山地城市面源污染时空分布特征研究
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摘要
随着城市化进程的快速推进，由于暴雨径流冲刷引起的城市面源污染已成为受纳水体水质安全的重要威胁。城市面源污染的产生随机性强，影响因素众多，不同地区的研究结果鲜有一致。山地城市地形起伏多变，其面源污染的发生规律更为复杂，认识山地城市不同用地类型暴雨径流污染的时空分布特性、初期冲刷效应、污染物赋存形态分布特性，建立山地城市暴雨径流污染模型，对于山地城市暴雨径流管理具有重要意义。论文以山城重庆为例，以山地城市典型下垫面为研究对象，观测了不同用地属性的场次降雨径流特性，耦合分析了场次降雨径流监测结果，得出主要结论如下：
①山地城市暴雨径流污染物浓度时间分布特征研究表明，场次降雨中单一用地下垫面和城市综合流域的暴雨径流污染物浓度变化规律不同，单一下垫面大部分污染物浓度单调递减，且浓度主要降低时间段发生在产流后10-20min，而综合性流域场次降雨径流中污染物最高浓度出现在暴雨径流中前期。大尺度流域污染物浓度峰值时间滞后于径流峰值时间，小尺度流域则相反（Cd除外）；大尺度流域的峰值流量和峰值雨强、降雨持续时间显著相关，而小尺度流域的峰值流量与降雨量、降雨持续时间显著相关。
②山地城市暴雨径流模拟研究表明，山地城市暴雨径流模型的参数取值与平原城市有较大区别。对于综合性流域，SWMM模型水力模块中透水凹蓄、不透水凹蓄、透水地面曼宁系数的取值山地城市均小于平原城市，而水质模块中污染物冲刷系数和冲刷指数的取值均大于平原城市。对于单一下垫面来说，山地城市暴雨径流污染物浓度时间分布符合指数冲刷模型，交通干道、屋面、居民区道路常规指标的相关系数分别达到0.75-0.88、0.81-0.91、0.73-0.94，且冲刷指数绝对值大于平原城市，表明山地城市暴雨径流具有较快的污染物浓度降低速率。
③山地城市不同下垫面暴雨径流污染物EMCs（Event Mean Concentrations）分析表明，城市交通干道TSS和COD的EMCs（597和408mg/L）显著高于生活区道路、商业区、混凝土屋面、瓦屋面和校园综合汇水区；生活区道路、商业区和城市交通干道TN的EMCs（7.1-8.6mg/L）相互接近，且高于混凝土屋面、瓦屋面和校园综合汇水区三种用地类型，TN以溶解性氮为主要赋存形态（占TN的73-82%），而溶解性氮中又以无机氮为主（占TN的63-82%）。对于TP、NH_3-N来说，校园汇水区、瓦屋面的EMCs较低，满足地表水环境质量标准（GB3838-2002）Ⅲ类标准，而城市交通干道和商业区TP、NH_3-N的EMCs则分别是该标准的2.35-5倍和3倍。对于重金属，Cu和Zn的EMCs则满足地表水环境质量标准（GB3838-2002）Ⅲ类标准，而Pb和Cd的EMCs则远大于地表水环境质量标准（GB3838-2002）的规定浓度。
④山地城市不同下垫面暴雨径流污染负荷产率研究表明，城市交通干道是城市面源污染负荷的主要贡献体，其TSS、COD、TP、TN、NH_3-N、NO_3-N、Fe、Cu、Zn、Pb和Cd的污染负荷产率分别达到589、404、1.0、8.5、4.4、2.1、11.1、0.124、0.6、0.63和0.05t/(km~2*y)，高于其他用地类型。与平原城市相比，在年降雨量相近的前提下，山地城市交通干道的污染负荷产率大于平原城市。
⑤应用M（V）法识别初期冲刷效应，结果表明，对于小坡度单一下垫面（≤2.5%），在降雨强度9.1±4.0mm/h的条件下，初期40%的降雨量约携带了50-80%的污染负荷；对于大坡度路面（30%），初期20%的降雨容纳了42-58%的污染负荷（降雨强度8.5mm/h）。从污染负荷控制的角度考虑，建议山地城市大坡度道路以初期20%-30%的暴雨径流作为控制量（2.6-3.8mm），小坡度单一下垫面以初期40%的降雨径流作为控制量（3.2mm）。应用最优分割模式识别初期冲刷效应，结果表明，最优分割模式克服了M（V）法判断标准不一致、不能直接获取需要控制的初期径流量、无法识别中后期冲刷现象的缺点，但应以首要控制污染物作为初期径流控制量的判断依据。与平原城市相比，山地城市单一下垫面初期冲刷效应的发生几率几乎达到100%，高于平原城市的发生概率，且城市下垫面坡度的增加，增强了初期冲刷效应的发生强度。
⑥绿色屋顶可显著消减同面积不透水屋面的径流峰值、延缓径流产生时间、减少径流产生总量。同时，绿色屋顶具有良好的中和能力、硝化能力，但对氮磷的控制能力较差，相对于降雨雨水来说，绿色屋顶往往有溶解性氮磷的释放，绿色屋顶对污染负荷的消减主要是源于暴雨径流量的消减。绿色屋顶暴雨径流水质的季节差异明显，夏季污染物浓度较低，而春秋季节污染物浓度较高；随运行时间的延长，绿色屋顶暴雨径流总氮和硝酸根浓度逐渐降低，而总磷和磷酸盐浓度则呈现出一定的波动性；气温越高、前期干旱时间越长，越有利于绿色屋顶径流中氨氮浓度的降低，绿色屋顶径流中的总磷和氨氮主要来自降雨中的总磷和氨氮。
With the fast development of urbanization, urban nonpoint source pollution causedby washing-off of rainfall-runoff has become a serious threat to water quality ofreceiving water bodies. There are rare studies coincident with each other for therandomness of urban nonpoint source pollution occurring and numerous influencingfactors. The generation of nonpoint source pollution is more complex in mountainouscities with varied terrain. It is significant to understand the spatial-temporal distributionof urban stormwater runoff pollution, first flush effect, compositions of pollutants andconstruction of models for rainfall-runoff simulation in mountainous cities. TakingChongqing as a case study, representative underlying surfaces are selected as studyobjects, rainfall-runoff from different landuse types are observed and monitoring resultsare also analyzed. The main results are as follows:
①Results of temporal distribution of pollutant concentrations in mountainous cityshowed that there was great difference for the variation process of pollutantsconcentrations during rainfall events. The pollutants concentrations decreasedmonotonically and the main reduction occurred in the initial period of rainfall events(e.g.,10-20min after the beginning of runoff) from small catchment with simple landusetypes. However, the highest pollutants concentrations didn’t appear until the middleperiod of rainfall events when the catchment with complex layout of landuse. The peakof pollutants concentrations preceded the peak of runoff flow rate in integrated basiswith a smaller scale (except Cd), while the contrary phenomenon was observed whenthe basin had a larger scale. The peak of runoff flow rate was significantly correlatedwith rainfall intensity and rainfall duration in larger scale basin, but the significantcorrelation was found between peak of runoff volume and total rainfall/rainfall durationwhen the area of urban basin was small.
②The simulation of rainfall-runoff in mountainous city showed that parametervalues were different from plain cities. In urban basin, hydrological parameter values(e.g., runoff initial loss volume in pervious and impervious surfaces and manningcoefficient in pervious surfaces) were smaller than plain city, while water qualityparameter values (e.g., washing-off index and coefficient) were higher in SWMMmodel. For underlying surfaces with simple landuse types, the temporal distribution ofpollutant concentrations belonged to exponential washoff model and the value of R2were0.75-0.88,0.81-0.91and0.73-0.94for urban traffic road, roofs and residential road, respectively. The absolute values of washing-off index were higher inmountainous city, which implied a faster reduction rate of pollutant concentrations inrainfall-runoff.
③The analysis of EMCs showed that EMCs of TSS and COD (597and408mg/L,respectively) from urban traffic roads (UTRs) were higher than those from residentialroads (RRs), commercial areas (CAs), concrete roofs (CRs), tile roofs (TRs), andcampus catchment areas (CCAs). The EMCs of TN from RRS, CAs and UTRs weresimilar to each other (7.1-8.6mg/L), which were higher than that of the other threelanduse types. Nitrogen in stormwater was predominantly dissolved (73-82%), withDIN (Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen) as the main form (63-82%of TN). The EMCs ofTP and NH_3-N from UTRs and CAs were respectively2.35-5times and3times ofclass-III standard values specified in Environmental Quality Standards for SurfaceWater (GB3838-2002), while that from CCA and TRs could meet class-III standardvalues. The EMCs of Pb and Cd were much higher than the class-III standard values,and that of Cu and Zn could meet class-III standard values.
④The analysis of pollutant load producing coefficients (PLPCs) revealed thaturban traffic road were the main pollution contributor. PLPCs of TSS, COD, TP, TN,NH_3-N, NO_3-N, Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd from urban traffic road were589,404,1.0,8.5,4.4,2.1,11.1,0.124,0.6,0.63and0.05t/(km~2*y) respectively, which were higher thanother landuse types. Compared with plain cities, PLPCs of urban traffic road was higherthan plain cities premised on similar annual rainfall volume.
⑤The study results of first flush effect based on M(V) method showed that50-80%of pollutant mass was transported in the first40%of runoff for catchment withsimple landuse type with small slope (e.g.,≤2.5%) when rainfall intensity is9.1±4.0mm/h and42%-58%of pollution load was carried by the initial20%of total runoffwhen the road slope was as high as30%with rainfall intensity is8.5mm/h. So, the first2.6-3.8mm rainwater should be controlled for road with bigger slopes and3.2mm forroad with smaller slopes from the point of view of pollution load controlling.Limitations existing in traditional method could be overcome by the optimalsegmentation mode, such as the difference among estimation standards, inability tocapture initial volume needing to be controlled directly, and failure in detecting the flusheffect if middle or end pollutant concentrations were high, and so on, but runoff volumeneed to be controlled should be decided based on the primary pollutant. Compared withplain cities, the probabilities of first flush effect occurrence for simple landuse types inmountainous cities could be as high as100%, which was higher than plain cities. Thebigger the slope was, the stronger the first flush effect was.
⑥The peak of runoff rate and total runoff volume could be reduced highly bygreen roof compared to impervious roofs with the same area. Meanwhile, green roofshad good ability in neutralizing acid deposition and NH3-N detention, but poorefficiency in controlling nitrogen and phosphors. Compared to rain water quality, greenroof runoff had higher concentrations of dissolved nitrogen and phosphors. It was thegreat reduction of runoff volume that improved pollution load reduction in green roofsystem. The water quality of stormwater runoff from green roofs varies significantlywith seasons, which was better in summer and worse in spring and autumn. Overall, theconcentrations of TN and NO_3-N in runoff from green roofs decreased gradually whenthey were operated for a long term, while that of TP and PO_4-P showed fluctuations.Analysis of Pearson correlations among meteorological factors indicated that the highertemperature and longer drying period, the more decrease of concentration of NH3-N.The TP and NH3-N of runoff in green roofs came from rain water primarily.
①山地城市暴雨径流污染物浓度时间分布特征研究表明，场次降雨中单一用地下垫面和城市综合流域的暴雨径流污染物浓度变化规律不同，单一下垫面大部分污染物浓度单调递减，且浓度主要降低时间段发生在产流后10-20min，而综合性流域场次降雨径流中污染物最高浓度出现在暴雨径流中前期。大尺度流域污染物浓度峰值时间滞后于径流峰值时间，小尺度流域则相反（Cd除外）；大尺度流域的峰值流量和峰值雨强、降雨持续时间显著相关，而小尺度流域的峰值流量与降雨量、降雨持续时间显著相关。
②山地城市暴雨径流模拟研究表明，山地城市暴雨径流模型的参数取值与平原城市有较大区别。对于综合性流域，SWMM模型水力模块中透水凹蓄、不透水凹蓄、透水地面曼宁系数的取值山地城市均小于平原城市，而水质模块中污染物冲刷系数和冲刷指数的取值均大于平原城市。对于单一下垫面来说，山地城市暴雨径流污染物浓度时间分布符合指数冲刷模型，交通干道、屋面、居民区道路常规指标的相关系数分别达到0.75-0.88、0.81-0.91、0.73-0.94，且冲刷指数绝对值大于平原城市，表明山地城市暴雨径流具有较快的污染物浓度降低速率。
③山地城市不同下垫面暴雨径流污染物EMCs（Event Mean Concentrations）分析表明，城市交通干道TSS和COD的EMCs（597和408mg/L）显著高于生活区道路、商业区、混凝土屋面、瓦屋面和校园综合汇水区；生活区道路、商业区和城市交通干道TN的EMCs（7.1-8.6mg/L）相互接近，且高于混凝土屋面、瓦屋面和校园综合汇水区三种用地类型，TN以溶解性氮为主要赋存形态（占TN的73-82%），而溶解性氮中又以无机氮为主（占TN的63-82%）。对于TP、NH_3-N来说，校园汇水区、瓦屋面的EMCs较低，满足地表水环境质量标准（GB3838-2002）Ⅲ类标准，而城市交通干道和商业区TP、NH_3-N的EMCs则分别是该标准的2.35-5倍和3倍。对于重金属，Cu和Zn的EMCs则满足地表水环境质量标准（GB3838-2002）Ⅲ类标准，而Pb和Cd的EMCs则远大于地表水环境质量标准（GB3838-2002）的规定浓度。
④山地城市不同下垫面暴雨径流污染负荷产率研究表明，城市交通干道是城市面源污染负荷的主要贡献体，其TSS、COD、TP、TN、NH_3-N、NO_3-N、Fe、Cu、Zn、Pb和Cd的污染负荷产率分别达到589、404、1.0、8.5、4.4、2.1、11.1、0.124、0.6、0.63和0.05t/(km~2*y)，高于其他用地类型。与平原城市相比，在年降雨量相近的前提下，山地城市交通干道的污染负荷产率大于平原城市。
⑤应用M（V）法识别初期冲刷效应，结果表明，对于小坡度单一下垫面（≤2.5%），在降雨强度9.1±4.0mm/h的条件下，初期40%的降雨量约携带了50-80%的污染负荷；对于大坡度路面（30%），初期20%的降雨容纳了42-58%的污染负荷（降雨强度8.5mm/h）。从污染负荷控制的角度考虑，建议山地城市大坡度道路以初期20%-30%的暴雨径流作为控制量（2.6-3.8mm），小坡度单一下垫面以初期40%的降雨径流作为控制量（3.2mm）。应用最优分割模式识别初期冲刷效应，结果表明，最优分割模式克服了M（V）法判断标准不一致、不能直接获取需要控制的初期径流量、无法识别中后期冲刷现象的缺点，但应以首要控制污染物作为初期径流控制量的判断依据。与平原城市相比，山地城市单一下垫面初期冲刷效应的发生几率几乎达到100%，高于平原城市的发生概率，且城市下垫面坡度的增加，增强了初期冲刷效应的发生强度。
⑥绿色屋顶可显著消减同面积不透水屋面的径流峰值、延缓径流产生时间、减少径流产生总量。同时，绿色屋顶具有良好的中和能力、硝化能力，但对氮磷的控制能力较差，相对于降雨雨水来说，绿色屋顶往往有溶解性氮磷的释放，绿色屋顶对污染负荷的消减主要是源于暴雨径流量的消减。绿色屋顶暴雨径流水质的季节差异明显，夏季污染物浓度较低，而春秋季节污染物浓度较高；随运行时间的延长，绿色屋顶暴雨径流总氮和硝酸根浓度逐渐降低，而总磷和磷酸盐浓度则呈现出一定的波动性；气温越高、前期干旱时间越长，越有利于绿色屋顶径流中氨氮浓度的降低，绿色屋顶径流中的总磷和氨氮主要来自降雨中的总磷和氨氮。
With the fast development of urbanization, urban nonpoint source pollution causedby washing-off of rainfall-runoff has become a serious threat to water quality ofreceiving water bodies. There are rare studies coincident with each other for therandomness of urban nonpoint source pollution occurring and numerous influencingfactors. The generation of nonpoint source pollution is more complex in mountainouscities with varied terrain. It is significant to understand the spatial-temporal distributionof urban stormwater runoff pollution, first flush effect, compositions of pollutants andconstruction of models for rainfall-runoff simulation in mountainous cities. TakingChongqing as a case study, representative underlying surfaces are selected as studyobjects, rainfall-runoff from different landuse types are observed and monitoring resultsare also analyzed. The main results are as follows:
①Results of temporal distribution of pollutant concentrations in mountainous cityshowed that there was great difference for the variation process of pollutantsconcentrations during rainfall events. The pollutants concentrations decreasedmonotonically and the main reduction occurred in the initial period of rainfall events(e.g.,10-20min after the beginning of runoff) from small catchment with simple landusetypes. However, the highest pollutants concentrations didn’t appear until the middleperiod of rainfall events when the catchment with complex layout of landuse. The peakof pollutants concentrations preceded the peak of runoff flow rate in integrated basiswith a smaller scale (except Cd), while the contrary phenomenon was observed whenthe basin had a larger scale. The peak of runoff flow rate was significantly correlatedwith rainfall intensity and rainfall duration in larger scale basin, but the significantcorrelation was found between peak of runoff volume and total rainfall/rainfall durationwhen the area of urban basin was small.
②The simulation of rainfall-runoff in mountainous city showed that parametervalues were different from plain cities. In urban basin, hydrological parameter values(e.g., runoff initial loss volume in pervious and impervious surfaces and manningcoefficient in pervious surfaces) were smaller than plain city, while water qualityparameter values (e.g., washing-off index and coefficient) were higher in SWMMmodel. For underlying surfaces with simple landuse types, the temporal distribution ofpollutant concentrations belonged to exponential washoff model and the value of R2were0.75-0.88,0.81-0.91and0.73-0.94for urban traffic road, roofs and residential road, respectively. The absolute values of washing-off index were higher inmountainous city, which implied a faster reduction rate of pollutant concentrations inrainfall-runoff.
③The analysis of EMCs showed that EMCs of TSS and COD (597and408mg/L,respectively) from urban traffic roads (UTRs) were higher than those from residentialroads (RRs), commercial areas (CAs), concrete roofs (CRs), tile roofs (TRs), andcampus catchment areas (CCAs). The EMCs of TN from RRS, CAs and UTRs weresimilar to each other (7.1-8.6mg/L), which were higher than that of the other threelanduse types. Nitrogen in stormwater was predominantly dissolved (73-82%), withDIN (Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen) as the main form (63-82%of TN). The EMCs ofTP and NH_3-N from UTRs and CAs were respectively2.35-5times and3times ofclass-III standard values specified in Environmental Quality Standards for SurfaceWater (GB3838-2002), while that from CCA and TRs could meet class-III standardvalues. The EMCs of Pb and Cd were much higher than the class-III standard values,and that of Cu and Zn could meet class-III standard values.
④The analysis of pollutant load producing coefficients (PLPCs) revealed thaturban traffic road were the main pollution contributor. PLPCs of TSS, COD, TP, TN,NH_3-N, NO_3-N, Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd from urban traffic road were589,404,1.0,8.5,4.4,2.1,11.1,0.124,0.6,0.63and0.05t/(km~2*y) respectively, which were higher thanother landuse types. Compared with plain cities, PLPCs of urban traffic road was higherthan plain cities premised on similar annual rainfall volume.
⑤The study results of first flush effect based on M(V) method showed that50-80%of pollutant mass was transported in the first40%of runoff for catchment withsimple landuse type with small slope (e.g.,≤2.5%) when rainfall intensity is9.1±4.0mm/h and42%-58%of pollution load was carried by the initial20%of total runoffwhen the road slope was as high as30%with rainfall intensity is8.5mm/h. So, the first2.6-3.8mm rainwater should be controlled for road with bigger slopes and3.2mm forroad with smaller slopes from the point of view of pollution load controlling.Limitations existing in traditional method could be overcome by the optimalsegmentation mode, such as the difference among estimation standards, inability tocapture initial volume needing to be controlled directly, and failure in detecting the flusheffect if middle or end pollutant concentrations were high, and so on, but runoff volumeneed to be controlled should be decided based on the primary pollutant. Compared withplain cities, the probabilities of first flush effect occurrence for simple landuse types inmountainous cities could be as high as100%, which was higher than plain cities. Thebigger the slope was, the stronger the first flush effect was.
⑥The peak of runoff rate and total runoff volume could be reduced highly bygreen roof compared to impervious roofs with the same area. Meanwhile, green roofshad good ability in neutralizing acid deposition and NH3-N detention, but poorefficiency in controlling nitrogen and phosphors. Compared to rain water quality, greenroof runoff had higher concentrations of dissolved nitrogen and phosphors. It was thegreat reduction of runoff volume that improved pollution load reduction in green roofsystem. The water quality of stormwater runoff from green roofs varies significantlywith seasons, which was better in summer and worse in spring and autumn. Overall, theconcentrations of TN and NO_3-N in runoff from green roofs decreased gradually whenthey were operated for a long term, while that of TP and PO_4-P showed fluctuations.Analysis of Pearson correlations among meteorological factors indicated that the highertemperature and longer drying period, the more decrease of concentration of NH3-N.The TP and NH3-N of runoff in green roofs came from rain water primarily.
引文
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