30Cr2Ni4MoV钢低压转子热处理工艺的研究
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摘要
30Cr2Ni4MoV钢大型低压转子是AP1000百万千瓦级核电机组的关键部件。本文围绕低压转子热处理工艺的制订，采用光学显微镜、扫描电镜、X射线衍射、热模拟试验、力学性能测试等方法，研究了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的TTT、CCT曲线和相变动力学，详细分析了该钢在不同等温温度及冷却速度下的组织演变规律，阐明了组织转变的复杂性；并通过热膨胀法、排水法、差示扫描量热法、激光脉冲法等手段，建立了包括30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的相变动力学、热物理性能和力学性能的数据库。运用数值模拟与物理模拟相结合的方法，预示了多次正火工艺各个阶段转子心部的晶粒变化过程，并探讨了在大型低压转子上采用该工艺的可行性；提出了基于部分珠光体转变的等温预处理细化晶粒新方法。采用温度-相变-应力/应变耦合的数学模型模拟并分析了低压转子热处理过程中的温度、相变和应力演变，为直径1768mm和2826mm两种典型低压转子制订了锻后热处理和性能热处理工艺，并结合生产试制结果提出了设备改造和工程实施建议。
为了指导低压转子加热工艺的制订，研究了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的奥氏体化相变动力学。测定了0.008~20°C/s范围内不同加热速率下的膨胀曲线，运用Kissinger方法进行了基于非等温相变Johnson-Mehl-Avrami模型的动力学分析，确定了奥氏体化相变激活能Q约为2.367×10~6J/mol，J-M-A指数n约为0.2448，指前因子ln k0约为270.5。当设定J-M-A方程中温度变量为不同数值时，可获得等温奥氏体化相变动力学曲线。该研究也表明，对于孕育期极短而难以准确测定的等温相变动力学曲线，从连续转变动力学数据中提取是一种行之有效的方法。
为了指导低压转子淬火工艺的制订，测试分析了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的TTT曲线和CCT曲线与组织转变。结果表明发生珠光体转变的临界冷速为3.3°C/h，生成马氏体及下贝氏体的临界冷速为1°C/s。通过对连续冷却与等温转变组织的对照分析，并结合TTT、CCT曲线的转变量测算，获得了该钢在不同冷速下连续冷却转变产物的组织形貌特征和演变规律：冷速5~10°C/s时，转变产物为马氏体，其中自回火马氏体量随着冷速降低而逐渐增多；冷速1~2°C/s时，转变产物为马氏体及一定数量下贝氏体，碳化物颗粒随着冷速降低而逐渐变大增多；冷速0.2~0.5°C/s时，转变产物以低温上贝氏体和马氏体为主；冷速0.01~0.1°C/s时，转变产物以中温块状铁素体、粒状贝氏体和粗大的上贝氏体为主。
结合组织形貌特征的观察以及冷速与相变量的计算，研究了低压转子不同位置上冷速、组织与硬度的关系。在淬火冷却过程中低压转子不同位置处的冷速差异显著，使它们的组织和性能也有较大区别：表面位置在中温转变区内的平均冷速可达10°C/s以上，生成的马氏体组织硬度可达500HV；心部位置冷速仅0.01°C/s左右，转变产物中的粒状贝氏体和中温块状铁素体会对性能产生不良影响，使硬度降低到370HV以下；在0.01~10°C/s范围内，转变产物的硬度随着冷却速度的降低呈逐渐减小趋势，两者关系曲线的拐点处的临界冷速为0.2°C/s。由此可见，不同类型的贝氏体在组织形貌和性能上存在显著差异，不能仅以不出现先共析铁素体或珠光体的临界冷速（3.3°C/h）作为制订低压转子淬火工艺的准则，在实际生产中淬火冷速应不低于开始出现粗大上贝氏体和中温块状铁素体的冷速（0.2°C/s）。
为了解决热处理过程计算机数值模拟中材料热物性参数和力学性能参数缺乏的问题，本文通过系统的测试，建立了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢不同组织（马氏体、贝氏体和奥氏体）的热物理性能（热膨胀系数、密度、比热容、相变潜热、导热系数）和力学性能（弹性模量、屈服强度、塑性模量）参数的数据库，得到了这些参数与温度的函数关系。并根据Greenwood-Johnson相变塑性模型，实验测试并建立了模型参数关于等效应力和温度的函数关系。研究结果表明，对马氏体相变而言，外加应力对Ms与参数的影响可以忽略不计；对贝氏体相变而言，孕育期t s随着温度的升高而显著增大，参数n随着温度和等效应力的增大而减小，参数b总体上不受等效应力和温度的影响；马氏体和贝氏体的相变塑性参数K分别为8.77110~（-5）MPa~（-1）和8.9488105MPa~(-1)。
30Cr2Ni4MoV钢大型低压转子锻后热处理的主要目的是调整锻后组织细化晶粒。在相变动力学与组织转变的研究基础上，探索了不同热处理工艺的晶粒细化效果。运用有限元数值模拟与热模拟炉物理模拟相结合的方法，对直径2900mm低压转子心部在多次正火不同阶段的晶粒演变过程进行研究，提出了可以满足细化晶粒要求的多次正火工艺。本文提出了基于部分珠光体转变的等温预处理晶粒细化创新工艺，实验验证了其对于30Cr2Ni4MoV低压转子的细化晶粒作用，与四次正火工艺具有相同的细化效果，且更加省时节能。本文为直径1800mm和2900mm低压转子制订了多次正火和等温预处理两种锻后热处理工艺。
通过温度-相变-应力/应变耦合的计算机模拟得到低压转子冷却过程的温度、组织、应力分布规律，结果表明淬火冷却数学模型中的相变应变及相变塑性应变因素对转子内应力场演变的影响很大。不同直径低压转子在不同喷水强度下冷却过程的模拟结果表明，在10~100(l/m~2s)的范围内改变喷水强度对低压转子心部贝氏体相变区（300~500C）的平均冷速及冷却时间的影响很小，喷水时间长短的选择主要由转子截面直径大小决定，为低压转子淬火设备的改进与设计提供了依据。据此，制订了直径1768mm和2826mm两种典型低压转子的性能热处理工艺，前者已经过试制生产检验，各项力学性能均符合要求。
Large-sized low pressure (LP) rotor of30Cr2Ni4MoV steel is one of the keycomponents in AP1000（1000MW-grade advanced passive pressurized water reactor）nuclear power unit. This study was accomplished around the establishment of heattreatment process for the LP rotors. TTT curves, CCT curves and phase transformationkinetics were investigated using dilatometer, and the detailed analysis of themicrostructure evolution under different holding temperatures and cooling rates werecarried out by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-raydiffraction (XRD), thermal simulation and mechanical property tests to demonstrate thecomplexity involved in the transformation in30Cr2Ni4MoV steel. The material database,including transformation kinetics, thermophysical properties and mechanical properties,was then set up by thermal expansion, drainage and laser pulse methods, and thedifferential scanning calorimetry as well. To investigate the effect and feasibility of grainrefinement in large-sized LP rotors, the grain evolution at the rotor center during variousstages of a multi-normalizing treatment was traced by combining numerical and physicalsimulations. As a novel grain refinement method, the isothermal pretreatment was thenproposed based on the partial decomposition of austenite into pearlite. A numerical modelcoupling temperature, transformation and stress/strain was established to predict theirevolution during quenching process of LP rotors. The heat treatment processes wereestablished for the typical LP rotors with diameter of1768mm and2826mm respectively,and the suggestions on the corresponding equipment improvement and engineeringimplement were proposed based on the results of trial production as well.
The austenization kinetics of30Cr2Ni4MoV steel was investigated to guide theformulation of the heating process. The dilatometric curves with the heating rates from0.008to20°C/s were measured, and the austenization kinetics was then analyzed usingKissinger method based on the non-isothermal Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (J-M-A) model. The parameters in the model were obtained as the austenization activation energy Q,pre-exponential factorln k0and J-M-A exponent n being about2.367×106J/mol,0.2448and270.5, respectively. The isothermal austenization kinetics curves could thus bedetermined by setting the temperature in the J-M-A equation as different values. Thisindicates that the isothermal transformation kinetics curves could be derived by extractinguseful information directly from continuous transformation kinetics, in the case ofextremely short incubation period causing it difficult to be accurately measured.
TTT and CCT curves were measured and analyzed in detail to guide the formulationof the quenching process for LP rotors. The critical cooling rate to form pearlite is about3.3°C/h and that for mixture of matensite and bainite is1°C/s. Based on the carefulcomparison of microstructures from isothermal transformation and continuous coolingtransformation, the morphological characters and microstructure evolution uponcontinuous cooling of different rates were obtained. When the cooling rate is between5-10°C/s, only martensite forms and the amount of self-tempered martensite graduallyincreases as cooling is slowed down. When the cooling rate is between1-2°C/s, thetransformation products are martensite and a certain amount of lower bainite, and thecarbide particles becomes more and larger as for slower cooling. When the cooling rate isbetween0.2-0.5°C/s, martensite and low temperature upper bainite are the maintransformation products. When the cooling rate is between0.01-0.1°C/s, thetransformation products are mainly massive ferrite, granular bainite and coarse upperbainite.
The relationship of cooling rate, microstructure and hardness on different positions ofLP rotor was investigated by microstructure observation and quenching simulation. It isobvious that the cooling rates at different positions of LP rotors are significantly different,leading to great differences in microstructure and mechanical properties. At the surfacepoints the average cooling rate in the medium temperature transformation region could behigher than10°C/s, and thus the hardness could reach up to500HV due to formedmartensite. The average cooling rate at the central points was nearly0.01°C/s, and granular bainite and massive ferrite having a negative impact on mechanical propertiesformed and resulted in the hardness below370HV. Therefore, when the cooling rate variesfrom10to0.01°C/s, the hardness of transformation products gradually decreases as thecooling rate decreases, and a turning point at cooling rate of0.2°C/s exists on the curvebetween cooling rate and hardness. It is demonstrated that various kinds of bainite havesignificant differences in morphology and mechanical properties, and the cooling rate atwhich no coarse upper bainite or massive ferrite (0.2°C/s) would form should be regardedas the criteria, rather than that of no proeutectoid ferrite or pearlite (3.3°C/h), for thedevelopment of quenching process for the LP rotors in the practical production.
The material database, including thermophysical and mechanical properties, wasestablished by systematical measurements, providing the input data for heat treatmentprocess simulation later. Thermal expansion coefficient, density, heat capacity, latent heat,thermal conductivity, elastic modulus, yield strength and plastic modulus were tested andformulated into functions of temperature. The relationship of temperature, equivalentstress and modeling parameters were set up experimentally. The parameters wereextracted and formulated into the functions of temperature and equivalent stress based onGreenwood-Johnson phase transformation plasticity model and thermal-mechanicalsimulator experiments. The results showed that the effect of applied stress onM sand thecoefficient could be neglected for martensitic transformation. However, for bainitictransformation, the incubation periodt sincreases with increasing temperature, while theparameter n decreases as temperature and equivalent stress increase, and the parameterb is almost a constant. The transformation plasticity parameter K for martensite andbainite were found as8.771MPa-1and8.9488MPa~(-1), respectively.
The main purpose of the heat treatment after forging was to eliminate the coarsemicrostructure and refine the grains. The effect of different heat treatment processes ongrain refinement was comparatively investigated. The grain size evolution at the centerpart of the2900mm LP rotor during multi-normalizing was studied by the combinationof FEM numerical and physical simulations. The multi-normalizing process to meet the requirements of grain refinement was therefore recommended. A novel grain refinementmethod through isothermal pretreatment based on partial decomposition of austenite intopearlite was proposed and verified experimentally. The results indicate that the proposedmethod has the same effect as the four times normalizing process but exhibits clearadvantage of timesaving and energy efficiency. Then, the heat treatment processes afterforging based on multi-normalizing and isothermal pretreatment were formulated for both1800mm and2900mm LP rotors.
A numerical model coupling temperature, transformation and stress/strain wasestablished to analyze the distribution and evolution of temperature, phase transformationand stress during quenching process of LP rotors. The simulated results showed thattransformation strain and transformation plasticity play important roles on the evolutionand distribution of the stress. The results also indicated that the change of water sprayingintensity in a range of10~100(l/m2s) could hardly affect the cooling time and the averagecooling rate at the center part of LP rotors in the bainitic phase transformation zone(300~500C), and the spraying time needed was mainly determined by the sectionaldiameter of the rotor, providing a basis for the design and improvement of quenchingequipment. Besides, the heat treatment processes were developed for the typical LP rotorswith both diameters of1768mm and2826mm, and the former had been validated by trialproduction, in which the mechanical properties could comprehensively meet therequirements.
为了指导低压转子加热工艺的制订，研究了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的奥氏体化相变动力学。测定了0.008~20°C/s范围内不同加热速率下的膨胀曲线，运用Kissinger方法进行了基于非等温相变Johnson-Mehl-Avrami模型的动力学分析，确定了奥氏体化相变激活能Q约为2.367×10~6J/mol，J-M-A指数n约为0.2448，指前因子ln k0约为270.5。当设定J-M-A方程中温度变量为不同数值时，可获得等温奥氏体化相变动力学曲线。该研究也表明，对于孕育期极短而难以准确测定的等温相变动力学曲线，从连续转变动力学数据中提取是一种行之有效的方法。
为了指导低压转子淬火工艺的制订，测试分析了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢的TTT曲线和CCT曲线与组织转变。结果表明发生珠光体转变的临界冷速为3.3°C/h，生成马氏体及下贝氏体的临界冷速为1°C/s。通过对连续冷却与等温转变组织的对照分析，并结合TTT、CCT曲线的转变量测算，获得了该钢在不同冷速下连续冷却转变产物的组织形貌特征和演变规律：冷速5~10°C/s时，转变产物为马氏体，其中自回火马氏体量随着冷速降低而逐渐增多；冷速1~2°C/s时，转变产物为马氏体及一定数量下贝氏体，碳化物颗粒随着冷速降低而逐渐变大增多；冷速0.2~0.5°C/s时，转变产物以低温上贝氏体和马氏体为主；冷速0.01~0.1°C/s时，转变产物以中温块状铁素体、粒状贝氏体和粗大的上贝氏体为主。
结合组织形貌特征的观察以及冷速与相变量的计算，研究了低压转子不同位置上冷速、组织与硬度的关系。在淬火冷却过程中低压转子不同位置处的冷速差异显著，使它们的组织和性能也有较大区别：表面位置在中温转变区内的平均冷速可达10°C/s以上，生成的马氏体组织硬度可达500HV；心部位置冷速仅0.01°C/s左右，转变产物中的粒状贝氏体和中温块状铁素体会对性能产生不良影响，使硬度降低到370HV以下；在0.01~10°C/s范围内，转变产物的硬度随着冷却速度的降低呈逐渐减小趋势，两者关系曲线的拐点处的临界冷速为0.2°C/s。由此可见，不同类型的贝氏体在组织形貌和性能上存在显著差异，不能仅以不出现先共析铁素体或珠光体的临界冷速（3.3°C/h）作为制订低压转子淬火工艺的准则，在实际生产中淬火冷速应不低于开始出现粗大上贝氏体和中温块状铁素体的冷速（0.2°C/s）。
为了解决热处理过程计算机数值模拟中材料热物性参数和力学性能参数缺乏的问题，本文通过系统的测试，建立了30Cr2Ni4MoV钢不同组织（马氏体、贝氏体和奥氏体）的热物理性能（热膨胀系数、密度、比热容、相变潜热、导热系数）和力学性能（弹性模量、屈服强度、塑性模量）参数的数据库，得到了这些参数与温度的函数关系。并根据Greenwood-Johnson相变塑性模型，实验测试并建立了模型参数关于等效应力和温度的函数关系。研究结果表明，对马氏体相变而言，外加应力对Ms与参数的影响可以忽略不计；对贝氏体相变而言，孕育期t s随着温度的升高而显著增大，参数n随着温度和等效应力的增大而减小，参数b总体上不受等效应力和温度的影响；马氏体和贝氏体的相变塑性参数K分别为8.77110~（-5）MPa~（-1）和8.9488105MPa~(-1)。
30Cr2Ni4MoV钢大型低压转子锻后热处理的主要目的是调整锻后组织细化晶粒。在相变动力学与组织转变的研究基础上，探索了不同热处理工艺的晶粒细化效果。运用有限元数值模拟与热模拟炉物理模拟相结合的方法，对直径2900mm低压转子心部在多次正火不同阶段的晶粒演变过程进行研究，提出了可以满足细化晶粒要求的多次正火工艺。本文提出了基于部分珠光体转变的等温预处理晶粒细化创新工艺，实验验证了其对于30Cr2Ni4MoV低压转子的细化晶粒作用，与四次正火工艺具有相同的细化效果，且更加省时节能。本文为直径1800mm和2900mm低压转子制订了多次正火和等温预处理两种锻后热处理工艺。
通过温度-相变-应力/应变耦合的计算机模拟得到低压转子冷却过程的温度、组织、应力分布规律，结果表明淬火冷却数学模型中的相变应变及相变塑性应变因素对转子内应力场演变的影响很大。不同直径低压转子在不同喷水强度下冷却过程的模拟结果表明，在10~100(l/m~2s)的范围内改变喷水强度对低压转子心部贝氏体相变区（300~500C）的平均冷速及冷却时间的影响很小，喷水时间长短的选择主要由转子截面直径大小决定，为低压转子淬火设备的改进与设计提供了依据。据此，制订了直径1768mm和2826mm两种典型低压转子的性能热处理工艺，前者已经过试制生产检验，各项力学性能均符合要求。
Large-sized low pressure (LP) rotor of30Cr2Ni4MoV steel is one of the keycomponents in AP1000（1000MW-grade advanced passive pressurized water reactor）nuclear power unit. This study was accomplished around the establishment of heattreatment process for the LP rotors. TTT curves, CCT curves and phase transformationkinetics were investigated using dilatometer, and the detailed analysis of themicrostructure evolution under different holding temperatures and cooling rates werecarried out by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-raydiffraction (XRD), thermal simulation and mechanical property tests to demonstrate thecomplexity involved in the transformation in30Cr2Ni4MoV steel. The material database,including transformation kinetics, thermophysical properties and mechanical properties,was then set up by thermal expansion, drainage and laser pulse methods, and thedifferential scanning calorimetry as well. To investigate the effect and feasibility of grainrefinement in large-sized LP rotors, the grain evolution at the rotor center during variousstages of a multi-normalizing treatment was traced by combining numerical and physicalsimulations. As a novel grain refinement method, the isothermal pretreatment was thenproposed based on the partial decomposition of austenite into pearlite. A numerical modelcoupling temperature, transformation and stress/strain was established to predict theirevolution during quenching process of LP rotors. The heat treatment processes wereestablished for the typical LP rotors with diameter of1768mm and2826mm respectively,and the suggestions on the corresponding equipment improvement and engineeringimplement were proposed based on the results of trial production as well.
The austenization kinetics of30Cr2Ni4MoV steel was investigated to guide theformulation of the heating process. The dilatometric curves with the heating rates from0.008to20°C/s were measured, and the austenization kinetics was then analyzed usingKissinger method based on the non-isothermal Johnson-Mehl-Avrami (J-M-A) model. The parameters in the model were obtained as the austenization activation energy Q,pre-exponential factorln k0and J-M-A exponent n being about2.367×106J/mol,0.2448and270.5, respectively. The isothermal austenization kinetics curves could thus bedetermined by setting the temperature in the J-M-A equation as different values. Thisindicates that the isothermal transformation kinetics curves could be derived by extractinguseful information directly from continuous transformation kinetics, in the case ofextremely short incubation period causing it difficult to be accurately measured.
TTT and CCT curves were measured and analyzed in detail to guide the formulationof the quenching process for LP rotors. The critical cooling rate to form pearlite is about3.3°C/h and that for mixture of matensite and bainite is1°C/s. Based on the carefulcomparison of microstructures from isothermal transformation and continuous coolingtransformation, the morphological characters and microstructure evolution uponcontinuous cooling of different rates were obtained. When the cooling rate is between5-10°C/s, only martensite forms and the amount of self-tempered martensite graduallyincreases as cooling is slowed down. When the cooling rate is between1-2°C/s, thetransformation products are martensite and a certain amount of lower bainite, and thecarbide particles becomes more and larger as for slower cooling. When the cooling rate isbetween0.2-0.5°C/s, martensite and low temperature upper bainite are the maintransformation products. When the cooling rate is between0.01-0.1°C/s, thetransformation products are mainly massive ferrite, granular bainite and coarse upperbainite.
The relationship of cooling rate, microstructure and hardness on different positions ofLP rotor was investigated by microstructure observation and quenching simulation. It isobvious that the cooling rates at different positions of LP rotors are significantly different,leading to great differences in microstructure and mechanical properties. At the surfacepoints the average cooling rate in the medium temperature transformation region could behigher than10°C/s, and thus the hardness could reach up to500HV due to formedmartensite. The average cooling rate at the central points was nearly0.01°C/s, and granular bainite and massive ferrite having a negative impact on mechanical propertiesformed and resulted in the hardness below370HV. Therefore, when the cooling rate variesfrom10to0.01°C/s, the hardness of transformation products gradually decreases as thecooling rate decreases, and a turning point at cooling rate of0.2°C/s exists on the curvebetween cooling rate and hardness. It is demonstrated that various kinds of bainite havesignificant differences in morphology and mechanical properties, and the cooling rate atwhich no coarse upper bainite or massive ferrite (0.2°C/s) would form should be regardedas the criteria, rather than that of no proeutectoid ferrite or pearlite (3.3°C/h), for thedevelopment of quenching process for the LP rotors in the practical production.
The material database, including thermophysical and mechanical properties, wasestablished by systematical measurements, providing the input data for heat treatmentprocess simulation later. Thermal expansion coefficient, density, heat capacity, latent heat,thermal conductivity, elastic modulus, yield strength and plastic modulus were tested andformulated into functions of temperature. The relationship of temperature, equivalentstress and modeling parameters were set up experimentally. The parameters wereextracted and formulated into the functions of temperature and equivalent stress based onGreenwood-Johnson phase transformation plasticity model and thermal-mechanicalsimulator experiments. The results showed that the effect of applied stress onM sand thecoefficient could be neglected for martensitic transformation. However, for bainitictransformation, the incubation periodt sincreases with increasing temperature, while theparameter n decreases as temperature and equivalent stress increase, and the parameterb is almost a constant. The transformation plasticity parameter K for martensite andbainite were found as8.771MPa-1and8.9488MPa~(-1), respectively.
The main purpose of the heat treatment after forging was to eliminate the coarsemicrostructure and refine the grains. The effect of different heat treatment processes ongrain refinement was comparatively investigated. The grain size evolution at the centerpart of the2900mm LP rotor during multi-normalizing was studied by the combinationof FEM numerical and physical simulations. The multi-normalizing process to meet the requirements of grain refinement was therefore recommended. A novel grain refinementmethod through isothermal pretreatment based on partial decomposition of austenite intopearlite was proposed and verified experimentally. The results indicate that the proposedmethod has the same effect as the four times normalizing process but exhibits clearadvantage of timesaving and energy efficiency. Then, the heat treatment processes afterforging based on multi-normalizing and isothermal pretreatment were formulated for both1800mm and2900mm LP rotors.
A numerical model coupling temperature, transformation and stress/strain wasestablished to analyze the distribution and evolution of temperature, phase transformationand stress during quenching process of LP rotors. The simulated results showed thattransformation strain and transformation plasticity play important roles on the evolutionand distribution of the stress. The results also indicated that the change of water sprayingintensity in a range of10~100(l/m2s) could hardly affect the cooling time and the averagecooling rate at the center part of LP rotors in the bainitic phase transformation zone(300~500C), and the spraying time needed was mainly determined by the sectionaldiameter of the rotor, providing a basis for the design and improvement of quenchingequipment. Besides, the heat treatment processes were developed for the typical LP rotorswith both diameters of1768mm and2826mm, and the former had been validated by trialproduction, in which the mechanical properties could comprehensively meet therequirements.
引文
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[1]吴景之,张信.26Cr2Ni4MoV钢的晶粒遗传.金属热处理.1984,(4):29-39
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[7]牟军,康大韬,杨慧心,张丰.26Cr2Ni4MoV钢的组织遗传及α-T曲线法研究.理化检验-物理分册.1997,33(8):21-25
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[1]刘庄,吴肇基,吴景之,张毅.热处理过程的数值模拟.北京:科学出版社,1996
[2]康大韬,叶国斌.大型锻件材料及热处理.北京:龙门书局,1998
[3]潘健生,胡明娟.热处理工艺学.北京:高等教育出版社,2009
[4]杨世铭.传热学基础.第2版.北京:高等教育出版社,2003
[1] GB/T228-2002,金属材料室温拉伸试验方法[S],国家标准出版社,2002
[2] GB/T229-2007,金属材料夏比摆锤冲击试验方法[S],国家标准出版社,2007
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