GPS观测结果的精化分析与中国大陆现今地壳形变场研究
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摘要
20世纪60年代以来板块构造理论解释海洋地壳构造与形变取得极大成功并被全球地球科学家所接受。但是人们也意识到,大陆内部构造形变并不能完全被板块构造理论所解释,因此板内构造与形变的研究一直是地球科学探索的热点之一。在过去20多年的大陆动力学研究过程中,人们提出了多种理论和假设。针对中国大陆内部的形变模式,这些理论和假设基本上可以归结为“大陆逃逸”和“地壳增厚”两大理论。两大理论的长期并存与争议,重要的原因之一是缺乏现今地壳运动资料的实际验证。随着GPS观测手段的出现,这种状况得到了很大的改观。本文在精化分析GPS观测资料的基础上,对中国大陆现今地壳形变场进行研究。
以中国地壳运动观测网络的GPS观测资料为主,辅以区域性的加密观测资料及中国周边地区的观测资料,借助GAMIT软件对数据进行处理。数据处理采用卫星轨道的松弛模式,在处理中国大陆区域数据的同时,还处理了同期全球IGS站的数据,确保模型和方法的统一,并避免不同时期IGS精密星历的偏差。在模型方面,采用了目前国际上最新的研究成果,例如天线的绝对相位中心模型、全球气象模型和映射函数、长基线的载波相位模糊度解算技术,等等,确保后续研究的可靠性和严密性。
GPS观测得到的地壳形变场通常包含有构造形变与非构造形变两类信息,认知非构造形变对GPS定位结果的影响,探寻消除和修正非构造形变的方法是非常必要的。本文运用国际卫星对地观测资料及各类地球物理模型,定量计算海潮、大气、积雪和土壤水、海洋非潮汐四项负荷效应造成的地壳非构造形变,并以此研究和修正这些非构造形变对中国地壳运动观测网络GPS基准站位置时间序列的影响。研究发现此四项负荷效应,特别是大气、积雪和土壤水,对于测站垂向位置的影响显著；通过地球物理模型改正可以使测站垂向位置的RMS降低～1 mm,占其总量的～11%；对于垂向时间序列的周年项部分,这一改正可降低其振幅的～37%。研究还表明,经过地球物理模型改正和周年、半周年谐波拟合改正的时间序列,比仅经过周年、半周年谐波拟合改正的时间序列更为平滑,表明地球物理模型改正对于消除非构造形变的作用不是周年、半周年谐波拟合改正所能替代的。
在精化分析GPS数据、分析各类因素所导致的地壳非构造形变对GPS定位结果影响的基础上,采用多年来在工作实践中逐步探索和发展起来的一套高精度GPS数据处理模式,借助QOCA软件,在地震地表破裂模型约束下参数估计地震的同震和震后形变,并同时导出中国大陆地壳运动速度场。GPS点的垂直运动速率结果显示,除东北和华南外,中国大陆大部分区域都存在上升趋势,特别是华北地区和青藏高原的上升速率最大达到了5 mm/a。
以刚性块体运动模型为基础,发展可形变块体模型。在综合地质、地震和大地测量多方面研究成果的基础上初步将中国大陆及周边地区划分为27个块体,然后通过F检验判定块体的性质(刚性或可均匀形变)和刚性块体的相对独立性,最终得到22个独立的活动块体。研究结果表明中国大陆形变场可分为三类地区：第一类地区是中国大陆东部(南北带以东)及准噶尔和塔里木盆地块体。这些区域内部结构完整,不发生内部形变,相邻GPS点不发生相对位移,地震活动性较弱,块体的空间尺度很大,均在上千公里以上。第二类地区处于青藏高原的边缘带,如阿拉善、西宁及西南龙门山块体。这类地区的地壳形变表现出块体运动特征,形变主要集中在块体边界,但内部仍然具有一定的构造活动性,块体的空问尺度也有限。第三类地区包括青藏高原内部、天山造山带和川滇地区。各类形变在全区域内广泛分布,包括挤压、剪切和拉张,形变很难用具有相当规模的块体运动来描述。
通过分析各类地区岩石圈结构以及形变模式推断：中国大陆地壳形变模式主要由地壳结构所控制。中国大陆东部及准噶尔和塔里木盆地地区地壳介质具有相当强度,形变表现为刚性块体的相对运动。印度板块的北向挤压造成青藏高原和天山的隆起并产生巨厚地壳,壳内温度上升,下地壳低速高导层发育,介质呈较强粘塑性,地壳脆性层在下地壳塑性流变场作用下产生各种类型的、多层次的形变,形变广泛分布而不仅局限于少量块体边界。青藏高原边缘的地壳结构为第一、三类地区之间的过渡区,其形变特征也介于第一、三类地区之间,为强度较低的较小活动块体在边界作用力下的运动与形变。
综合GPS观测得到的水平与垂直形变场结果及上述岩石圈结构模型,对青藏高原内部及周边地区的形变模式及其机制给出了新的解释。(1)印度板块的北北东向推挤造成跨喜马拉雅山脉的水平汇聚和垂向隆升,水平汇聚速率为12-15mm/a,隆升速率超过5 mm/a。(2)喜马拉雅以北、班公-怒江缝合线以南地区形变表现为近南北向压缩和近东西向拉张,并且压缩量与拉张量大致均衡,为15-20×10-9 strain/a;下地壳内印度板块斜向推进造成～2 mm/a的地表隆升。(3)班公-怒江以北的羌塘地区表现为强烈的南北向挤压(应变率～25×10-9strain/a)和东西向拉张(应变率～20×10-9strain/a),韧性的下地壳与上地幔受到下插印度板块前缘的北向推挤而增厚,推动地表～5 mm/a的快速隆升。(4)高原北部的柴达木块体南北向主压应变率达～25×10-9strain/a,大于东西向的主张应变率～4×10-9strain/a;该地区岩石圈内解耦并不充分,南北向汇聚造成全岩石圈整体增厚,从而推动地表隆升1-3 mm/a。
中国大陆处于欧亚、印度、太平洋和菲律宾板块的交汇地区,印度板块向欧亚板块的碰撞与推挤是中国大陆西部地壳运动与形变的主要驱动力已被地学界所公认。但中国大陆东部地区地壳运动场的驱动力如何却尚存争议。本文的块体模型结果显示中国大陆东部块体整体呈现向东偏南运动,运动量从北往南逐渐增大,同时华北和东北块体还存在0.7-1.7×10-9radian/a的逆时针旋转,揭示从北往南欧亚板块东缘动力学边界条件的变化。在此基础上进一步结合前人地质、地震与力学模型方面的研究成果,得出中国大陆东部地区形变场动力源主要在于太平洋和菲律宾板块东向退行造成的东西向拉张、且由北向南逐步增大的结论。
2008年5月12日发生在四川汶川的大地震造成映秀-北川断裂和灌县-江油断裂同时破裂,分别形成了240多公里和70多公里的地表破裂带。分析地震前、后GPS观测数据获得地震同震形变场,并以该同震形变场为约束,反演地震破裂的空间分布。反演结果显示映秀-北川主破裂带倾向北西,沿破裂带的走向从南到北倾角逐渐变大,破裂断层的平均宽度在12-15 km左右。破裂断层的错动在南段以逆冲为主,在北段走滑分量逐步加大,右旋走滑成为断层破裂的主要特征。破裂断层的最大错动量分别达到了7.9 m和7.5 m,恰好对应这次地震中地表破坏最为严重的映秀和北川地区。本次地震释放的地震矩为0.678×1021N.m,对应矩震级Mw=7.9。
Since the 1960s, the plate tectonics theory has been very successful in interpreting oceanic crustal structure and deformation, and accepted by the geoscientists around the world. However, in the meantime people realized that such a theory did not explain structure and deformation of the continents well, so studies about inner continental structure and deformation has been one of foci in geosciences. Over the past 20 years, many theories and hypotheses have been proposed to describe the deformation and dynamics of the continents. These theories and hypotheses, when applied to the study of deformation pattern of the Chinese continent, could be categorized into two groups of theories, namely "continental extrusion" and "crustal thickening".The two groups of theories have coexisted, been debated, and reached to no consensus over the years, one of the reasons was the lack of observational verification of present-day crustal deformation. With the applications of GPS technique to crustal deformation monitoring in recent years, the situation has been improved. This thesis is focused on the study of present-day crustal deformation of the Chinese continent, based on high precision analysis of GPS data.
GPS data used in the study ware mainly collected by the Crustal Movement Observation Network of China, and some other densification data observed in some regions and surrounding areas of the Chinese continent. When using the GAMIT software to process GPS data, a relaxation mode of the satellite orbits is used to process the local data as well as the global data, and in doing so not only ensuring the consistency of the models and methods adopted, but also avoiding systematic biases from using IGS precise orbits of different periods. Meanwhile, the newest research findings in geophysical models and algorithms, such as the absolute phase center models of the satellite and receiver antennae, the global meteorologic models and troposphere mapping functions, and a new algorithm to efficiently solve for ambiguities for long baselines, are adopted.
GPS observed crustal deformation usually includes both tectonic and non-tectonic deformation signals, and it is vitally important to detect and remove the non-tectonic deformation signals in the data in order to effectively use GPS observations for tectonic deformation studies. Using the Earth satellite data and geophysical models, non-tectonic crustal deformation caused by the ocean tide loading, atmospheric mass loading, snow and soil moisture mass loading, and non-tidal ocean mass loading are calculated. Based on the quantitative analyses, the effects due to non-tectonic crustal deformation for the position time series of GPS fiducial stations from the Crustal Movement Observation Network of China are studied and corrected. The study shows that these effects on the vertical components of station positions are remarkable, especially ones from the atmospheric mass loading and snow and soil moisture mass loading. Using these geophysical models to correct for the non-tectonic deformation, the RMS of the station vertical positions can be reduced by about 1 mm, which is about 11% of the total RMS, and the amplitudes of annual vertical position variations are also reduced by about 37%. Moreover, the position time series corrected using these models followed by an empirical fitting of annual and semi-annual variations are smoother than that corrected using the empirical fitting of annual and semi-annual variations only, indicating that the geophysical model corrections can not be substituted by pure empirical fitting in removing the non-tectonic deformation effects.
Based on high precision analysis of GPS data and evaluation of the effect of non-tectonic deformation, the velocity field of crustal motion of the Chinese continent is obtained using the QOCA software, with the coseismic and postseismic displacements of large earthquakes being modeled under constraints. The result indicates that, except for Northeast China and South China, most part of the Chinese continent has been uplifting, particularly in North China and the Tibet plateau, where the uplifting rates reach 5 mm/a.
Starting from the rigid block motion model, a deformable block motion model is developed. Based on prior information from geologic, seismologic, and geodetic studies, the Chinese continent and its surrounding areas are partitioned into 27 tectonic blocks initially, and the F-test is used to justify whether a block is rigid or deforming, and whether two neighboring blocks are independent or should be merged together. Finally, the process has yielded 22 independent tectonic blocks. The result reveals 3 categories of deformation patterns in the Chinese continent. The first category, associated with the region east of the north-south seismic belt of China and within the Tarim and Junggar blocks, is characterized with stable interior having no relative motion between internal GPS sites and weak seismic activities, and the sizes of these blocks are usually greater than a thousand kilometers. The second category, associated with the borderland of the Tibetan plateau, such as the Alxa, Xining, and southwest Longmenshan blocks, is characterized with block-like motion with deformation mainly accommodated along the block boundaries, but with limited block sizes and moderate internal tectonic activities. The third category, associated with the interior of the Tibetan plateau, the Tian Shan orogenic belt, and the Sichuan-Yunnan region, is characterized with broadly distributed deformation within the regions, including compression, extension, and shear motion, which cannot be reasonably described by relative motion of rigid blocks of large sizes.
Based on the analysis of regional lithospheric structures and deformation patterns above, it is inferred that the deformation modes of the Chinese continent are mainly controlled by the crustal structure. The crust of eastern China, Tarim, and Jungger regions is mechanically strong, and its deformation takes the form of relative motion between rigid blocks. On the other hand, the northward indentation of the India plate into the Asia continent has created the uplift of the Tibetan plateau and the Tian Shan Mountains, thickened their crust, and raised the temperature in the crust. The lower crust is likely developed with low seismic velocity and high electric conductivity layers and deforms visco-plastically. The brittle part of the crust, driven by the visco-plastic flow of the lower crust, deforms extensively at all scales. The regions of the second category located at the borderland of the Tibetan plateau are the transition zone between the regions of the first and the third categories in term of the crustal structure. Driven by the lateral boundary forces, their deformation mode is also between the two, in the form of block motion and deformation with smaller block size and less internal strength.
Synthesizing the horizontal and vertical deformation fields derived from GPS measurements and the lithospheric structures elaborated above, a new model is proposed for deformation mode and mechanism of the Tibetan plateau and its surrounding regions.(1) the NNE indentation of the India plate into the Asia continent has caused the horizontal convergence and vertical uplift of the Himalayas, and the convergence and uplift rates are 12-15mm/a and 5mm/a, respectively. (2) In the region north of the Himalayas and south of the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone, the deformation at the surface shows about the equal amount of N-S compression and E-W extension at the rate of 15-20×10-9 strain/a, and the northward under-thrusting of the India plate in the lower crust has resulted in the surface uplift at the rate of about 2 mm/a. (3)the Qiangtang region located north of the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone undergoes strong N-S compression (at a rate of～25×10-9 strain/a) and E-W extension (at a rate of～20×10-9 strain/a), the visco-plastic lower crust and upper mantle is thickened resulting from the northward indentation of the under-thrusting India plate front, driving rapid uplift at the surface at a rate of about 5 mm/a. (4) The Qaidam region located in the northeast of the Tibetan plateau has been compressed in the N-S direction at a rate of～25×10-9 strain/a, and stretched in the E-W direction at a rate of～4×10-9 strain/a, respectively. Large difference between the two components is interpreted as the result of mechanic coupling of the lithosphere, causing N-S convergence and thickening of the whole lithosphere, and the surface uplift at a rate of 1-3 mm/a.
The Chinese continent is located in the junction region of the Eurasia, India, Pacific, and Philippine Sea plates. It is generally agreed that deformation of the western part of the Chinese continent is predominantly driven by intensive collision between the India plate and the Eurasia plate and the northward push of the former into latter. On the other hand, it is still controversial what the dominant driving force is for deformation of the eastern part of the Chinese continent. In this study, the result of block motion model reveals that the blocks located in the eastern part of the Chinese continent have a consistent ESEward motion and the motion rates increase gradually from north to south. Meanwhile, the blocks of North China and Northeast China show counter-clockwise rotation rates of about 0.7-1.7×10-9 radian/a, suggesting progresssive change of dynamic boundary conditions along the eastern margin of the Eurasia plate from north to south. In light of the above result, combining with previous geologic and seismologic findings and mechanic modeling result, it is concluded that deformation of the eastern part of the Chinese continent is mainly the result of tensional and ocean-ward stresses caused by the eastward retreat of western trenches the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates, which increases progressively from north to south.
The 12 May 2008 Wenchuan, Sichuan earthquake ruptured the Beichuan-Yingxi-u and Guanxian-Jiangyou faults, and produced surface rupture of～240 km and～70 km in length along the two faults, respectively. In this study, the coseismic displacement field is derived using GPS observations collected before and after the quake, and then is used to invert for the fault geometry and slip distribution of the rupture. The result shows that the Beichuan-Yingxiu fault dips to the northwest at a moderate angle of～41°at the southwest end, and the fault plane gets progressively steeper northeastward along strike, reaching a dip angle of～73°at Qingchuan. The averaged width of fault plane is 12-15 km. Slip caused by the earthquake is characterized mainly by thrust motion with a modest right-lateral strike slip component at the south segment of the fault. As the rupture travelled farther northeastward, the thrust component tapers down gradually, and the dextral component becomes dominant at the northeast end of the rupture. The slip distribution on the Beichuan-Yingxiu fault shows two high-slip concentrations of up to 7.9 m and 7.5 m, respectively. The two high-slip concentrations are just in the neighborhood of Yingxiu Beichuan cities,which suffered the greatest fatalities and structure damages during the quake.The seismic moment release is estimated 6.78×1020Nm, corresponding to an Mw 7.9 earthquake.
以中国地壳运动观测网络的GPS观测资料为主,辅以区域性的加密观测资料及中国周边地区的观测资料,借助GAMIT软件对数据进行处理。数据处理采用卫星轨道的松弛模式,在处理中国大陆区域数据的同时,还处理了同期全球IGS站的数据,确保模型和方法的统一,并避免不同时期IGS精密星历的偏差。在模型方面,采用了目前国际上最新的研究成果,例如天线的绝对相位中心模型、全球气象模型和映射函数、长基线的载波相位模糊度解算技术,等等,确保后续研究的可靠性和严密性。
GPS观测得到的地壳形变场通常包含有构造形变与非构造形变两类信息,认知非构造形变对GPS定位结果的影响,探寻消除和修正非构造形变的方法是非常必要的。本文运用国际卫星对地观测资料及各类地球物理模型,定量计算海潮、大气、积雪和土壤水、海洋非潮汐四项负荷效应造成的地壳非构造形变,并以此研究和修正这些非构造形变对中国地壳运动观测网络GPS基准站位置时间序列的影响。研究发现此四项负荷效应,特别是大气、积雪和土壤水,对于测站垂向位置的影响显著；通过地球物理模型改正可以使测站垂向位置的RMS降低～1 mm,占其总量的～11%；对于垂向时间序列的周年项部分,这一改正可降低其振幅的～37%。研究还表明,经过地球物理模型改正和周年、半周年谐波拟合改正的时间序列,比仅经过周年、半周年谐波拟合改正的时间序列更为平滑,表明地球物理模型改正对于消除非构造形变的作用不是周年、半周年谐波拟合改正所能替代的。
在精化分析GPS数据、分析各类因素所导致的地壳非构造形变对GPS定位结果影响的基础上,采用多年来在工作实践中逐步探索和发展起来的一套高精度GPS数据处理模式,借助QOCA软件,在地震地表破裂模型约束下参数估计地震的同震和震后形变,并同时导出中国大陆地壳运动速度场。GPS点的垂直运动速率结果显示,除东北和华南外,中国大陆大部分区域都存在上升趋势,特别是华北地区和青藏高原的上升速率最大达到了5 mm/a。
以刚性块体运动模型为基础,发展可形变块体模型。在综合地质、地震和大地测量多方面研究成果的基础上初步将中国大陆及周边地区划分为27个块体,然后通过F检验判定块体的性质(刚性或可均匀形变)和刚性块体的相对独立性,最终得到22个独立的活动块体。研究结果表明中国大陆形变场可分为三类地区：第一类地区是中国大陆东部(南北带以东)及准噶尔和塔里木盆地块体。这些区域内部结构完整,不发生内部形变,相邻GPS点不发生相对位移,地震活动性较弱,块体的空间尺度很大,均在上千公里以上。第二类地区处于青藏高原的边缘带,如阿拉善、西宁及西南龙门山块体。这类地区的地壳形变表现出块体运动特征,形变主要集中在块体边界,但内部仍然具有一定的构造活动性,块体的空问尺度也有限。第三类地区包括青藏高原内部、天山造山带和川滇地区。各类形变在全区域内广泛分布,包括挤压、剪切和拉张,形变很难用具有相当规模的块体运动来描述。
通过分析各类地区岩石圈结构以及形变模式推断：中国大陆地壳形变模式主要由地壳结构所控制。中国大陆东部及准噶尔和塔里木盆地地区地壳介质具有相当强度,形变表现为刚性块体的相对运动。印度板块的北向挤压造成青藏高原和天山的隆起并产生巨厚地壳,壳内温度上升,下地壳低速高导层发育,介质呈较强粘塑性,地壳脆性层在下地壳塑性流变场作用下产生各种类型的、多层次的形变,形变广泛分布而不仅局限于少量块体边界。青藏高原边缘的地壳结构为第一、三类地区之间的过渡区,其形变特征也介于第一、三类地区之间,为强度较低的较小活动块体在边界作用力下的运动与形变。
综合GPS观测得到的水平与垂直形变场结果及上述岩石圈结构模型,对青藏高原内部及周边地区的形变模式及其机制给出了新的解释。(1)印度板块的北北东向推挤造成跨喜马拉雅山脉的水平汇聚和垂向隆升,水平汇聚速率为12-15mm/a,隆升速率超过5 mm/a。(2)喜马拉雅以北、班公-怒江缝合线以南地区形变表现为近南北向压缩和近东西向拉张,并且压缩量与拉张量大致均衡,为15-20×10-9 strain/a;下地壳内印度板块斜向推进造成～2 mm/a的地表隆升。(3)班公-怒江以北的羌塘地区表现为强烈的南北向挤压(应变率～25×10-9strain/a)和东西向拉张(应变率～20×10-9strain/a),韧性的下地壳与上地幔受到下插印度板块前缘的北向推挤而增厚,推动地表～5 mm/a的快速隆升。(4)高原北部的柴达木块体南北向主压应变率达～25×10-9strain/a,大于东西向的主张应变率～4×10-9strain/a;该地区岩石圈内解耦并不充分,南北向汇聚造成全岩石圈整体增厚,从而推动地表隆升1-3 mm/a。
中国大陆处于欧亚、印度、太平洋和菲律宾板块的交汇地区,印度板块向欧亚板块的碰撞与推挤是中国大陆西部地壳运动与形变的主要驱动力已被地学界所公认。但中国大陆东部地区地壳运动场的驱动力如何却尚存争议。本文的块体模型结果显示中国大陆东部块体整体呈现向东偏南运动,运动量从北往南逐渐增大,同时华北和东北块体还存在0.7-1.7×10-9radian/a的逆时针旋转,揭示从北往南欧亚板块东缘动力学边界条件的变化。在此基础上进一步结合前人地质、地震与力学模型方面的研究成果,得出中国大陆东部地区形变场动力源主要在于太平洋和菲律宾板块东向退行造成的东西向拉张、且由北向南逐步增大的结论。
2008年5月12日发生在四川汶川的大地震造成映秀-北川断裂和灌县-江油断裂同时破裂,分别形成了240多公里和70多公里的地表破裂带。分析地震前、后GPS观测数据获得地震同震形变场,并以该同震形变场为约束,反演地震破裂的空间分布。反演结果显示映秀-北川主破裂带倾向北西,沿破裂带的走向从南到北倾角逐渐变大,破裂断层的平均宽度在12-15 km左右。破裂断层的错动在南段以逆冲为主,在北段走滑分量逐步加大,右旋走滑成为断层破裂的主要特征。破裂断层的最大错动量分别达到了7.9 m和7.5 m,恰好对应这次地震中地表破坏最为严重的映秀和北川地区。本次地震释放的地震矩为0.678×1021N.m,对应矩震级Mw=7.9。
Since the 1960s, the plate tectonics theory has been very successful in interpreting oceanic crustal structure and deformation, and accepted by the geoscientists around the world. However, in the meantime people realized that such a theory did not explain structure and deformation of the continents well, so studies about inner continental structure and deformation has been one of foci in geosciences. Over the past 20 years, many theories and hypotheses have been proposed to describe the deformation and dynamics of the continents. These theories and hypotheses, when applied to the study of deformation pattern of the Chinese continent, could be categorized into two groups of theories, namely "continental extrusion" and "crustal thickening".The two groups of theories have coexisted, been debated, and reached to no consensus over the years, one of the reasons was the lack of observational verification of present-day crustal deformation. With the applications of GPS technique to crustal deformation monitoring in recent years, the situation has been improved. This thesis is focused on the study of present-day crustal deformation of the Chinese continent, based on high precision analysis of GPS data.
GPS data used in the study ware mainly collected by the Crustal Movement Observation Network of China, and some other densification data observed in some regions and surrounding areas of the Chinese continent. When using the GAMIT software to process GPS data, a relaxation mode of the satellite orbits is used to process the local data as well as the global data, and in doing so not only ensuring the consistency of the models and methods adopted, but also avoiding systematic biases from using IGS precise orbits of different periods. Meanwhile, the newest research findings in geophysical models and algorithms, such as the absolute phase center models of the satellite and receiver antennae, the global meteorologic models and troposphere mapping functions, and a new algorithm to efficiently solve for ambiguities for long baselines, are adopted.
GPS observed crustal deformation usually includes both tectonic and non-tectonic deformation signals, and it is vitally important to detect and remove the non-tectonic deformation signals in the data in order to effectively use GPS observations for tectonic deformation studies. Using the Earth satellite data and geophysical models, non-tectonic crustal deformation caused by the ocean tide loading, atmospheric mass loading, snow and soil moisture mass loading, and non-tidal ocean mass loading are calculated. Based on the quantitative analyses, the effects due to non-tectonic crustal deformation for the position time series of GPS fiducial stations from the Crustal Movement Observation Network of China are studied and corrected. The study shows that these effects on the vertical components of station positions are remarkable, especially ones from the atmospheric mass loading and snow and soil moisture mass loading. Using these geophysical models to correct for the non-tectonic deformation, the RMS of the station vertical positions can be reduced by about 1 mm, which is about 11% of the total RMS, and the amplitudes of annual vertical position variations are also reduced by about 37%. Moreover, the position time series corrected using these models followed by an empirical fitting of annual and semi-annual variations are smoother than that corrected using the empirical fitting of annual and semi-annual variations only, indicating that the geophysical model corrections can not be substituted by pure empirical fitting in removing the non-tectonic deformation effects.
Based on high precision analysis of GPS data and evaluation of the effect of non-tectonic deformation, the velocity field of crustal motion of the Chinese continent is obtained using the QOCA software, with the coseismic and postseismic displacements of large earthquakes being modeled under constraints. The result indicates that, except for Northeast China and South China, most part of the Chinese continent has been uplifting, particularly in North China and the Tibet plateau, where the uplifting rates reach 5 mm/a.
Starting from the rigid block motion model, a deformable block motion model is developed. Based on prior information from geologic, seismologic, and geodetic studies, the Chinese continent and its surrounding areas are partitioned into 27 tectonic blocks initially, and the F-test is used to justify whether a block is rigid or deforming, and whether two neighboring blocks are independent or should be merged together. Finally, the process has yielded 22 independent tectonic blocks. The result reveals 3 categories of deformation patterns in the Chinese continent. The first category, associated with the region east of the north-south seismic belt of China and within the Tarim and Junggar blocks, is characterized with stable interior having no relative motion between internal GPS sites and weak seismic activities, and the sizes of these blocks are usually greater than a thousand kilometers. The second category, associated with the borderland of the Tibetan plateau, such as the Alxa, Xining, and southwest Longmenshan blocks, is characterized with block-like motion with deformation mainly accommodated along the block boundaries, but with limited block sizes and moderate internal tectonic activities. The third category, associated with the interior of the Tibetan plateau, the Tian Shan orogenic belt, and the Sichuan-Yunnan region, is characterized with broadly distributed deformation within the regions, including compression, extension, and shear motion, which cannot be reasonably described by relative motion of rigid blocks of large sizes.
Based on the analysis of regional lithospheric structures and deformation patterns above, it is inferred that the deformation modes of the Chinese continent are mainly controlled by the crustal structure. The crust of eastern China, Tarim, and Jungger regions is mechanically strong, and its deformation takes the form of relative motion between rigid blocks. On the other hand, the northward indentation of the India plate into the Asia continent has created the uplift of the Tibetan plateau and the Tian Shan Mountains, thickened their crust, and raised the temperature in the crust. The lower crust is likely developed with low seismic velocity and high electric conductivity layers and deforms visco-plastically. The brittle part of the crust, driven by the visco-plastic flow of the lower crust, deforms extensively at all scales. The regions of the second category located at the borderland of the Tibetan plateau are the transition zone between the regions of the first and the third categories in term of the crustal structure. Driven by the lateral boundary forces, their deformation mode is also between the two, in the form of block motion and deformation with smaller block size and less internal strength.
Synthesizing the horizontal and vertical deformation fields derived from GPS measurements and the lithospheric structures elaborated above, a new model is proposed for deformation mode and mechanism of the Tibetan plateau and its surrounding regions.(1) the NNE indentation of the India plate into the Asia continent has caused the horizontal convergence and vertical uplift of the Himalayas, and the convergence and uplift rates are 12-15mm/a and 5mm/a, respectively. (2) In the region north of the Himalayas and south of the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone, the deformation at the surface shows about the equal amount of N-S compression and E-W extension at the rate of 15-20×10-9 strain/a, and the northward under-thrusting of the India plate in the lower crust has resulted in the surface uplift at the rate of about 2 mm/a. (3)the Qiangtang region located north of the Bangong-Nujiang suture zone undergoes strong N-S compression (at a rate of～25×10-9 strain/a) and E-W extension (at a rate of～20×10-9 strain/a), the visco-plastic lower crust and upper mantle is thickened resulting from the northward indentation of the under-thrusting India plate front, driving rapid uplift at the surface at a rate of about 5 mm/a. (4) The Qaidam region located in the northeast of the Tibetan plateau has been compressed in the N-S direction at a rate of～25×10-9 strain/a, and stretched in the E-W direction at a rate of～4×10-9 strain/a, respectively. Large difference between the two components is interpreted as the result of mechanic coupling of the lithosphere, causing N-S convergence and thickening of the whole lithosphere, and the surface uplift at a rate of 1-3 mm/a.
The Chinese continent is located in the junction region of the Eurasia, India, Pacific, and Philippine Sea plates. It is generally agreed that deformation of the western part of the Chinese continent is predominantly driven by intensive collision between the India plate and the Eurasia plate and the northward push of the former into latter. On the other hand, it is still controversial what the dominant driving force is for deformation of the eastern part of the Chinese continent. In this study, the result of block motion model reveals that the blocks located in the eastern part of the Chinese continent have a consistent ESEward motion and the motion rates increase gradually from north to south. Meanwhile, the blocks of North China and Northeast China show counter-clockwise rotation rates of about 0.7-1.7×10-9 radian/a, suggesting progresssive change of dynamic boundary conditions along the eastern margin of the Eurasia plate from north to south. In light of the above result, combining with previous geologic and seismologic findings and mechanic modeling result, it is concluded that deformation of the eastern part of the Chinese continent is mainly the result of tensional and ocean-ward stresses caused by the eastward retreat of western trenches the Pacific and Philippine Sea plates, which increases progressively from north to south.
The 12 May 2008 Wenchuan, Sichuan earthquake ruptured the Beichuan-Yingxi-u and Guanxian-Jiangyou faults, and produced surface rupture of～240 km and～70 km in length along the two faults, respectively. In this study, the coseismic displacement field is derived using GPS observations collected before and after the quake, and then is used to invert for the fault geometry and slip distribution of the rupture. The result shows that the Beichuan-Yingxiu fault dips to the northwest at a moderate angle of～41°at the southwest end, and the fault plane gets progressively steeper northeastward along strike, reaching a dip angle of～73°at Qingchuan. The averaged width of fault plane is 12-15 km. Slip caused by the earthquake is characterized mainly by thrust motion with a modest right-lateral strike slip component at the south segment of the fault. As the rupture travelled farther northeastward, the thrust component tapers down gradually, and the dextral component becomes dominant at the northeast end of the rupture. The slip distribution on the Beichuan-Yingxiu fault shows two high-slip concentrations of up to 7.9 m and 7.5 m, respectively. The two high-slip concentrations are just in the neighborhood of Yingxiu Beichuan cities,which suffered the greatest fatalities and structure damages during the quake.The seismic moment release is estimated 6.78×1020Nm, corresponding to an Mw 7.9 earthquake.
引文
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