视角来看,根据马斯洛等人的欲望动机理论,人的欲望存在由简单到复杂、由物质到精神的层次变化。工业化的发展、物质文明的进步使得人们对更高的精神追求成为可能,它包括对归属、自尊、认可、自我实现等的需求。
然而,社会的日益发展不仅仅为人类带来了物质的繁荣,也带来了异化的恶果,在奥尼尔剧中主要体现在以下四个方面：第一,在资本主义社会中固有的道德准则已经不复存在,人性的泯灭导致人与人之间互相排斥与敌对,因而他们渴望沟通和理解。第二,个体在社会面前无能为力,无法主宰自己的命运,由此产生的迷惘和痛苦使人努力寻求归属,正是社会造成了人的异化。第三,人类对自然的疯狂掠夺破坏了自然的平衡,人早已失去了过去在自然环境中和谐生存的状况,与环境尖锐对立,当他们试图背叛自然时,就会遭到毁灭。这一点主要体现在奥尼尔以大海为题材的早期剧作中。最后,人类被物欲所驱动,将物质的成功视作高于一切,导致了精神世界的荒芜。奥尼尔虽不是心理学家,却能深刻把握人的心理。他认为人的性格生来是分裂的,分别代表高尚、诗意的自我与卑鄙、实利的自我。二者处于激烈的冲突中。如果人屈从于后者,就会被物质所主宰,论为物质的奴隶。奥尼尔反复利用这一主题,表明他以矛盾的态度看待物质文明的高度发展,既期盼物质繁荣带来的进步,又憎恶物质至上带来的恶果。
除了异化之外,值得注意的另外一点是奥尼尔对于人与上帝关系的探索。他认为清教思想对于美国社会的病态有着不可推卸的责任。早期的清教教义将精神与物质的追求视为同等重要,并为教徒们指出了耽于物欲与肉欲的可怕后果。然而,在其发展过程中,清教早已偏离了最初宣扬的理想,它所倡导的极端刻板和否定生活的方式有悖于人的正常欲求,不但阻碍人的交流与沟通,而且压抑和摧残人性,吞噬人的幸福。物极必反,走向另一个极端的清教徒们沉溺于物欲和肉欲,导致了他们的堕落和罪孽。不仅如此,对冷漠和残忍的上帝的信仰导致了奥尼尔剧中某些人物的暴行,他们以残酷无情的上帝为幌子,将贪婪聚敛财富视作上帝的召唤,甚至为此不惜奴役自己的亲人,导致家庭的解体。
从心理视角来看,首先,奥尼尔受到弗洛伊德、荣格等心理学家的影响,认为性本能是促成人物激情的主要内在因素。他的人物遵循唯乐原则,即寻求快乐和满足。他们受到性本能的驱动,当他们的行为与社会的道德准则发生冲突、欲望受到阻挠和压抑时,或者他们完全屈从于欲望的摆布、成为欲望的奴隶时,悲剧就会发生。奥尼尔通过对乱伦主题的独特阐释表明了他对家庭悲剧的看法：如果婚姻不幸,父母无法自律,对于子女疏于管教,使他们极度缺乏关爱,正常的伦理关系会被扭曲,被压抑的欲望就会以极端的方式表现出来,对家庭危害至深,导致人伦惨剧。其次,奥尼尔指出具有过度控制欲的人会在力图左右别人命运的过程中遭遇自己的悲剧性结局。再次,奥尼尔利用荣格的集体无意识理论阐释了人物的行为动机。在上述以欲望为主题的悲剧中,奥尼尔充分利用精神分析法真实展现了人复杂的内心世界,将情欲、控制欲等作为剧中人物主要的悲剧根源。
第三章探讨了奥尼尔对走出欲望困境的思考。虽然奥尼尔被普遍认为是一位悲观主义者,但他对于人性积极的一面仍抱有信心。他从自我超越与精神慰藉两方而为人们提供了“没有选择的选择。”
一方面,奥尼尔寄希望于人的自我超越。他在作品中多次表达了对自我牺精神的赞扬与欣赏。在他看来,爱如果足够强大,可以使人超越贪婪与私欲,为他人做出牺牲,完成自我的救赎。这里的爱除了爱情之外,还包括人类的互相关爱。对奥尼尔来说,爱意味着“牺牲”与“奴役。”耐人寻味的是,奥尼尔创造了多个富于牺牲精神的女性形象。这在某种程度上既表明了他的女性观,也反映出他本人对女性的需求。即在奥尼尔的剧作中,从道德角度来看,女性如果不是优于男性,至少并不比男性逊色。除此之外,奥尼尔似乎对死亡有种特别的情感。死亡可以帮助人们偿还由欲望引发的罪孽,使人的精神得到净化和升华。不仅如此,它还可以使人们远离令人绝望的现实。生与死的相对性与轮回性告诉人们不必惧怕死亡,而应把死亡视作一种对欲望无法实现的解脱。在奥尼尔的剧中,囚禁是比死亡更为严厉的选择。他笔下的人物通过这种手段与世隔绝,远离充满欲念的世界,达到自我的救赎。
另一方面,奥尼尔为他的同胞们开出了精神慰藉的药方。他以宽容和同情的态度看待人的幻想。他表示,无论人们如何潦倒,都不应失去梦想。虽然白日梦包含着谎言的成分,但它仍是一种对现实的抗争。它能够赋予人生活的意义,减轻可怕的现实对人的摧残与伤害,使人能够有尊严地生活在世界上。即使人生如梦,也应让这场梦不失其色彩。正如奥尼尔剧中表明,梦幻给了所有人以生活的内容。除此之外,奥尼尔与他笔下的人物一样,向往人情的温暖与友情的抚慰。在他的作品中自始至终都传达了这样的信息,即友情可以为孤独的人提供理解、信任和沟通,这对于生存来说是必须的,特别是对于生活在社会底层的人们尤其如此。另外,奥尼尔还试图通过自己的探索找到新的上帝,帮助人们找到生活的意义。他甚至将目光投向精神至上的东方,期望从中找到答案。他承认道家思想对他的影响,主张人应该杜绝贪欲,不受物质的腐蚀,以达到内心的宁静。奥尼尔最终的答案以西方宗教为基础,同时具有某些东方宗教色彩。他认为,人们需要的并不是更多的物质,而是更少的欲望。同时,他的后期作品也表明,人应该遵循著名思想家梭罗所倡导的理念,克制欲望,返璞归真,以此获得灵魂的拯救。奥尼尔以此表达了自己对资本主义社会物质至上、背离自然的倾向的反对态度。
最后,通过对奥尼尔欲望悲剧的细读和分析,论文的结尾部分总结了研究内容并得出结论。在奥尼尔的创作生涯中,他欣赏浪漫主义的幻想,憎恨不惜任何代价追求实利的美国梦。当他发现现实的残酷性后,他克服了自己的绝望情绪,寄希望于人性的回归。他赞扬爱的牺牲,宣扬爱的力量,并在死亡、友情、白日梦等之中发现了超脱现实的可能性。他希望人们克制物欲,保持灵魂不被玷污,因为适度的欲望与贪婪之间仅有一步之遥。欲望是生存的必需品,但人不应成为欲望的奴隶,不应被欲望所累。同时,奥尼尔认为人应该保持梦想,无论采取何种形式,因为梦想虽会破碎,但人生仍有意义。通过如实反映美国社会的病态,他力图唤起人们对于物质与精神孰轻孰重的思考。奥尼尔的欲望悲剧并不仅仅是讽刺世人为财富出卖灵魂的寓言。他同时告诫人们不能浮于生活表面,因为人类应该有更高的精神追求。
奥尼尔终其一生在精神的荒原中进行着坚持不懈的探索。他的欲望悲剧体现了人的欲望与无法改变的现实之间的冲突。它们不但是典型的美国悲剧,对于物质文明高速发展的整个世界来说也具有典型性。他执着于丰富人们的精神世界,努力通过自己的艺术追求鼓舞他的同胞们保持自己的尊严和人性不被侵蚀,超越自己的贪欲,达到精神上的升华。尽管失败不可避免,但对于奥尼尔来说,人必须把失败当作生存的条件来接受。简言之,人应当关注自己的内心世界,坚持自己的梦想,因为生命的意义就在于不断的追求之中。
In the beginning of the20th century, the rapid development of American economy and the turbulence of the country provided rich soil for the prosperity of literature, and there appeared masters like Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953) in American theatre. As the founder and creator of modern American drama, O'Neill devotes all his life to the exploration of the "sickness of today." In his works he puts much emphasis on the characters'innermost feelings, and reflects the social reality by the description of their complicated and distorted feelings, of which "desire" is the keynote.
To O'Neill, desire is the major motivation of his characters'action. By combining the desire motif with tragedies, the perfect expression of drama, O'Neill creates a series of desire tragedies. His characters have various desires:spiritually, they want care and love, crave for understanding, and seek for identity and belongingness; materially, they, ruined by utilitarianism, exchange their souls for wealth. O'Neill shows great concern to his fellowmen, and calls for them to search for their belongingness as well as the valid meaning of life.
The dissertation consists of five parts.
In Introduction first a definition of "desire" is provided. In O'Neill's tragedies, the word "desire," which is rich in meaning, means love, or lust, or worldly craving, or even strong possessiveness. Then efforts are made to show the evolution of his desire tragedies. This part also includes a literature review sorting out the past and current research studies, both abroad and in China, on Eugene O'Neill, which is the foundation of the following study. The significance and purpose of the research is dealt with at last.
Chapter One looks into the tragedies caused by desires from two perspectives:family and society. It points out that O'Neill's creation serves as a mirror of the truth beneath the false prosperity in American society.
In his plays of family tragedies, O'Neill mainly reflects and exposes social reality from marriage and other family relationship. First, deeply inspired by his predecessors such as Ibsen, O'Neill holds that the failure of a marriage will, to a large extent, lead to family tragedies. Little can be seen in his plays about happy love and marriage. Poisoned by Puritanism, people have to suppress, even distort, their normal desires for their lovers or spouses, which prevents them from communicating with each other. Estranged, they cannot find comfort and outlets from their marriages. Eventually, love and marriage will go to coldness, suspicion, hatred, and other extremes. Besides, to the playwright, desire affects not only marriage, but also other family relationship. O'Neill depicts, with even the smallest details, the loneliness and misery of people, because of failure to communicate, between parents and children, brothers and sisters. He exposes the psychological trauma caused by suppression and distortion of desires. His family tragedies epitomize those of all American society.
In society tragedies, O'Neill depicts the tragic endings caused by spiritual and materialistic desires.
On one side, in a society with advanced material civilization, human beings, as the only intelligent species in the world, lose their spiritual support and fail to find where they belong. They dream of the beauty beyond the horizon, and expect to take control of their own destiny, but only to be severely tortured. O'Neill depicts the tormenting pursuits of people from different classes and races when they strive for the recognition of the society. Those who cannot find their identity and belongingness are not exceptions; rather, they are universal of the whole society. Undoubtedly, O'Neill holds a positive attitude to their attempts although they all meet with failures. The reason is that human beings will be reduced to animal level if they attach little importance to their spiritual world.
On the other, O'Neill mocks mercilessly the American society with mammonism prevalent. In all his desire tragedies, those about the possessors' ever-increasing desires for material are the largest in number. Artists pay a high price when they cannot resist the temptation of material, and they lose their souls. As a result, their artistic gifts are destroyed and they are away from their poetic touches once and for all. Businessmen's crazy worship for money makes them accumulate wealth unscrupulously. It is utilitarianism that leads to their destruction. It is lamentable that those short-sighted and spiritually deformed materialists should be considered as "American pillar of society.
Chapter Two interprets the reasons for the desire tragedies from both social and psychological angles. O'Neill's characters are never out of the control of desires. Motivated by various desires, they strive to achieve their goals.
From the angle of the society, according to theories of Maslow and other psychologists, people's desires are consistent of various hierarchic classes, from simple to complicated, from materialistic to spiritual. With the development of industrialization and progress of material civilization, it is highly likely that people will make higher spiritual pursuits, including belongingness, self-esteem, recognition, and self-realization, etc.
However, the development of society not only brings material prosperity, but also the consequence of alienation, which is demonstrated in the following four aspects in O'Neill's tragedies:First, in the capitalist society, the old moral codes no longer exist, and the relationship among human beings features rejection and hostility. Therefore, communication and understanding are dear to them. Second, the individuals, powerless and helpless before the society, are unable to take control of their fate. The confusion and misery result in their desperate efforts to look for the identity. The society is to blame for this. Third, the balance of nature has been broken by mankind's crazy plundering. Human beings have long lost the harmony with nature and they are opposed to each other bitterly. When they are trying to betray it, they suffer from the consequences. This is mainly demonstrated in O'Neill's early sea cycles. Lastly, motivated by worldly desires, people value materialistic success higher above anything else, which leads to the spiritual wasteland. O'Neill, though not a psychologist, understands the human psyche deeply. To O'Neill, man is born divided, with the noble and poetic self and base and profit-seeking self in severe conflict. When man is enslaved by the latter, he will be seized control of and become a slave to it. This motif, which is repeated by O'Neill, shows his complex attitude toward the rapid development of material civilization. He looks forward to its progress; meanwhile, he resents the disastrous effect that accompanies the practice of giving first priority to material.
Among social factors, another point worthy of note is O'Neill's exploration of the relationship between man and God. He holds that Puritanism has an unshirkable responsibility for the sickness of American society. The early ideals of Puritanism equated spiritual well-being with economic prosperity, and made clear to the settlers of the country the consequences of indulging oneself in worldly desires and lust. Yet during its process of development Puritanism has been far away from its original. Gradually, with its rigid and life-denying lifestyle, which is against the normal desires, Puritanism not only prevents people from communicating with each other, but also suppresses and distorts human nature, eating into people's happiness. The puritans who go to another extreme are addicted to greediness and lust, which result in their moral downfall and crimes. What's more, the belief that God is cold and cruel has led to the atrocity of some of his characters. Taking advantage of the so-called "hard" God, they accumulate wealth avariciously, considering it as the call from God, to such an extent that they even enslave their own family members, which leads to the disintegration of the families.
On a psychological level, most important of all, with the psychologists'impact, such as Freud and Jung, O'Neill believes that sexual impulse is the major inner factor leading to the passion of his characters. Following "the Pleasure Principle," his characters are shaped by their sexual instinct. Tragedies will occur when their behaviors are in conflict with the social codes and their desires are repressed and distorted, or when they have been completely enslaved by their desires. O'Neill also makes clear his ideas on family tragedies by his unique interpretation of the "incest" motif. Within an unhappy marriage, if the parents fail to constrain themselves and neglect their duties to their children, which makes them in extreme want of love and care, then the normal family relationship will be spoiled and even twisted. The repressed desires will be expressed in extreme ways and then do great harm to families; hence the family tragedies. Second, O'Neill stresses that people with strong possessiveness will meet their tragic endings when they are trying to dominate others'life. Moreover, Jung's theory of "Collective Unconscious" is also made use of by the playwright to explain the characters'motivation. In his desire tragedies, O'Neill presents people's complicated inner world by means of psychological analytical approaches, with sexual impulse and possessiveness, etc., as the chief roots of tragedies.
Chapter Three deals with O'Neill's ideas on ways out of desire predicament. Although universally accepted as a pessimist, he is still confident of the bright side of human nature, and his searchings provide his fellowmen with the "choiceless choice."
First of all, O'Neill expects to find an answer from mankind's self-transcendence. For many times he has expressed his admiration and appreciation of self-sacrifice. On his personal level, he believes that as long as love is strong enough, it can transcend one's greediness and selfishness. Then one will make self-sacrifice for others and redeem himself. Here love does not mean the feelings between lovers only; it also refers to the general love among human beings. To O'Neill, love means "sacrifice" and "servitude." Interesting enough, O'Neill has created many a woman image with the spirit of self-sacrifice. To some extent, it helps explain his point of view on women, and reflect his own requirement on them. It indicates that in O'Neill's plays, women, judging from the moral perspective, are, at least, not inferior to men if not superior. Besides, O'Neill seems to have a special feeling for death. Death can not only help people to make up for their crimes caused by desires, but also purge and purify their spirit. Furthermore, death makes people far away from the harsh reality. The relativity and cycle of life and death tell people it is not necessary to be afraid of death. Rather, they are supposed to take it as an escape from the reality in which dreams cannot come true. In O'Neill's plays imprisonment is a more severe choice than death. His characters choose to isolate themselves from the world of desires, by which they achieve redemption of themselves.
On the other side, O'Neill prescribes "spiritual consolation" for his fellowmen. He treats people's illusions with compassion and sympathy. He once says that no matter how one may have fallen, there should always be one dream. Even if it has elements of lies, pipe dream is an opposition to reality. It offers life with meaning, and alleviates the harm by the harsh reality, which will be of help for people to live a dignified life. Even if life is a dream, one is not supposed to let it lose its color. As has been mentioned in his plays, these pipe dreams have offered them something for them to live on. Besides, similar to his characters, O'Neill dreams of human warmth and consolation of friendship. In his works one message is expressed all the time:friendship will provide people with understanding, trust and communication. This is a must to existence, and especially to those living at the bottom of the society. Furthermore, O'Neill wants to help people find the meaning of life by his exploration of a new faith. He even expects an answer from the Orient, which values spirit higher above anything else. O'Neill admits that he has benefited much from Taoism, and he draws the conclusion that mankind should eliminate greed and not be poisoned by materialism, which will help them to achieve peace of mind. The final answer lies in one based on the Western religion but with some Oriental elements. To him, it is not more material, but fewer desires that people need. At the same time, it is made clear in his late works that people should set a limit to their desires and recover their original simplicity, as has been put forward by the great thinker Thoreau. This, O'Neill believes, is a salvation of people's souls. O'Neill expresses his attitude to the tendency of the capitalist society in attaching high priority to material and breaking away from natural laws.
In the end, with an informed reading and a comparative assessment of the desire tragedies by O'Neill, the dissertation comes to the conclusion. In his literary career, O'Neill admires the romantic dreams but has a great aversion to the American Dream which calls for people to sacrifice all else to realize the materialistic goals. When he comes to realize the harshness of reality, he overcomes his desperation and expects an answer from the human nature. He sings high praise for self-sacrifice and the power of love. He finds the possibility of transcending reality in death, friendship and pipe dreams, etc. To him, people should exercise restraint to their desires so as to keep souls unstained, for there is only one step between moderate aspiration and compulsive greediness. Desires are a must to one's life, but one should not be burdened with it and be enslaved by it. O'Neill also holds that man should keep his dream, no matter what form it may take, for even if it can be crushed, there is still meaning for life. By his true-to-life reflection of the sickness of America, he hopes to awaken people's awareness of how to strike a balance between spirit and material. O'Neill's desire tragedies are not solely fables on people's accumulating wealth at the cost of their souls. Meanwhile, he warns his fellowmen of the danger of living on the surface of life for mankind should have nobler aspirations.
O'Neill's lifelong efforts are the unyielding pursuit in the spiritual wilderness. His desire tragedies are not only typical American tragedies, but also universal to the whole world which is characteristic of swift development of material civilization. He persists in enriching people's inner world, hoping to encourage his countrymen to keep their dignity unspoiled and human nature unstained. They should have their greediness transcended and spirit sublimated. To O'Neill, even if failures are unavoidable, people should accept it as the condition of meaningful existence. In short, one should concern himself about his inner world and stick to his dream, for the truth of life lies in his untiring spiritual pursuit.
奥尼尔认为欲望是导致人物行为的主要动机。他将欲望这一主题与戏剧的最佳表现形式悲剧结合在一起,创作了一系列欲望悲剧。他笔下的人物有各种各样的欲望,精神上他们希望关爱,期望理解,渴望归宿,物质上他们受到实利主义的腐蚀,为了聚敛财富不惜出卖灵魂。奥尼尔关注他的同胞们的困境,力劝他们寻求灵魂的归属,探求人生的真谛。
本论文由五部分组成。
引言部分首先对欲望一词进行定义。在奥尼尔剧中,“欲望”(desire)一词含义相当丰富,既可以指爱情,也可以指肉欲,还可以指物欲,以及强烈的控制欲。其次,引言分析了奥尼尔欲望悲剧的演变。之后,文献综述部分对中外奥尼尔研究的历史及现状进行简要梳理,为后文的论述奠定基础。最后陈述了本研究的意义和目的。
第一章分别从家庭与社会两方面探讨了欲望导致的悲剧性后果,指出奥尼尔的创作犹如一面镜子,照出了美国社会浮华下的真相。
在家庭悲剧中,奥尼尔主要从婚姻关系以及其他家庭关系出发反映和揭露社会现实。首先,奥尼尔深受易卜生等前人的影响,认为婚姻的不幸很大程度上导致了家庭悲剧。在他的剧中鲜有幸福美满的爱情与婚姻。由于受到清教思想的腐蚀,夫妻、恋人之间的正常欲望被压抑甚至扭曲,阻碍了他们的交流和沟通,导致关系的疏离。由于他们无法在婚姻中寻求安慰和解脱,爱情和婚姻最终会走向冷漠、猜忌、仇恨和其他极端。其次,除了婚姻关系之外,欲望也影响了其他家庭成员关系。奥尼尔细腻入微地剖析了父母与了女之间、兄弟姐妹之间等出于无法沟通导致的孤独和痛苦,深刻揭示了欲望的压抑与扭曲给人带来的精神创伤。他描写的家庭悲剧是整个美国社会的缩影。
在社会悲剧中,奥尼尔分别揭示了精神与物质的欲望导致的悲剧性结局。
一方面,在物质文明高度发展的社会中,人类作为世界上唯一的高等动物,却失去了精神支柱,找不到自己的归属。他们向往天边外的风景,渴望掌握自己的命运,却为此备受挫折和磨难。奥尼尔描写了不同阶层和种族的人寻求社会认可的痛苦过程。这些没有家园的灵魂并不是个别的现象,而是普遍存在于整个社会。虽然他们的精神探索都以失败告终,但毫无疑问,奥尼尔对此持积极的态度。因为如果人不注重自己的精神世界,无疑使自己论为低等动物。
另一方面,奥尼尔对拜金主义盛行的美国社会进行了无情的嘲弄。在奥尼尔所有欲望主题的悲剧中,数量最多、占比重最大的即是对占有者无限膨胀的物欲的揭露。艺术家们为了物质的贪欲付出了高昂的代价,出卖了自己的灵魂。最终,他们泯灭了艺术才华,彻底丧失了诗人气质。商人们对金钱的狂热崇拜使他们不择手段聚敛财富,最终实利主义导致了他们的毁灭。可悲的是,这些目光短浅、精神上畸形的实利主义者却被视为“美国社会的栋梁。”
第二章从分别从社会视角和心理视角阐释了欲望悲剧产生的原因。奥尼尔的人物从未摆脱欲望的影响,他们被不同的欲望驱使去实现自己的目标。
从社会视角来看,根据马斯洛等人的欲望动机理论,人的欲望存在由简单到复杂、由物质到精神的层次变化。工业化的发展、物质文明的进步使得人们对更高的精神追求成为可能,它包括对归属、自尊、认可、自我实现等的需求。
然而,社会的日益发展不仅仅为人类带来了物质的繁荣,也带来了异化的恶果,在奥尼尔剧中主要体现在以下四个方面：第一,在资本主义社会中固有的道德准则已经不复存在,人性的泯灭导致人与人之间互相排斥与敌对,因而他们渴望沟通和理解。第二,个体在社会面前无能为力,无法主宰自己的命运,由此产生的迷惘和痛苦使人努力寻求归属,正是社会造成了人的异化。第三,人类对自然的疯狂掠夺破坏了自然的平衡,人早已失去了过去在自然环境中和谐生存的状况,与环境尖锐对立,当他们试图背叛自然时,就会遭到毁灭。这一点主要体现在奥尼尔以大海为题材的早期剧作中。最后,人类被物欲所驱动,将物质的成功视作高于一切,导致了精神世界的荒芜。奥尼尔虽不是心理学家,却能深刻把握人的心理。他认为人的性格生来是分裂的,分别代表高尚、诗意的自我与卑鄙、实利的自我。二者处于激烈的冲突中。如果人屈从于后者,就会被物质所主宰,论为物质的奴隶。奥尼尔反复利用这一主题,表明他以矛盾的态度看待物质文明的高度发展,既期盼物质繁荣带来的进步,又憎恶物质至上带来的恶果。
除了异化之外,值得注意的另外一点是奥尼尔对于人与上帝关系的探索。他认为清教思想对于美国社会的病态有着不可推卸的责任。早期的清教教义将精神与物质的追求视为同等重要,并为教徒们指出了耽于物欲与肉欲的可怕后果。然而,在其发展过程中,清教早已偏离了最初宣扬的理想,它所倡导的极端刻板和否定生活的方式有悖于人的正常欲求,不但阻碍人的交流与沟通,而且压抑和摧残人性,吞噬人的幸福。物极必反,走向另一个极端的清教徒们沉溺于物欲和肉欲,导致了他们的堕落和罪孽。不仅如此,对冷漠和残忍的上帝的信仰导致了奥尼尔剧中某些人物的暴行,他们以残酷无情的上帝为幌子,将贪婪聚敛财富视作上帝的召唤,甚至为此不惜奴役自己的亲人,导致家庭的解体。
从心理视角来看,首先,奥尼尔受到弗洛伊德、荣格等心理学家的影响,认为性本能是促成人物激情的主要内在因素。他的人物遵循唯乐原则,即寻求快乐和满足。他们受到性本能的驱动,当他们的行为与社会的道德准则发生冲突、欲望受到阻挠和压抑时,或者他们完全屈从于欲望的摆布、成为欲望的奴隶时,悲剧就会发生。奥尼尔通过对乱伦主题的独特阐释表明了他对家庭悲剧的看法：如果婚姻不幸,父母无法自律,对于子女疏于管教,使他们极度缺乏关爱,正常的伦理关系会被扭曲,被压抑的欲望就会以极端的方式表现出来,对家庭危害至深,导致人伦惨剧。其次,奥尼尔指出具有过度控制欲的人会在力图左右别人命运的过程中遭遇自己的悲剧性结局。再次,奥尼尔利用荣格的集体无意识理论阐释了人物的行为动机。在上述以欲望为主题的悲剧中,奥尼尔充分利用精神分析法真实展现了人复杂的内心世界,将情欲、控制欲等作为剧中人物主要的悲剧根源。
第三章探讨了奥尼尔对走出欲望困境的思考。虽然奥尼尔被普遍认为是一位悲观主义者,但他对于人性积极的一面仍抱有信心。他从自我超越与精神慰藉两方而为人们提供了“没有选择的选择。”
一方面,奥尼尔寄希望于人的自我超越。他在作品中多次表达了对自我牺精神的赞扬与欣赏。在他看来,爱如果足够强大,可以使人超越贪婪与私欲,为他人做出牺牲,完成自我的救赎。这里的爱除了爱情之外,还包括人类的互相关爱。对奥尼尔来说,爱意味着“牺牲”与“奴役。”耐人寻味的是,奥尼尔创造了多个富于牺牲精神的女性形象。这在某种程度上既表明了他的女性观,也反映出他本人对女性的需求。即在奥尼尔的剧作中,从道德角度来看,女性如果不是优于男性,至少并不比男性逊色。除此之外,奥尼尔似乎对死亡有种特别的情感。死亡可以帮助人们偿还由欲望引发的罪孽,使人的精神得到净化和升华。不仅如此,它还可以使人们远离令人绝望的现实。生与死的相对性与轮回性告诉人们不必惧怕死亡,而应把死亡视作一种对欲望无法实现的解脱。在奥尼尔的剧中,囚禁是比死亡更为严厉的选择。他笔下的人物通过这种手段与世隔绝,远离充满欲念的世界,达到自我的救赎。
另一方面,奥尼尔为他的同胞们开出了精神慰藉的药方。他以宽容和同情的态度看待人的幻想。他表示,无论人们如何潦倒,都不应失去梦想。虽然白日梦包含着谎言的成分,但它仍是一种对现实的抗争。它能够赋予人生活的意义,减轻可怕的现实对人的摧残与伤害,使人能够有尊严地生活在世界上。即使人生如梦,也应让这场梦不失其色彩。正如奥尼尔剧中表明,梦幻给了所有人以生活的内容。除此之外,奥尼尔与他笔下的人物一样,向往人情的温暖与友情的抚慰。在他的作品中自始至终都传达了这样的信息,即友情可以为孤独的人提供理解、信任和沟通,这对于生存来说是必须的,特别是对于生活在社会底层的人们尤其如此。另外,奥尼尔还试图通过自己的探索找到新的上帝,帮助人们找到生活的意义。他甚至将目光投向精神至上的东方,期望从中找到答案。他承认道家思想对他的影响,主张人应该杜绝贪欲,不受物质的腐蚀,以达到内心的宁静。奥尼尔最终的答案以西方宗教为基础,同时具有某些东方宗教色彩。他认为,人们需要的并不是更多的物质,而是更少的欲望。同时,他的后期作品也表明,人应该遵循著名思想家梭罗所倡导的理念,克制欲望,返璞归真,以此获得灵魂的拯救。奥尼尔以此表达了自己对资本主义社会物质至上、背离自然的倾向的反对态度。
最后,通过对奥尼尔欲望悲剧的细读和分析,论文的结尾部分总结了研究内容并得出结论。在奥尼尔的创作生涯中,他欣赏浪漫主义的幻想,憎恨不惜任何代价追求实利的美国梦。当他发现现实的残酷性后,他克服了自己的绝望情绪,寄希望于人性的回归。他赞扬爱的牺牲,宣扬爱的力量,并在死亡、友情、白日梦等之中发现了超脱现实的可能性。他希望人们克制物欲,保持灵魂不被玷污,因为适度的欲望与贪婪之间仅有一步之遥。欲望是生存的必需品,但人不应成为欲望的奴隶,不应被欲望所累。同时,奥尼尔认为人应该保持梦想,无论采取何种形式,因为梦想虽会破碎,但人生仍有意义。通过如实反映美国社会的病态,他力图唤起人们对于物质与精神孰轻孰重的思考。奥尼尔的欲望悲剧并不仅仅是讽刺世人为财富出卖灵魂的寓言。他同时告诫人们不能浮于生活表面,因为人类应该有更高的精神追求。
奥尼尔终其一生在精神的荒原中进行着坚持不懈的探索。他的欲望悲剧体现了人的欲望与无法改变的现实之间的冲突。它们不但是典型的美国悲剧,对于物质文明高速发展的整个世界来说也具有典型性。他执着于丰富人们的精神世界,努力通过自己的艺术追求鼓舞他的同胞们保持自己的尊严和人性不被侵蚀,超越自己的贪欲,达到精神上的升华。尽管失败不可避免,但对于奥尼尔来说,人必须把失败当作生存的条件来接受。简言之,人应当关注自己的内心世界,坚持自己的梦想,因为生命的意义就在于不断的追求之中。
In the beginning of the20th century, the rapid development of American economy and the turbulence of the country provided rich soil for the prosperity of literature, and there appeared masters like Eugene O'Neill (1888-1953) in American theatre. As the founder and creator of modern American drama, O'Neill devotes all his life to the exploration of the "sickness of today." In his works he puts much emphasis on the characters'innermost feelings, and reflects the social reality by the description of their complicated and distorted feelings, of which "desire" is the keynote.
To O'Neill, desire is the major motivation of his characters'action. By combining the desire motif with tragedies, the perfect expression of drama, O'Neill creates a series of desire tragedies. His characters have various desires:spiritually, they want care and love, crave for understanding, and seek for identity and belongingness; materially, they, ruined by utilitarianism, exchange their souls for wealth. O'Neill shows great concern to his fellowmen, and calls for them to search for their belongingness as well as the valid meaning of life.
The dissertation consists of five parts.
In Introduction first a definition of "desire" is provided. In O'Neill's tragedies, the word "desire," which is rich in meaning, means love, or lust, or worldly craving, or even strong possessiveness. Then efforts are made to show the evolution of his desire tragedies. This part also includes a literature review sorting out the past and current research studies, both abroad and in China, on Eugene O'Neill, which is the foundation of the following study. The significance and purpose of the research is dealt with at last.
Chapter One looks into the tragedies caused by desires from two perspectives:family and society. It points out that O'Neill's creation serves as a mirror of the truth beneath the false prosperity in American society.
In his plays of family tragedies, O'Neill mainly reflects and exposes social reality from marriage and other family relationship. First, deeply inspired by his predecessors such as Ibsen, O'Neill holds that the failure of a marriage will, to a large extent, lead to family tragedies. Little can be seen in his plays about happy love and marriage. Poisoned by Puritanism, people have to suppress, even distort, their normal desires for their lovers or spouses, which prevents them from communicating with each other. Estranged, they cannot find comfort and outlets from their marriages. Eventually, love and marriage will go to coldness, suspicion, hatred, and other extremes. Besides, to the playwright, desire affects not only marriage, but also other family relationship. O'Neill depicts, with even the smallest details, the loneliness and misery of people, because of failure to communicate, between parents and children, brothers and sisters. He exposes the psychological trauma caused by suppression and distortion of desires. His family tragedies epitomize those of all American society.
In society tragedies, O'Neill depicts the tragic endings caused by spiritual and materialistic desires.
On one side, in a society with advanced material civilization, human beings, as the only intelligent species in the world, lose their spiritual support and fail to find where they belong. They dream of the beauty beyond the horizon, and expect to take control of their own destiny, but only to be severely tortured. O'Neill depicts the tormenting pursuits of people from different classes and races when they strive for the recognition of the society. Those who cannot find their identity and belongingness are not exceptions; rather, they are universal of the whole society. Undoubtedly, O'Neill holds a positive attitude to their attempts although they all meet with failures. The reason is that human beings will be reduced to animal level if they attach little importance to their spiritual world.
On the other, O'Neill mocks mercilessly the American society with mammonism prevalent. In all his desire tragedies, those about the possessors' ever-increasing desires for material are the largest in number. Artists pay a high price when they cannot resist the temptation of material, and they lose their souls. As a result, their artistic gifts are destroyed and they are away from their poetic touches once and for all. Businessmen's crazy worship for money makes them accumulate wealth unscrupulously. It is utilitarianism that leads to their destruction. It is lamentable that those short-sighted and spiritually deformed materialists should be considered as "American pillar of society.
Chapter Two interprets the reasons for the desire tragedies from both social and psychological angles. O'Neill's characters are never out of the control of desires. Motivated by various desires, they strive to achieve their goals.
From the angle of the society, according to theories of Maslow and other psychologists, people's desires are consistent of various hierarchic classes, from simple to complicated, from materialistic to spiritual. With the development of industrialization and progress of material civilization, it is highly likely that people will make higher spiritual pursuits, including belongingness, self-esteem, recognition, and self-realization, etc.
However, the development of society not only brings material prosperity, but also the consequence of alienation, which is demonstrated in the following four aspects in O'Neill's tragedies:First, in the capitalist society, the old moral codes no longer exist, and the relationship among human beings features rejection and hostility. Therefore, communication and understanding are dear to them. Second, the individuals, powerless and helpless before the society, are unable to take control of their fate. The confusion and misery result in their desperate efforts to look for the identity. The society is to blame for this. Third, the balance of nature has been broken by mankind's crazy plundering. Human beings have long lost the harmony with nature and they are opposed to each other bitterly. When they are trying to betray it, they suffer from the consequences. This is mainly demonstrated in O'Neill's early sea cycles. Lastly, motivated by worldly desires, people value materialistic success higher above anything else, which leads to the spiritual wasteland. O'Neill, though not a psychologist, understands the human psyche deeply. To O'Neill, man is born divided, with the noble and poetic self and base and profit-seeking self in severe conflict. When man is enslaved by the latter, he will be seized control of and become a slave to it. This motif, which is repeated by O'Neill, shows his complex attitude toward the rapid development of material civilization. He looks forward to its progress; meanwhile, he resents the disastrous effect that accompanies the practice of giving first priority to material.
Among social factors, another point worthy of note is O'Neill's exploration of the relationship between man and God. He holds that Puritanism has an unshirkable responsibility for the sickness of American society. The early ideals of Puritanism equated spiritual well-being with economic prosperity, and made clear to the settlers of the country the consequences of indulging oneself in worldly desires and lust. Yet during its process of development Puritanism has been far away from its original. Gradually, with its rigid and life-denying lifestyle, which is against the normal desires, Puritanism not only prevents people from communicating with each other, but also suppresses and distorts human nature, eating into people's happiness. The puritans who go to another extreme are addicted to greediness and lust, which result in their moral downfall and crimes. What's more, the belief that God is cold and cruel has led to the atrocity of some of his characters. Taking advantage of the so-called "hard" God, they accumulate wealth avariciously, considering it as the call from God, to such an extent that they even enslave their own family members, which leads to the disintegration of the families.
On a psychological level, most important of all, with the psychologists'impact, such as Freud and Jung, O'Neill believes that sexual impulse is the major inner factor leading to the passion of his characters. Following "the Pleasure Principle," his characters are shaped by their sexual instinct. Tragedies will occur when their behaviors are in conflict with the social codes and their desires are repressed and distorted, or when they have been completely enslaved by their desires. O'Neill also makes clear his ideas on family tragedies by his unique interpretation of the "incest" motif. Within an unhappy marriage, if the parents fail to constrain themselves and neglect their duties to their children, which makes them in extreme want of love and care, then the normal family relationship will be spoiled and even twisted. The repressed desires will be expressed in extreme ways and then do great harm to families; hence the family tragedies. Second, O'Neill stresses that people with strong possessiveness will meet their tragic endings when they are trying to dominate others'life. Moreover, Jung's theory of "Collective Unconscious" is also made use of by the playwright to explain the characters'motivation. In his desire tragedies, O'Neill presents people's complicated inner world by means of psychological analytical approaches, with sexual impulse and possessiveness, etc., as the chief roots of tragedies.
Chapter Three deals with O'Neill's ideas on ways out of desire predicament. Although universally accepted as a pessimist, he is still confident of the bright side of human nature, and his searchings provide his fellowmen with the "choiceless choice."
First of all, O'Neill expects to find an answer from mankind's self-transcendence. For many times he has expressed his admiration and appreciation of self-sacrifice. On his personal level, he believes that as long as love is strong enough, it can transcend one's greediness and selfishness. Then one will make self-sacrifice for others and redeem himself. Here love does not mean the feelings between lovers only; it also refers to the general love among human beings. To O'Neill, love means "sacrifice" and "servitude." Interesting enough, O'Neill has created many a woman image with the spirit of self-sacrifice. To some extent, it helps explain his point of view on women, and reflect his own requirement on them. It indicates that in O'Neill's plays, women, judging from the moral perspective, are, at least, not inferior to men if not superior. Besides, O'Neill seems to have a special feeling for death. Death can not only help people to make up for their crimes caused by desires, but also purge and purify their spirit. Furthermore, death makes people far away from the harsh reality. The relativity and cycle of life and death tell people it is not necessary to be afraid of death. Rather, they are supposed to take it as an escape from the reality in which dreams cannot come true. In O'Neill's plays imprisonment is a more severe choice than death. His characters choose to isolate themselves from the world of desires, by which they achieve redemption of themselves.
On the other side, O'Neill prescribes "spiritual consolation" for his fellowmen. He treats people's illusions with compassion and sympathy. He once says that no matter how one may have fallen, there should always be one dream. Even if it has elements of lies, pipe dream is an opposition to reality. It offers life with meaning, and alleviates the harm by the harsh reality, which will be of help for people to live a dignified life. Even if life is a dream, one is not supposed to let it lose its color. As has been mentioned in his plays, these pipe dreams have offered them something for them to live on. Besides, similar to his characters, O'Neill dreams of human warmth and consolation of friendship. In his works one message is expressed all the time:friendship will provide people with understanding, trust and communication. This is a must to existence, and especially to those living at the bottom of the society. Furthermore, O'Neill wants to help people find the meaning of life by his exploration of a new faith. He even expects an answer from the Orient, which values spirit higher above anything else. O'Neill admits that he has benefited much from Taoism, and he draws the conclusion that mankind should eliminate greed and not be poisoned by materialism, which will help them to achieve peace of mind. The final answer lies in one based on the Western religion but with some Oriental elements. To him, it is not more material, but fewer desires that people need. At the same time, it is made clear in his late works that people should set a limit to their desires and recover their original simplicity, as has been put forward by the great thinker Thoreau. This, O'Neill believes, is a salvation of people's souls. O'Neill expresses his attitude to the tendency of the capitalist society in attaching high priority to material and breaking away from natural laws.
In the end, with an informed reading and a comparative assessment of the desire tragedies by O'Neill, the dissertation comes to the conclusion. In his literary career, O'Neill admires the romantic dreams but has a great aversion to the American Dream which calls for people to sacrifice all else to realize the materialistic goals. When he comes to realize the harshness of reality, he overcomes his desperation and expects an answer from the human nature. He sings high praise for self-sacrifice and the power of love. He finds the possibility of transcending reality in death, friendship and pipe dreams, etc. To him, people should exercise restraint to their desires so as to keep souls unstained, for there is only one step between moderate aspiration and compulsive greediness. Desires are a must to one's life, but one should not be burdened with it and be enslaved by it. O'Neill also holds that man should keep his dream, no matter what form it may take, for even if it can be crushed, there is still meaning for life. By his true-to-life reflection of the sickness of America, he hopes to awaken people's awareness of how to strike a balance between spirit and material. O'Neill's desire tragedies are not solely fables on people's accumulating wealth at the cost of their souls. Meanwhile, he warns his fellowmen of the danger of living on the surface of life for mankind should have nobler aspirations.
O'Neill's lifelong efforts are the unyielding pursuit in the spiritual wilderness. His desire tragedies are not only typical American tragedies, but also universal to the whole world which is characteristic of swift development of material civilization. He persists in enriching people's inner world, hoping to encourage his countrymen to keep their dignity unspoiled and human nature unstained. They should have their greediness transcended and spirit sublimated. To O'Neill, even if failures are unavoidable, people should accept it as the condition of meaningful existence. In short, one should concern himself about his inner world and stick to his dream, for the truth of life lies in his untiring spiritual pursuit.
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