地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制
|
摘要
创伤后压力反应(post-traumatic stress reaction)不同于创伤后应激障碍(post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD)。PTSD是个体在遭遇或对抗重大创伤性事件后,其心理状态失调产生的症状。而创伤后压力反应是普遍存在于创伤个体中的现象,并且强调这种现象是经历创伤所产生的合理结果,而非病患心理状态。虽然大多数个体在经历创伤性事件后都会出现程度不等的症状,但只有一部分人最终成为PTSD患者。由于汶川特大地震的影响面极大,使得相当数量的人出现了创伤后压力反应。
从已有研究来看,多数研究者以PTSD患者为被试,探讨创伤性经历对其认知加工神经机制的影响,而少有从预防和发展的角度关注没有表现出PTSD症状的非临床被试。在认知神经科学领域的已有研究中,多数研究都局限于探讨表现出创伤后应激障碍的地震亲历者的脑区激活情况,而少有运用事件相关电位(event related potentials, ERP)技术从加工时程方面分析地震亲历者的认知特点。本研究在前期问卷调查的基础上,主要运用ERP实验技术,在汶川地震两年后,考察没有出现PTSD(?)临床症状的地震亲历者对威胁性信息认知加工的特点。
本文共包括7个研究,19个实验,从创伤后压力反应的主要方面：注意、记忆、情绪加工,分别在两个维度上：不同灾难暴露程度(经历组和未经历组)以及不同年龄阶段(中学生和大学生)比较分析了地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制。
(1)不同灾难暴露程度(经历组和未经历组)地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制
第一部分(包括研究1、研究2和研究3)：地震亲历者对威胁性刺激注意偏向的ERP研究。研究1运用线索提示范式(cue-target paradigm)考察了地震亲历者对威胁性刺激注意资源的空间分配特点。行为结果以及P3潜伏期和峰值上的效应发现,不论是地震词还是中性词,中学生经历组都比未经历组更加警觉。行为和N1峰值的效应发现,大学生经历组比未经历组对地震词更加回避。但是,研究1并没有发现地震亲历者在地震词和中性词上注意偏向的差异。这可能与线索刺激与靶刺激之间的时间间隔有关。
鉴于此,研究1采用阈上呈现威胁性刺激的方式考察注意的定向和维持,而研究2则运用视觉点探测掩蔽任务(masked version of the dot probe task),通过阈下呈现刺激的方式考察地震亲历者的注意从威胁性刺激到探测点位置的注意转移过程中认知加工的时程动态变化特点。通过比较一致条件和不一致条件下早期成分N1、P1和P2潜伏期与峰值的特点发现,中学生经历组比未经历组对地震词更加警觉。研究1和研究2从注意的成分理论探讨了地震亲历者对威胁性刺激的注意偏向及其神经机制,然而,我们仍不清楚是否地震亲历者对中性刺激也存在同样的认知加工特点。因此,通过研究3对此进行了探讨。
研究3通过经典的oddball实验范式研究发现,在后部脑区,中性靶刺激对中学生经历组比未经历组诱发的P1和P300波幅更弱。由此可以推测,地震亲历者可能存在注意加工的缺陷。这也与临床上PTSD的症状一致。尽管PTSD患者集中注意力的能力降低了,但轻微的创伤性刺激就能够诱发闯入性记忆和闪回现象的出现。为此,研究4考察了地震亲历者是否对地震威胁性刺激存在记忆偏向。
第二部分(研究4)：地震亲历者对威胁性刺激记忆偏向的ERP研究。研究4采用学习-再认(study-test)范式中新／旧测试的实验任务发现,地震图片与中性图片相比,引起了地震亲历者更长的反应时,更高的正确率,以及更大的P3和LPC峰值效应。对负性刺激认知偏向的研究可以很好地解释地震相关图片比中性图片会诱发更大的ERP效应。另外,根据Brewin提出的双向呈现理论(duel representation theory)(?)阳记忆-视觉神经认知模型(neurocognitive model of memory and imagery),与自我密切相关的创伤性经历在情景记忆加工的神经机制中可能是至关重要的,这促使被试在回忆灾难场景时在大脑产生了生动的画面,即我们通常所说的“闪光灯记忆”(flashbulb memory)或者闪回现象。此外,还有可能是创伤性记忆对地震亲历者的情绪性记忆造成了影响。有研究表明PTSD患者主诉记忆障碍并不能真正反映记忆损害,相反它提示了共病情绪障碍的危险性。根据多重记忆系统说(multiple memory systems view),脑内存在着结构和功能不同的多个记忆系统,通过启动效应使得存在于这些记忆系统中的图示被激活。那么,这些情景性记忆或者情绪性记忆以何种方式储存在记忆系统中的?又如何对认知加工产生作用?因此,研究5和研究6考察了威胁性刺激启动效应对地震亲历者情绪加工的影响。
第三部分(研究5和研究6)：威胁性刺激启动效应对地震亲历者情绪加工影响的ERP研究。研究5采用阈上情绪启动(supraliminal emotional priming)的实验范式,从行为和ERP结果来看,并没有发现显著的启动效应。这可能和启动-靶刺激的时间间隔(stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA)有关,研究表明情绪启动效应大部分是在较短的SOA内出现的。为了说明个体是否受到了阈下,即无意识情绪启动的影响,研究6采用阈下情绪启动(subliminal emotional priming)的实验范式考察了威胁性刺激阈下启动效应对地震亲历者情绪加工的影响。结果发现,对于中学生组,地震图片启动下经历组对恐惧面孔的反应时更短,对高兴面孔的反应时更长,且对于中学生和大学生经历组,对恐惧面孔的反应时均比未经历组更短；同时,地震图片启动下,恐惧面孔对中学生经历组诱发的N1、P1、P2和LPC效应比未经历组更大。可见,地震图片启动下,地震亲历者对恐惧面孔的敏感性增强。那么,是否可以通过认知和神经生理的训练改变心理和行为的反应呢?研究7对此进行了探索。
第四部分(研究7)：地震亲历者认知与脑功能修复中的神经可塑性研究。从研究5和研究6可见,创伤性经历对地震亲历者的情绪功能产生了影响,使其对负性情绪信息的敏感性增强。因此,研究7以生物反馈训练调节地震亲历者焦虑情绪为例,开展了应用神经可塑性原理修复脑功能的探索性研究。结果表明,生物反馈训练能够有效缓解地震亲历者的负性情绪,通过脑电指标证实了地震亲历者认知与脑功能修复中的神经可塑性。这也为从神经生理层面对地震亲历者进行干预和治疗以改善其心理和行为问题提供了物质基础和现实可能。
(2)不同年龄阶段(中学生和大学生)地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制
创伤后应激障碍的研究表明,年龄是一个非常重要的危险因素。年龄越小者,越容易出现创伤后应激症状。因此,本文对不同年龄地震亲历者的注意偏向、记忆偏向、情绪加工的神经生理机制进行了比较。在研究1和研究2中,行为结果和ERP早期成分P1效应显示,中学生经历组比大学生经历组对地震词更加警觉；在研究3中,中性靶刺激对中学生经历组比大学生经历组诱发的P300波幅更小；在研究4中,中学生经历组在旧的地震图上P3成分的潜伏期短于大学生经历组,旧的地震图对中学生组诱发的P3峰值和LPC波幅大于大学生组；在研究5和研究6中,行为结果和N1、P1成分的ERP效应表明,威胁性刺激对中学生情绪加工的阈下启动效应更大,且中学生经历组比大学生经历组的情绪敏感性更强,尤其是对负性情绪。这些结果表明地震创伤性经历对中学生经历组有更大的影响。这可能与中学生群体脑与认知的发展特点有关。
基于以上研究,我们发现个体的心理和行为反应是大脑各个部分协同运作的结果,因此,构建了基于地震亲历者对威胁性刺激认知加工的创伤后压力反应合作认知模型(Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Cooperation Cognitive Model, PTSR-CCM)。PTSR-CCM是反应地震亲历者对威胁性刺激认知加工特征的模型,包括三个模块和一个原理,即本研究考察的四个方面：注意功能、记忆功能、情绪功能、神经可塑性,试图揭示威胁性刺激对非临床被试创伤后压力反应作用的神经生理机制。
Post-traumatic stress reaction is different from post-traumatic stress disorder. PTSD is a kind of psychological disorder or symptom after suffering traumatic event. However, post-traumatic stress reaction is commonly found in traumatic individuals, which is reasonable result of traumatic event, rather than a kind of psychological disorder or symptom. Although most of individuals will have different symptoms after experiencing traumatic event, only few of them eventually become PTSD patients. In term of the Wenchuan earthquake had a prevalent impact, huge amounts of people have presented post-traumatic stress reactions.
In the most of previous studies, PTSD patients were selected as subjects to explore the influence of traumatic experience on their cognitive neural mechanisms. However, there were few studies to concern the non-clinical survivors who had not presented PTSD symptoms from the viewpoint of prevention and development. Besides, in the field of cognitive neuroscience research, most studies were limited to explore the activated brain regions of PTSD patients. However, there were few studies on cognitive temporal processing characteristic of earthquake-exposed survivors using event related potentials technology (ERP). Based on our previous questionnaire surveys, the current study explored the cognitive processing of the earthquake-exposed group to threat stimuli without PTSD using ERP experiment technology after two years of the Wenchuan earthquake.
The dissertation totally included7studies and19experiments. We compared the neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction (attention, memory and emotion processing) from two dimensions. One was the different degree of earthquake exposure (exposed group and non-exposed group), and the other was different age group (high school student and college student).
(1) The neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction of groups in different degree of earthquake exposure (exposed group and non-exposed group).
The first part (including Study1,2and3) was a series of ERP studies on attention bias to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors. Study1investigated the space distribution features of attention resources to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors using a cue-target paradigm. The behavioral and P3latency and peak effect indicated that high school students were more vigilance for cue words in the earthquake-exposed group compared with in the non-exposed group. Meanwhile, the behavioral and Nl peak effect indicated that college students were more avoidant to threat cue words in the earthquake-exposed group compared with in the non-exposed group. However, Study1did not find the difference of attention bias between threat and neutral cue words. It may be related to the time interval of cues and targets.
Therefore, Study1tested attention orienting and engagement by supraliminal threat cues, but Study2investigated attention shift by subliminal threat using masked version of the dot probe task. The earlier N1, P1and P2latencies and peaks within valid and invalid trials showed that earthquake-exposed high school students were more vigilance for threat than non-exposed high school students. Even though Study1and Study2tested the attention bias to threat within the theoretical framework of components of attention orienting, it was still unclear that whether there were same cognitive processing characteristics to neutral stimuli in earthquake-exposed survivors. So we did Study3to test it.
Study3found that neutral target elicited significantly more reduced P1and P300for earthquake-exposed high school students compared with for non-exposed high school students in posterior scalp using a classic oddball paradigm. It speculated that earthquake-exposed high school students might have attention processing deficits, which was consistent with clinical PTSD symptoms. Although PTSD patients have the disability to focus, a mild traumatic stimulation can induce invasive memory and the phenomenon of flashbacks. Therefore, Study4examined the memory bias to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors.
The second part (Study4) was an ERP study on memory bias to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors. Study4found that earthquake pictures elicited longer reaction time, higher accuracy and greater P3and LPC amplitudes effect compared with neutral pictures in earthquake-exposed group using an old/new recognition study-test task. The results on negative stimulation bias can explain the reason of earthquake pictures had enhanced effect compared with neutral pictures. In addition, in terms of Brewin's "duel representation theory" and "neurocognitive model of memory and imagery", it assumed that closely related personal traumatic experiences might be important in the neural mechanisms of episodic memory processing, which produced vivid pictures when recalling disaster scene, i.e."flashbulb memory". However, there was another explain that traumatic experiences might influenced emotional memory of the earthquake-exposed group. Because some study has showed that memory disorders of PTSD patients can't really reflect memory impairment; instead, it is the risk hint of emotional disorders. According to the "multiple memory systems view", there are many brain memory systems with different structure and function. The initial graphical representation existing in the memory system is activated by the priming effect. How did these kinds of episodic memory or emotional memory store in memory systems, and work on cognitive processing? Therefore, Study5and Study6examined the impact of threat priming effect on emotional processing in earthquake-exposed survivors.
The third part (Study5and Study6) was on the impact of threat priming effect on emotional processing in earthquake-exposed survivors. Study5used the supraliminal emotional priming paradigm. The behavioral and ERP results revealed that the priming effect is not significant. It may be related to the time interval of priming and target stimuli, i.e. stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). Because some research found that only a short SOA could lead to priming effect. In order to test the impact of subliminal priming, i.e. unconscious emotional priming, Study6used the subliminal emotional priming experiment paradigm. The results indicated that earthquake-exposed high school students had shorter reaction times to fearful faces and longer to happy faces than to neutral faces followed treat priming stimuli. Meanwhile, both earthquake-exposed high school students and college students had shorter reaction times to fearful faces than the non-exposed group followed treat priming stimuli, with significant N1, P1, P2and LPC effect to fearful faces. Obviously, the earthquake-exposed groups were more sensitive to fearful faces after the treat stimuli priming. However, could we change their emotional function with some cognitive and neural physiological training? Study7did this.
The fourth part (Study7) was the research on neural plasticity of cognitive and brain function repair in earthquake-exposed survivors. From Study5and Study6, traumatic experiences influenced the emotional function of earthquake-exposed survivors, and enhanced the sensitivity to negative emotions. Thus, Study7developed an exploratory research on application of the principle of neural plasticity in brain function repair, which took the biofeedback training to adjust anxiety in earthquake-exposed survivors as an example. The results showed that the biofeedback training could effectively relieve negative emotion of earthquake-exposed survivors. It proved that the neural plasticity have effect on cognition and brain function repair through the brain electrical index, which also provided the foundation and possibility through physical intervention and treatment to change psychological and behavioral problems of earthquake-exposed survivors.
(2) The neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction in different age of earthquake-exposed survivors (high school students and college students).
The research on Post-traumatic stress disorder suggested that the age was a very important risk factor. Especially the younger, they are more prone to PTSD. Therefore, the current research compared the neurophysiology mechanism of attention bias, memory bias, emotional cognitive processing in different age groups. In Study1and Study2, the results of behavior and an early P1component revealed that earthquake-exposed high school students were more vigilance for threat than earthquake-exposed college students. In Study3, neutral target stimuli elicited smaller P300amplitude in earthquake-exposed high school students compared with earthquake-exposed college students. In Study4, old earthquake stimuli elicited an earlier P3latency and enhanced P3and LPC amplitudes in earthquake-exposed high school students compared with in earthquake-exposed college students. In Study5and Study6, the behavioral and ERP (N1and P1components) results showed that the threat priming effect had greater impact on the emotional processing of high school students than on college students. Particularly, earthquake-exposed high school students were more sensitive to emotion than earthquake-exposed college students, especially for the negative emotion. The results suggested that the traumatic experiences had greater influence for earthquake-exposed high school students, which may be attributed to the brain and cognitive development of high school students.
According to all of the studies above, we found that earthquake-exposed survivors' mental and behavioral activities were based on cooperating with all parts of brain. Thus, we finally constructed the Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Cooperation Cognitive Model (PTSR-CCM) based on the cognitive processing to earthquake treat stimuli in earthquake-exposed survivors. PTSR-CCM is the model of representing cognitive processing characteristics to earthquake treat stimuli in earthquake-exposed survivors. It includes three modules and a principle:attention function, memory function, emotion processing function, and neural plasticity, which revealed the threat stimuli effect on neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction in the non-clinical earthquake-exposed survivors.
从已有研究来看,多数研究者以PTSD患者为被试,探讨创伤性经历对其认知加工神经机制的影响,而少有从预防和发展的角度关注没有表现出PTSD症状的非临床被试。在认知神经科学领域的已有研究中,多数研究都局限于探讨表现出创伤后应激障碍的地震亲历者的脑区激活情况,而少有运用事件相关电位(event related potentials, ERP)技术从加工时程方面分析地震亲历者的认知特点。本研究在前期问卷调查的基础上,主要运用ERP实验技术,在汶川地震两年后,考察没有出现PTSD(?)临床症状的地震亲历者对威胁性信息认知加工的特点。
本文共包括7个研究,19个实验,从创伤后压力反应的主要方面：注意、记忆、情绪加工,分别在两个维度上：不同灾难暴露程度(经历组和未经历组)以及不同年龄阶段(中学生和大学生)比较分析了地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制。
(1)不同灾难暴露程度(经历组和未经历组)地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制
第一部分(包括研究1、研究2和研究3)：地震亲历者对威胁性刺激注意偏向的ERP研究。研究1运用线索提示范式(cue-target paradigm)考察了地震亲历者对威胁性刺激注意资源的空间分配特点。行为结果以及P3潜伏期和峰值上的效应发现,不论是地震词还是中性词,中学生经历组都比未经历组更加警觉。行为和N1峰值的效应发现,大学生经历组比未经历组对地震词更加回避。但是,研究1并没有发现地震亲历者在地震词和中性词上注意偏向的差异。这可能与线索刺激与靶刺激之间的时间间隔有关。
鉴于此,研究1采用阈上呈现威胁性刺激的方式考察注意的定向和维持,而研究2则运用视觉点探测掩蔽任务(masked version of the dot probe task),通过阈下呈现刺激的方式考察地震亲历者的注意从威胁性刺激到探测点位置的注意转移过程中认知加工的时程动态变化特点。通过比较一致条件和不一致条件下早期成分N1、P1和P2潜伏期与峰值的特点发现,中学生经历组比未经历组对地震词更加警觉。研究1和研究2从注意的成分理论探讨了地震亲历者对威胁性刺激的注意偏向及其神经机制,然而,我们仍不清楚是否地震亲历者对中性刺激也存在同样的认知加工特点。因此,通过研究3对此进行了探讨。
研究3通过经典的oddball实验范式研究发现,在后部脑区,中性靶刺激对中学生经历组比未经历组诱发的P1和P300波幅更弱。由此可以推测,地震亲历者可能存在注意加工的缺陷。这也与临床上PTSD的症状一致。尽管PTSD患者集中注意力的能力降低了,但轻微的创伤性刺激就能够诱发闯入性记忆和闪回现象的出现。为此,研究4考察了地震亲历者是否对地震威胁性刺激存在记忆偏向。
第二部分(研究4)：地震亲历者对威胁性刺激记忆偏向的ERP研究。研究4采用学习-再认(study-test)范式中新／旧测试的实验任务发现,地震图片与中性图片相比,引起了地震亲历者更长的反应时,更高的正确率,以及更大的P3和LPC峰值效应。对负性刺激认知偏向的研究可以很好地解释地震相关图片比中性图片会诱发更大的ERP效应。另外,根据Brewin提出的双向呈现理论(duel representation theory)(?)阳记忆-视觉神经认知模型(neurocognitive model of memory and imagery),与自我密切相关的创伤性经历在情景记忆加工的神经机制中可能是至关重要的,这促使被试在回忆灾难场景时在大脑产生了生动的画面,即我们通常所说的“闪光灯记忆”(flashbulb memory)或者闪回现象。此外,还有可能是创伤性记忆对地震亲历者的情绪性记忆造成了影响。有研究表明PTSD患者主诉记忆障碍并不能真正反映记忆损害,相反它提示了共病情绪障碍的危险性。根据多重记忆系统说(multiple memory systems view),脑内存在着结构和功能不同的多个记忆系统,通过启动效应使得存在于这些记忆系统中的图示被激活。那么,这些情景性记忆或者情绪性记忆以何种方式储存在记忆系统中的?又如何对认知加工产生作用?因此,研究5和研究6考察了威胁性刺激启动效应对地震亲历者情绪加工的影响。
第三部分(研究5和研究6)：威胁性刺激启动效应对地震亲历者情绪加工影响的ERP研究。研究5采用阈上情绪启动(supraliminal emotional priming)的实验范式,从行为和ERP结果来看,并没有发现显著的启动效应。这可能和启动-靶刺激的时间间隔(stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA)有关,研究表明情绪启动效应大部分是在较短的SOA内出现的。为了说明个体是否受到了阈下,即无意识情绪启动的影响,研究6采用阈下情绪启动(subliminal emotional priming)的实验范式考察了威胁性刺激阈下启动效应对地震亲历者情绪加工的影响。结果发现,对于中学生组,地震图片启动下经历组对恐惧面孔的反应时更短,对高兴面孔的反应时更长,且对于中学生和大学生经历组,对恐惧面孔的反应时均比未经历组更短；同时,地震图片启动下,恐惧面孔对中学生经历组诱发的N1、P1、P2和LPC效应比未经历组更大。可见,地震图片启动下,地震亲历者对恐惧面孔的敏感性增强。那么,是否可以通过认知和神经生理的训练改变心理和行为的反应呢?研究7对此进行了探索。
第四部分(研究7)：地震亲历者认知与脑功能修复中的神经可塑性研究。从研究5和研究6可见,创伤性经历对地震亲历者的情绪功能产生了影响,使其对负性情绪信息的敏感性增强。因此,研究7以生物反馈训练调节地震亲历者焦虑情绪为例,开展了应用神经可塑性原理修复脑功能的探索性研究。结果表明,生物反馈训练能够有效缓解地震亲历者的负性情绪,通过脑电指标证实了地震亲历者认知与脑功能修复中的神经可塑性。这也为从神经生理层面对地震亲历者进行干预和治疗以改善其心理和行为问题提供了物质基础和现实可能。
(2)不同年龄阶段(中学生和大学生)地震亲历者创伤后压力反应的神经生理机制
创伤后应激障碍的研究表明,年龄是一个非常重要的危险因素。年龄越小者,越容易出现创伤后应激症状。因此,本文对不同年龄地震亲历者的注意偏向、记忆偏向、情绪加工的神经生理机制进行了比较。在研究1和研究2中,行为结果和ERP早期成分P1效应显示,中学生经历组比大学生经历组对地震词更加警觉；在研究3中,中性靶刺激对中学生经历组比大学生经历组诱发的P300波幅更小；在研究4中,中学生经历组在旧的地震图上P3成分的潜伏期短于大学生经历组,旧的地震图对中学生组诱发的P3峰值和LPC波幅大于大学生组；在研究5和研究6中,行为结果和N1、P1成分的ERP效应表明,威胁性刺激对中学生情绪加工的阈下启动效应更大,且中学生经历组比大学生经历组的情绪敏感性更强,尤其是对负性情绪。这些结果表明地震创伤性经历对中学生经历组有更大的影响。这可能与中学生群体脑与认知的发展特点有关。
基于以上研究,我们发现个体的心理和行为反应是大脑各个部分协同运作的结果,因此,构建了基于地震亲历者对威胁性刺激认知加工的创伤后压力反应合作认知模型(Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Cooperation Cognitive Model, PTSR-CCM)。PTSR-CCM是反应地震亲历者对威胁性刺激认知加工特征的模型,包括三个模块和一个原理,即本研究考察的四个方面：注意功能、记忆功能、情绪功能、神经可塑性,试图揭示威胁性刺激对非临床被试创伤后压力反应作用的神经生理机制。
Post-traumatic stress reaction is different from post-traumatic stress disorder. PTSD is a kind of psychological disorder or symptom after suffering traumatic event. However, post-traumatic stress reaction is commonly found in traumatic individuals, which is reasonable result of traumatic event, rather than a kind of psychological disorder or symptom. Although most of individuals will have different symptoms after experiencing traumatic event, only few of them eventually become PTSD patients. In term of the Wenchuan earthquake had a prevalent impact, huge amounts of people have presented post-traumatic stress reactions.
In the most of previous studies, PTSD patients were selected as subjects to explore the influence of traumatic experience on their cognitive neural mechanisms. However, there were few studies to concern the non-clinical survivors who had not presented PTSD symptoms from the viewpoint of prevention and development. Besides, in the field of cognitive neuroscience research, most studies were limited to explore the activated brain regions of PTSD patients. However, there were few studies on cognitive temporal processing characteristic of earthquake-exposed survivors using event related potentials technology (ERP). Based on our previous questionnaire surveys, the current study explored the cognitive processing of the earthquake-exposed group to threat stimuli without PTSD using ERP experiment technology after two years of the Wenchuan earthquake.
The dissertation totally included7studies and19experiments. We compared the neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction (attention, memory and emotion processing) from two dimensions. One was the different degree of earthquake exposure (exposed group and non-exposed group), and the other was different age group (high school student and college student).
(1) The neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction of groups in different degree of earthquake exposure (exposed group and non-exposed group).
The first part (including Study1,2and3) was a series of ERP studies on attention bias to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors. Study1investigated the space distribution features of attention resources to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors using a cue-target paradigm. The behavioral and P3latency and peak effect indicated that high school students were more vigilance for cue words in the earthquake-exposed group compared with in the non-exposed group. Meanwhile, the behavioral and Nl peak effect indicated that college students were more avoidant to threat cue words in the earthquake-exposed group compared with in the non-exposed group. However, Study1did not find the difference of attention bias between threat and neutral cue words. It may be related to the time interval of cues and targets.
Therefore, Study1tested attention orienting and engagement by supraliminal threat cues, but Study2investigated attention shift by subliminal threat using masked version of the dot probe task. The earlier N1, P1and P2latencies and peaks within valid and invalid trials showed that earthquake-exposed high school students were more vigilance for threat than non-exposed high school students. Even though Study1and Study2tested the attention bias to threat within the theoretical framework of components of attention orienting, it was still unclear that whether there were same cognitive processing characteristics to neutral stimuli in earthquake-exposed survivors. So we did Study3to test it.
Study3found that neutral target elicited significantly more reduced P1and P300for earthquake-exposed high school students compared with for non-exposed high school students in posterior scalp using a classic oddball paradigm. It speculated that earthquake-exposed high school students might have attention processing deficits, which was consistent with clinical PTSD symptoms. Although PTSD patients have the disability to focus, a mild traumatic stimulation can induce invasive memory and the phenomenon of flashbacks. Therefore, Study4examined the memory bias to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors.
The second part (Study4) was an ERP study on memory bias to threat in earthquake-exposed survivors. Study4found that earthquake pictures elicited longer reaction time, higher accuracy and greater P3and LPC amplitudes effect compared with neutral pictures in earthquake-exposed group using an old/new recognition study-test task. The results on negative stimulation bias can explain the reason of earthquake pictures had enhanced effect compared with neutral pictures. In addition, in terms of Brewin's "duel representation theory" and "neurocognitive model of memory and imagery", it assumed that closely related personal traumatic experiences might be important in the neural mechanisms of episodic memory processing, which produced vivid pictures when recalling disaster scene, i.e."flashbulb memory". However, there was another explain that traumatic experiences might influenced emotional memory of the earthquake-exposed group. Because some study has showed that memory disorders of PTSD patients can't really reflect memory impairment; instead, it is the risk hint of emotional disorders. According to the "multiple memory systems view", there are many brain memory systems with different structure and function. The initial graphical representation existing in the memory system is activated by the priming effect. How did these kinds of episodic memory or emotional memory store in memory systems, and work on cognitive processing? Therefore, Study5and Study6examined the impact of threat priming effect on emotional processing in earthquake-exposed survivors.
The third part (Study5and Study6) was on the impact of threat priming effect on emotional processing in earthquake-exposed survivors. Study5used the supraliminal emotional priming paradigm. The behavioral and ERP results revealed that the priming effect is not significant. It may be related to the time interval of priming and target stimuli, i.e. stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). Because some research found that only a short SOA could lead to priming effect. In order to test the impact of subliminal priming, i.e. unconscious emotional priming, Study6used the subliminal emotional priming experiment paradigm. The results indicated that earthquake-exposed high school students had shorter reaction times to fearful faces and longer to happy faces than to neutral faces followed treat priming stimuli. Meanwhile, both earthquake-exposed high school students and college students had shorter reaction times to fearful faces than the non-exposed group followed treat priming stimuli, with significant N1, P1, P2and LPC effect to fearful faces. Obviously, the earthquake-exposed groups were more sensitive to fearful faces after the treat stimuli priming. However, could we change their emotional function with some cognitive and neural physiological training? Study7did this.
The fourth part (Study7) was the research on neural plasticity of cognitive and brain function repair in earthquake-exposed survivors. From Study5and Study6, traumatic experiences influenced the emotional function of earthquake-exposed survivors, and enhanced the sensitivity to negative emotions. Thus, Study7developed an exploratory research on application of the principle of neural plasticity in brain function repair, which took the biofeedback training to adjust anxiety in earthquake-exposed survivors as an example. The results showed that the biofeedback training could effectively relieve negative emotion of earthquake-exposed survivors. It proved that the neural plasticity have effect on cognition and brain function repair through the brain electrical index, which also provided the foundation and possibility through physical intervention and treatment to change psychological and behavioral problems of earthquake-exposed survivors.
(2) The neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction in different age of earthquake-exposed survivors (high school students and college students).
The research on Post-traumatic stress disorder suggested that the age was a very important risk factor. Especially the younger, they are more prone to PTSD. Therefore, the current research compared the neurophysiology mechanism of attention bias, memory bias, emotional cognitive processing in different age groups. In Study1and Study2, the results of behavior and an early P1component revealed that earthquake-exposed high school students were more vigilance for threat than earthquake-exposed college students. In Study3, neutral target stimuli elicited smaller P300amplitude in earthquake-exposed high school students compared with earthquake-exposed college students. In Study4, old earthquake stimuli elicited an earlier P3latency and enhanced P3and LPC amplitudes in earthquake-exposed high school students compared with in earthquake-exposed college students. In Study5and Study6, the behavioral and ERP (N1and P1components) results showed that the threat priming effect had greater impact on the emotional processing of high school students than on college students. Particularly, earthquake-exposed high school students were more sensitive to emotion than earthquake-exposed college students, especially for the negative emotion. The results suggested that the traumatic experiences had greater influence for earthquake-exposed high school students, which may be attributed to the brain and cognitive development of high school students.
According to all of the studies above, we found that earthquake-exposed survivors' mental and behavioral activities were based on cooperating with all parts of brain. Thus, we finally constructed the Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Cooperation Cognitive Model (PTSR-CCM) based on the cognitive processing to earthquake treat stimuli in earthquake-exposed survivors. PTSR-CCM is the model of representing cognitive processing characteristics to earthquake treat stimuli in earthquake-exposed survivors. It includes three modules and a principle:attention function, memory function, emotion processing function, and neural plasticity, which revealed the threat stimuli effect on neurophysiology mechanism of post-traumatic stress reaction in the non-clinical earthquake-exposed survivors.
引文
Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci,4,165-178.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC:Autllor.
Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E.,& Gabrieli, J. D. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. J Neurosci,23, 5627-5633.
Araki, T., Kasai, K., Yamasue, H., Kato, N., Kudo, N., Ohtani, T., Nakagome, K., Kirihara, K., Yamada, H., Abe, O.,& Iwanami, A. (2005). Association between lower P300 amplitude and smaller anterior cingulate cortex volume in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder:a study of victims of Tokyo subway sarin attack. Neuroimage,25,43-50.
Attias, J., Bleich, A., Furman, V.,& Zinger, Y. (1996). Event-related potentials in post-traumatic stress disorder of combat origin. Biol Psychiatry,40,373-381.
Buckley, T. C., Blanchard, E. B.,& Neill, W. T. (2000). Information processing and PTSD:a review of the empirical literature. Clin Psychol Rev,20,1041-1065.
Bar-Haim, Y, Lamy, D.,& Glickman, S. (2005). Attentional bias in anxiety:a behavioral and ERP study. Brain Cogn,59,11-22.
Bar-Haim, Y, Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J.,& van, I. M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals:a meta-analytic study. Psychol Bull,133,1-24.
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R.,& Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. JPers Soc Psychol,62,893-912.
Basoglu, M., Kilic, C., Salcioglu, E.,& Livanou, M. (2004). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression in earthquake survivors in Turkey:an epidemiological study. J Trauma Stress,17,133-141.
Batty, M.,& Taylor, M. J. (2003). Early processing of the six basic facial emotional expressions. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res,17,613-620.
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E.,& Finkenauer, C. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Rev Gen Psychol,5,323-370.
Bleich, A. V., Attias, J.,& Furman, V. (1996). Effect of repeated visual traumatic stimuli on the event related P3 brain potential in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int J Neurosci,85,45-55.
Bosch, V., Mecklinger, A.,& Friederici, A. D. (2001). Slow cortical potentials during retention of object, spatial, and verbal information. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res, 10,219-237.
Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K.,& Lee, S. C. (1997). Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria. Behav Res Ther,35, 911-927.
Breiter, H. C., Etcoff, N. L., Whalen, P. J., Kennedy, W. A., Rauch, S. L., Buckner, R. L., Strauss, M. M., Hyman, S. E.,& Rosen, B. R. (1996). Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression. Neuron, 17,875-887.
Bremner, J. D., Elzinga, B., Schmahl, C.,& Vermetten, E. (2008). Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Brain Res,167,171-186.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T.,& Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Rev,103,670-686.
Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J. D., Lipton, M.,& Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders:characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychol Rev,117,210-232.
Brewin, C. R.,& Holmes, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clin Psychol Rev,23,339-376.
Britton, J. C., Phan, K. L., Taylor, S. F., Fig, L. M.,& Liberzon, I. (2005). Corticolimbic blood flow in posttraumatic stress disorder during script-driven imagery. Biol Psychiatry,57,832-840.
Broomfield, N. M.,& Turpin, G. (2005). Covert and overt attention in trait anxiety:a cognitive psychophysiological analysis. Biol Psychol,68,179-200.
Brown, R.,& Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition,5,73-99.
Bryant, R. A., Felmingham, K. L., Kemp, A. H., Barton, M., Peduto, A. S., Rennie, C., Gordon, E.,& Williams, L. M. (2005). Neural networks of information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry,58,111-118.
Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R. G.,& McMillan, J. (2000). A correlational test of the relationship between posttraumatic growth, religion, and cognitive processing. J Trauma Stress,13,521-527.
Canli, T., Sivers, H., Thomason, M. E., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Gabrieli, J. D.,& Gotlib, I. H. (2004). Brain activation to emotional words in depressed vs healthy subjects. Neuroreport,15,2585-2588.
Carr, V. J., Lewin, T. J., Webster, R. A., Kenardy, J. A., Hazell, P. L.,& Carter, G. L. (1997). Psychosocial sequelae of the 1989 Newcastle earthquake:II. Exposure and morbidity profiles during the first 2 years post-disaster. Psychol Med,27, 167-178.
Carretie, L., Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mercado, F.,& Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic attention to emotional stimuli:neural correlates. Hum Brain Mapp, 22,290-299.
Carretie, L., Martin-Loeches, M., Hinojosa, J. A.,& Mercado, F. (2001). Emotion and attention interaction studied through event-related potentials. J Cogn Neurosci, 13,1109-1128.
Carretie, L., Mercado, F.,& Tapia, M. (2001). [Human brain activity in response to emotional visual stimuli:open issues and recent data]. Rev Neurol,33,973-979.
Charles, G, Hansenne, M., Ansseau, M., Pitchot, W., Machowski, R., Schittecatte, M., & Wilmotte, J. (1995). P300 in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychobiology,32,72-74.
Chiao, J. Y., Iidaka, T., Gordon, H. L., Nogawa, J., Bar, M., Aminoff, E., Sadato, N.,& Ambady, N. (2008). Cultural specificity in amygdala response to fear faces. J Cogn Neurosci,20,2167-2174.
Courchesne, E., Hillyard, S. A.,& Galambos, R. (1975). Stimulus novelty, task relevance and the visual evoked potential in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol,39,131-143.
Crowley, K. E.,& Colrain, I. M. (2004). A review of the evidence for p2 being an independent component process:Age, sleep and modality. Clinical neurophysiology:official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology,115 (4):732-744
Dalgleish, T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder:the evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychol Bull,130,228-260.
Dalgleish, T., Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, M. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T.,& Yule, W. (2001). An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol Med,31,541-547.
Danckwerts, A.,& Leathem, J. (2003). Questioning the link between ptsd and cognitive dysfunction. Neuropsychology review,13 (4):221-235.
Davidson, R. J. (2002). Anxiety and affective style:role of prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Biol Psychiatry,51,68-80.
Delplanque, S., Silvert, L., Hot, P.,& Sequeira, H. (2005). Event-related P3a and P3b in response to unpredictable emotional stimuli. Biol Psychol,68,107-120.
Donchin, E.,& Coles, M. G. H. (1988). Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating? Behav Brain Sci,11,357-374.
Doron-LaMarca, S., Vogt, D. S., King, D. W., King, L. A.,& Saxe, G. N. (2010). Pretrauma problems, prior stressor exposure, and gender as predictors of change in posttraumatic stress symptoms among physically injured children and adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol,78,781-793.
Duncan-Johnson, C. C.,& Donchin, E. (1982). The P300 component of the event-related brain potential as an index of information processing. Biol Psychol, 14,1-52.
Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Steil, R., Clohessy, S., Wenninger, K.,& Winter, H. (2002). The nature of intrusive memories after trauma:The warning signal hypothesis. Behaviour research and therapy,40 (9):995-1002.
Eimer, M.,& Holmes, A. (2002). An ERP study on the time course of emotional face processing. Neuroreport,13,427-431.
Eimer, M.,& Holmes, A. (2007). Event-related brain potential correlates of emotional face processing. Neuropsychologia,45,15-31.
Eimer, M., Holmes, A.,& McGlone, F. P. (2003). The role of spatial attention in the processing of facial expression:an ERP study of rapid brain responses to six basic emotions. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci,3,97-110.
Eksi, A.,& Braun, K. L. (2007). Risk factors for the development of PTSD and depression among child and adolescent victims following a 7.4 magnitude earthquake. Int Jpsychiat clin,11 (3):190-199.
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C.,& Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. J Pers Soc Psychol,50,229-238.
Finkenauer, C., Luminet, O., Gisle, L., el-Ahmadi, A., van der Linden, M.,& Philippot, P. (1998). Flashbulb memories and the underlying mechanisms of their formation:toward an emotional-integrative model. Mem Cognit,26,516-531.
Finnigan, S., Humphreys, M. S., Dennis, S., & Geffen, G. (2002). ERP 'old/new' effects: memory strength and decisional factor(s). Neuropsychologia, 40, 2288-2304.
Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O.(1998).Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
Fox, E., Russo, R., & Dutton, K. (2002). Attentional Bias for Threat: Evidence for Delayed Disengagement from Emotional Faces. Cogn Emot, 16, 355-379.
Friedman, D., Cycowicz, Y. M, & Gaeta, H. (2001). The novelty P3: an event-related brain potential (ERP) sign of the brain's evaluation of novelty. Neurosci BiobehavRev, 25, 355-373.
Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., Ruf, M., de Kloet, C. S., & Westenberg, H. G. (2008). Neural correlates of associative learning and memory in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. JPsychiatr Res, 42, 659-669.
Goenjian, A. K., Karayan, I., Pynoos, R. S., Minassian, D., Najarian, L. M., Steinberg, A. M., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1997). Outcome of psychotherapy among early adolescents after trauma. Am J Psychiatry, 154, 536-542.
Goenjian, A. K., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Najarian, L. M., Asarnow, J. R., Karayan, I., Ghurabi, M, & Fairbanks, L. A. (1995). Psychiatric comorbidity in children after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 34, 1174-1184.
Greenwald, A. G., Draine, S. C., & Abrams, R. L. (1996). Three cognitive markers of unconscious semantic activation. Science, 273, 1699-1702.
Groome, D., & Soureti, A. (2004). Post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety symptoms in children exposed to the 1999 Greek earthquake. BrJPsychol, 95, 387-397.
Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., Cusack, K. J., Wells, C, & Frueh, B. C.(2007). Screening for PTSD in public-sector mental health settings: the diagnostic utility of the PTSD checklist. Depress Anxiety, 24, 124-129.
Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., Cusack, K. J., Wells, C, & Frueh, B. C. (2009). Screening for PTSD in public-sector mental health settings: the diagnostic utility of the checklist. Depress Anxiety, 24, 124-129.
Hadi, F. A., & Llabre, M. M. (1998). The Gulf crisis experience of Kuwaiti children: psychological and cognitive factors. J Trauma Stress, 11, 45-56.
Han, S., & Northoff, G. (2008). Culture-sensitive neural substrates of human cognition: a transcultural neuroimaging approach. Nat Rev Neurosci, 9, 646-654.
Harmer, C. J., Thilo, K. V., Rothwell, J. C, & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). Transcranial magnetic stimulation of medial-frontal cortex impairs the processing of angry facial expressions. Nat Neurosci,4,17-18.
Hendler, T., Rotshtein, P., Yeshurun, Y., Weizmann, T., Kahn, I., Ben-Bashat, D., Malach, R.,& Bleich, A. (2003). Sensing the invisible:differential sensitivity of visual cortex and amygdala to traumatic context. Neuroimage,19,587-600.
Hermans, D., De'Houwer, J.,& Eelen, P. (1994). The affective priming effect: Automatic activation evaluative information in memory. Congnition & Emotion,8,515-533.
Hermans, D., De'Houwer, J.,& Eelen, P. (2001). A time course analysis of the affective priming effect. Cognition & Emotion,15(2):143-165.
Hermans, D., Van den Broeck, A.,& Eelen, P. (1998). Affective priming using a color-naming task:a test of an affective-motivational account of affective priming effects. Z Exp Psychol,45,136-148.
Hillyard, S. A.,& Anllo-Vento, L. (1998). Event-related brain potentials in the study of visual selective attention. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,95,781-787.
Hillyard, S. A., Anllo-Vento, L., Clarck, V. P., Heinze, H., Luck, S. J.,& Mangun, G. R. (1995). Neuroimaging approaches to the study of visual attention:A tutorial. In A. F. Kramer, M. G. H. Coles,& G. D. Logan (Eds.), Converging operations in the study of visual selective attention (pp.107-138). Washington:American Psychological association.
Hizli, F. G., Taskintuna, N., Isikli, S., Kilic, C.,& Zileli, L. (2009). Predictors of posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents. Child Youth Serv Rev,31, 349-354.
Hopfinger, J. B., Buonocore, M. H.,& Mangun, G R. (2000). The neural mechanisms of top-down attentional control. Nat Neurosci,3,284-291.
Huang, Y. X.,& Luo, Y. J. (2004). New Development in ERPs studies of Emotion. Journal of the Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,21, 433-440.
Huang, Y. X.,& Luo, Y. J. (2006). Temporal course of emotional negativity bias:an ERP study. Neurosci Lett,398,91-96.
Jenkins, W. M., Merzenich, M. M., Ochs, M. T., Allard, T.,& Guic-Robles, E. (1990). Functional reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in adult owl monkeys after behaviorally controlled tactile stimulation. J Neurophysiol,63, 82-104.
Johnson, R., Jr. (1986). A triarchic model of P300 amplitude. Psychophysiology,23, 367-384.
Johnson, R., Jr. (1993). On the neural generators of the P300 component of the event-related potential. Psychophysiology,30,90-97.
Joyce, C.,& Rossion, B. (2005). The face-sensitive N170 and VPP components manifest the same brain processes:the effect of reference electrode site. Clin Neurophysiol,116,2613-2631.
Karl, A., Malta, L. S.,& Maercker, A. (2006). Meta-analytic review of event-related potential studies in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychol,71,123-147.
Karl, A., Schaefer, M., Malta, L. S., Dorfel, D., Rohleder, N.,& Werner, A. (2006). A meta-analysis of structural brain abnormalities in ptsd. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews,30(7):1004-1031.
Keil, A., Bradley, M. M., Hauk, O., Rockstroh, B., Elbert, T.,& Lang, P. J. (2002). Large-scale neural correlates of affective picture processing. Psychophysiology, 39,641-649.
Kimble, M., Kaloupek, D., Kaufman, M.,& Deldin, P. (2000). Stimulus novelty differentially affects attentional allocation in PTSD. Biol Psychiatry,47, 880-890.
Kimble, M. O., Fleming, K., Bandy, C.,& Zambetti, A. (2010). Attention to novel and target stimuli in trauma survivors. Psychiatry Res,178,501-506.
Klauer, K. C.,& Musch, J. (2001). Does sunshine prime loyal? Affective priming in the naming task. Q J Exp Psychol A,54,727-751.
Klauer, K. C., Rossnagel, C.,& Musch, J. (1997). List-context effects in evaluative priming. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn,23,246-255.
Lamprecht, F., Kohnke, C., Lempa, W., Sack, M., Matzke, M.,& Munte, T. F. (2004). Event-related potentials and EMDR treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neurosci Res,49,267-272.
Lane, R. D., Chua, P. M.,& Dolan, R. J. (1999). Common effects of emotional valence, arousal and attention on neural activation during visual processing of pictures. Neuropsychologia,37,989-997.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Boksman, K., Densmore, M., Gupta, M., Neufeld, R. W., Gati, J. S.,& Menon, R. S. (2002). Brain activation during script-driven imagery induced dissociative responses in PTSD:a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation. Biol Psychiatry,52,305-311.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Densmore, M., Boksman, K., Neufeld, R. W., Gati, J. S., Menon, R. S. (2004). The nature of traumatic memories:a 4-T FMRI functional connectivity analysis. Am J Psychiatry,161,36-44.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Hopper, J., Densmore, M., Boksman, K., Gupta, M. A., Neufeld, R. W., Gati, J. S.,& Menon, R. S. (2003). Recall of emotional states in posttraumatic stress disorder:an fMRI investigation. Biol Psychiatry,53, 204-210.
Le Doux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain. New York:Simon & Schuster.
LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci,23,155-184.
Lenroot, R. K.,& Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 30,718-729.
Leppanen, J. M., Hietanen, J. K.,& Koskinen, K. (2008). Differential early ERPs to fearful versus neutral facial expressions:a response to the salience of the eyes? Biol Psychol,78,150-158.
Leppanen, J. M., Moulson, M. C., Vogel-Farley, V. K.,& Nelson, C. A. (2007). An ERP study of emotional face processing in the adult and infant brain. Child Dev,78, 232-245.
Letourneau, S. M.,& Mitchell, T. V. (2008). Behavioral and ERP measures of holistic face processing in a composite task. Brain Cogn,67,234-245.
Leventhal, A. M., Waters, A. J., Breitmeyer, B. G, Miller, E. K., Tapia, E.,& Li, Y. (2008). Subliminal processing of smoking-related and affective stimuli in tobacco addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol,16,301-312.
Liberzon, I.,& Sripada, C. S. (2008). The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD:a critical review. Prog Brain Res,167,151-169.
Lin, Z., Lin, Y,& Han, S. (2008). Self-construal priming modulates visual activity underlying global/local perception. Biol Psychol,77,93-97.
Livanou, M., Kasvikis, Y, Basoglu, M., Mytskidou, P., Sotiropoulou, V., Spanea, E., Mitsopoulou, T.,& Voutsa, N. (2005). Earthquake-related psychological distress and associated factors 4 years after the Parnitha earthquake in Greece. Eur Psychiatry,20,137-144.
Lonigan, C. J., Shannon, M. P., Taylor, C. M., Finch, A. J., Jr.,& Sallee, F. R. (1994). Children exposed to disaster:Ⅱ. Risk factors for the development of post-traumatic symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry,33, 94-105.
Lui, S., Huang, X., Chen, L., Tang, H., Zhang, T., Li, X., Li, D., Kuang, W., Chan, R. C., Mechelli, A., Sweeney, J. A.,& Gong, Q. (2009). High-field MRI reveals an acute impact on brain function in survivors of the magnitude 8.0 earthquake in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,106,15412-15417.
Luo, Q., Peng, D., Jin, Z., Xu, D., Xiao, L.,& Ding, G. (2004). Emotional valence of words modulates the subliminal repetition priming effect in the left fusiform gyrus:an event-related fMRI study. Neuroimage,21,414-421.
Luo, Y., Huang, X., Chen, Y., Jackson, T.,& Wei, D. (2010). Negativity bias of the self across time:an event-related potentials study. Neurosci Lett,475,69-73.
Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain. New York:Basic Books.
MacLeod, C., Mathews, A.,& Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. J Abnorm Psychol,95,15-20.
Mangun, G. R. (1995). Neural mechanisms of visual selective attention. Psychophysiology,32,4-18.
Mangun, G. R.,& Buck, L. A. (1998). Sustained visual-spatial attention produces costs and benefits in response time and evoked neural activity. Neuropsychologia,36, 189-200.
Mangun, G. R.,& Hillyard, S. A. (1990). Allocation of visual attention to spatial locations:tradeoff functions for event-related brain potentials and detection performance. Percept Psychophys,47,532-550.
Maratos, E. J., Allan, K.,& Rugg, M. D. (2000). Recognition memory for emotionally negative and neutral words:an ERP study. Neuropsychologia,38,1452-1465.
McDermott, B. M., Lee, E. M., Judd, M.,& Gibbon, P. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster. Can J Psychiatry,50,137-143.
McFarlane, A. C., Weber, D. L.,& Clark, C. R. (1993). Abnormal stimulus processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry,34,311-320.
Mecklinger, A., Kramer, A. F.,& Strayer, D. L. (1992). Event related potentials and EEG components in a semantic memory search task. Psychophysiology,29, 104-119.
Metzger, L. J., Carson, M. A., Paulus, L. A., Lasko, N. B., Paige, S. R., Pitman, R. K.,& Orr, S. P. (2002). Event-related potentials to auditory stimuli in female Vietnam nurse veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychophysiology,39,49-63.
Metzger, L. J., Orr, S. P., Lasko, N. B.,& Pitman, R. K. (1997). Auditory event-related potentials to tone stimuli in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry,42,1006-1015.
Metzger, L. J., Pitman, R. K., Miller, G. A., Paige, S. R.,& Orr, S. P. (2008). Intensity dependence of auditory p2 in monozygotic twins discordant for vietnam combat: Associations with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of rehabilitation research and development,45 (3):437-449.
Miltner, W. H., Trippe, R. H., Krieschel, S., Gutberlet, I., Hecht, H.,& Weiss, T. (2005). Event-related brain potentials and affective responses to threat in spider/snake-phobic and non-phobic subjects. Int J Psychophysiol,57,43-52.
Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Miles, F.,& Dixon, R. (2004). Time course of attentional bias for threat scenes:Testing the vigilance-avoidance hypothesis. Cognition & Emotion,18(5):689-700.
Mogg, K.,& Bradley, B. P. (2002). Selective orienting of attention to masked threat faces in social anxiety. Behav Res Ther,40,1403-1414.
Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P.,& Hallowell, N. (1994). Attentional bias to threat:roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. Q J Exp Psychol A,47,841-864.
Mogg, K., Philippot, P.,& Bradley, B. P. (2004). Selective attention to angry faces in clinical social phobia. JAbnorm Psychol,113,160-165.
Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., Yule, W.,& Dalgleish, T. (2000). Memory bias for emotional information in children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder:a preliminary study. J Anxiety Disord,14,521-534.
Morey, R. A., Petty, C. M., Cooper, D. A., Labar, K. S.,& McCarthy, G. (2008). Neural systems for executive and emotional processing are modulated by symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in Iraq War veterans. Psychiatry Res,162,59-72.
Morris, J. S., Friston, K. J., Buchel, C., Frith, C. D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J.,& Dolan, R. J. (1998). A neuromodulatory role for the human amygdala in processing emotional facial expressions. Brain,121 (Pt 1),47-57.
Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J.,& Dolan, R. J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature,383,812-815.
Murphy, S. T., Monahan, J. L.,& Zajonc, R. B. (1995). Additivity of nonconscious affect:combined effects of priming and exposure. J Pers Soc Psychol,69, 589-602.
Naccache, L., Gaillard, R., Adam, C., Hasboun, D., Clemenceau, S., Baulac, M., Dehaene, S.,& Cohen, L. (2005). A direct intracranial record of emotions evoked by subliminal words. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,102,7713-7717.
Navon, D.,& Margalit, B. (1983). Allocation of attention according to informativeness in visual recognition. Q.J Exp Psychol A,35,497-512.
Naatanen, R. (1990). The role of attention in auditory information processing as revealed by event-related potentials and other brain measures of cognitive function. Behav Brain Sci,13,201-288.
Neria, Y., Digrande, L.,& Adams, B. G. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks:A review of the literature among highly exposed populations. Am Psychol,66,429-446.
Nixon, R. D., Nehmy, T. J., Ellis, A. A., Ball, S. A., Menne, A.,& McKinnon, A.C. (2010). Predictors of posttraumatic stress in children following injury:The influence of appraisals, heart rate, and morphine use. Behav res therapy,48, 810-815.
Nudo, R. J., Milliken, G. W., Jenkins, W. M.,& Merzenich, M. M. (1996). Use-dependent alterations of movement representations in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys. JNeurosci,16,785-807.
Ohman, A. (1986). Face the beast and fear the face:animal and social fears as prototypes for evolutionary analyses of emotion. Psychophysiology,23, 123-145.
Ohman, A., Flykt, A.,& Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention:detecting the snake in the grass. JExp Psychol Gen,130,466-478.
Pannu Hayes, J., Labar, K. S., Petty, C. M., McCarthy, G.,& Morey, R. A. (2009). Alterations in the neural circuitry for emotion and attention associated with posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Psychiatry Res,172,7-15.
Paul, R. L., Merzenich, M.,& Goodman, H. (1972). Representation of slowly and rapidly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors of the hand in Brodmann's areas 3 and 1 of Macaca mulatta. Brain Res,36,229-249.
Paunovi, N., Lundh, L. G.,& Ost, L. G. (2002). Attentional and memory bias for emotional information in crime victims with acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J Anxiety Disord,16,675-692.
Paunovic, N., Lundh, L. G.,& Ost, L. G. (2003). Memory bias for faces that are perceived as hostile by crime victims with acute post-traumatic stress disorder. Cogn Behav Ther,32,203-214.
Peres, J. F., Goncalves, A. L.,& Peres, M. F. (2009). Psychological trauma in chronic pain:implications of PTSD for fibromyalgia and headache disorders. Curr Pain Headache Rep,13,350-357.
Polich, J. (1998). P300 clinical utility and control of variability. JClin Neurophysiol,15, 14-33.
Polich, J. (2007). Updating P300:an integrative theory of P3a and P3b. Clin Neurophysiol,118,2128-2148.
Polich, J.,& Herbst, K. L. (2000). P300 as a clinical assay:rationale, evaluation, and findings. Int JPsychophysiol,38,3-19.
Portin, R., Kovala, T., Polo-Kantola, P., Revonsuo, A., Muller, K.,& Matikainen, E. (2000). Does P3 reflect attentional or memory performances, or cognition more generally? Scand J Psychol,41,31-40.
Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Q J Exp Psychol,32,3-25.
Posner, M. I., Cohen, Y. (1984). Components of visual orienting. In:Bouma H, Bouwhuis D G (eds.). Attention and Performance. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum, 531-556.
Posner, M. I.,& Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annu Rev Neurosci,13,25-42.
Pourtois, G., Dan, E. S., Grandjean, D., Sander, D.,& Vuilleumier, P. (2005). Enhanced extrastriate visual response to bandpass spatial frequency filtered fearful faces: time course and topographic evoked-potentials mapping. Hum Brain Mapp,26, 65-79.
Pratto, F. (1994). Consciousness and automatic evaluation. In P M Niedenthal&S Kitayama (Eds.), The heart's eye:Emotional influences in perception and attention (pp.116-140). New York:Academic Press.
Pynoos, R. S., Goenjian, A., Tashjian, M., Karakashian, M., Manjikian, R., Manoukian, G., Steinberg, A. M.,& Fairbanks, L. A. (1993). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake. Br J Psychiatry,163,239-247.
Rauch, S. L., Whalen, P. J., Shin, L. M., McInerney, S. C., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P.,& Pitman, R. K. (2000). Exaggerated amygdala response to masked facial stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional MRI study. Biol Psychiatry,47,769-776.
Roca, V.,& Freeman, T. W. (2001). Complaints of impaired memory in veterans with PTSD. Am J Psychiatry,158,1738-1739.
Rugg, M. D., Mark, R. E., Walla, P., Schloerscheidt, A. M., Birch, C. S.,& Allan, K. (1998). Dissociation of the neural correlates of implicit and explicit memory. Nature,392,595-598.
Sakamoto, H., Fukuda, R., Okuaki, T., Rogers, M., Kasai, K., Machida, T., Shirouzu, I., Yamasue, H., Akiyama, T.,& Kato, N. (2005). Parahippocampal activation evoked by masked traumatic images in posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional MRI study. Neuroimage,26,813-821.
Schimmack, U. (2001). Pleasure and displeasure in reaction to conflicting picture pairs: examing appealingness andappallingness appraisals.2001,http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/～w3psyuli/msDATE.pdf.)
Schinder, A. F.,& Gage, F. H. (2004). A hypothesis about the role of adult neurogenesis in hippocampal function. Physiology (Bethesda),19,253-261.
Schupp, H. T., Junghofer, M., Weike, A. I.,& Hamm, A. O. (2003). Emotional facilitation of sensory processing in the visual cortex. Psychol Sci,14,7-13.
Schupp, H. T., Ohman, A., Junghofer, M., Weike, A. I., Stockburger, J.,& Hamm, A. O. (2004). The facilitated processing of threatening faces:an ERP analysis. Emotion,4,189-200.
Schwarz, E. D.,& Perry, B. D. (1994). The post-traumatic response in children and adolescents. Psychiatr Clin North Am,17,311-326.
Shannon, M. P., Lonigan, C. J., Finch, A. J., Jr,& Taylor, C. M. (1994). Children exposed to disaster:Epidemiology of post-traumatic 27 symptoms and symptom profiles. Journal of Amer Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,33 (1), 80-93.
Sharot, T., Martorella, E. A., Delgado, M. R.,& Phelps, E. A. (2007). How personal experience modulates the neural circuitry of memories of September 11. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,104,389-394.
Shin, L. M., Whalen, P. J., Pitman, R. K., Bush, G, Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., McInerney, S. C.,& Rauch, S. L. (2001). An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry,50,932-942.
Shin, L. M., Wright, C. I., Cannistraro, P. A., Wedig, M. M., McMullin, K., Martis, B., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Cavanagh, S. R., Krangel, T. S., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Whalen, P. J.,& Rauch, S. L. (2005). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to overtly presented fearful faces in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry,62, 273-281.
Shucard, J. L., McCabe, D. C.,& Szymanski, H. (2008). An event-related potential study of attention deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder during auditory and visual Go/NoGo continuous performance tasks. Biol Psychol,79,223-233.
Shum, M. S. (1998). The role of temporal landmarks in autobiographical memory processes. Psychol Bull,124,423-442.
Simmons, A. N., Paulus, M. P., Thorp, S. R., Matthews, S. C., Norman, S. B.,& Stein, M. B. (2008). Functional activation and neural networks in women with posttraumatic stress disorder related to intimate partner violence. Biol Psychiatry, 64,681-690.
Simson, R., Ritter, W.,& Vaughan, H. G., Jr. (1985). Effects of expectation on negative potentials during visual processing. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol,62, 25-31.
Smith, M. E. (1993). Neurophysiological Manifestations of Recollective Experience During Recognition Memory Judgments. J Cogn Neurosci,5,1-13.
Sprengelmeyer, R., Rausch, M., Eysel, U. T.,& Przuntek, H. (1998). Neural structures associated with recognition of facial expressions of basic emotions. Proc Biol Sci,265,1927-1931.
Spruyt, A., Hermans, D., De Houwer, J.,& Eelen, P. (2004). Automatic non-associative semantic priming:episodic affective priming of naming responses. Acta Psychol (Amst),116,39-54.
Spurrell, M. T.,& McFarlane, A. C. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder and coping after a natural disaster. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol,28,194-200.
Stam, R. (2007). PTSD and stress sensitisation:a tale of brain and body Part 1:human studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev,31,530-557.
Stanford, M. S., Vasterling, J. J., Mathias, C. W., Constans, J. I.,& Houston, R. J. (2001). Impact of threat relevance on P3 event-related potentials in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res,102,125-137.
Stekelenburg, J. J.,& de Gelder, B. (2004). The neural correlates of perceiving human bodies:an ERP study on the body-inversion effect. Neuroreport,15,777-780.
Stormark, K. M., Nordly, H.,& Hugdahl, K. (1995). Attentional shifts to emotionally charged cues:behavioral and ERP data. Cognition & Emotion,9,507-523.
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P.,& Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neurosci Biobehav Rev,27,33-44.
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P.,& Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews,27,33-44.
Thorpe, S., Fize, D.,& Marlot, C. (1996). Speed of processing in the human visual system. Nature,381,520-522.
Tian, Y., Klein, R. M., Satel, J., Xu, P.,& Yao, D. (2011). Electrophysiological explorations of the cause and effect of inhibition of return in a cue-target paradigm. Brain Topogr,24,164-182.
Topcuoglu, M. A., Ogilvy, C. S., Carter, B. S., Buonanno, F. S., Koroshetz, W. J.,& Singhal, A. B. (2003). Subarachnoid hemorrhage without evident cause on initial angiography studies:diagnostic yield of subsequent angiography and other neuroimaging tests. JNeurosurg,98,1235-1240.
Tural, U., Coskun, B., Onder, E., Corapcioglu, A., Yildiz, M., Kesepara, C., Karakaya, I., Aydin, M., Erol, A., Torun, F.,& Aybar, G. (2004). Psychological consequences of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. J Trauma Stress,17,451-459.
Uemoto, M., Shioyama, A., Koide, K., Honda, M., Takamiya, S., Shirakawa, K., Utsumi, K., Matsumoto, H.,& Yamamoto, K. (2000). [The mental health of school children after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake:I. Epidemiological study and risk factors for mental distress]. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi,102,459-480.
Van Strien, J. W., Glimmerveen, J. C., Martens, V. E.,& De Bruin, E. A. (2009). Age-related differences in brain activity during extended continuous word recognition in children. Neuroimage,47,688-699.
Vuilleumier, P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J.,& Dolan, R. J. (2001). Effects of attention and emotion on face processing in the human brain:an event-related fMRI study. Neuron,30,829-841.
Wald, I., Shechner, T., Bitton, S., Holoshitz, Y., Charney, D. S., Muller, D., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S.,& Bar-Haim, Y. (2011). Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depress Anxiety,28,406-411.
Weber, D. L., Clark, C. R., McFarlane, A. C., Moores, K. A., Morris, P.,& Egan, G. F. (2005). Abnormal frontal and parietal activity during working memory updating in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res,140,27-44.
Wei, D., Qiu, J., Tu, S., Tian, F., Su, Y.,& Luo, Y. (2010). Earthquake experience interference effects in a modified Stroop task:an ERP study. Neurosci Lett,474, 121-125.
Welsh, T. N.,& Pratt, J. (2006). Inhibition of return in cue-target and target-target tasks. Exp Brain Res,174,167-175.
Wessa, M., Jatzko, A.,& Flor, H. (2006). Retrieval and emotional processing of traumatic memories in posttraumatic stress disorder:peripheral and central correlates. Neuropsychologia,44,1683-1696.
Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Felmingham, K., Barton, M., Olivieri, G, Peduto, A., Gordon, E.,& Bryant, R. A. (2006). Trauma modulates amygdala and medial prefrontal responses to consciously attended fear. Neuroimage,29,347-357.
Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Felmingham, K., Liddell, B. J., Palmer, D. M.,& Bryant, R. A. (2007). Neural biases to covert and overt signals of fear:dissociation by trait anxiety and depression. J Cogn Neurosci,19,1595-1608.
Williams, L. M., Palmer, D., Liddell, B. J., Song, L.,& Gordon, E. (2006). The 'when' and 'where' of perceiving signals of threat versus non-threat. Neuroimage,31, 458-467.
Williams, J. M. G, Watts, F. N., Macleod, C.,& Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotion disorders(2nd ed.). Chichester, England:Wiley.
Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C.,& Wilbarger, J. L. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Pers Soc Psychol Bull,31,121-135.
Yalug, I., Corapcioglu, F., Fayda, M., Aksu, G., Basar, E., Yalug, K.,& Aker, T. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder and risk factors in parents of children with a cancer diagnosis. Pediatr Hematol Oncol,25,27-38.
Yang, P., Wu, M. T., Hsu, C. C.,& Ker, J. H. (2004). Evidence of early neurobiological alternations in adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional MRI study. Neurosci Lett,370,13-18.
Yantis, S.,& Jonides, J. (1996). Attentional capture by abrupt onsets:new perceptual objects or visual masking? J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform,22,1505-1513.
Yiend, J.,& Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A,54,665-681.
Yiend, J.,& Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. Q J Exp Psychol A,54,665-681.
Yuan, J., Zhang, Q., Chen, A., Li, H., Wang, Q., Zhuang, Z.,& Jia, S. (2007). Are we sensitive to valence differences in emotionally negative stimuli? Electrophysiological evidence from an ERP study. Neuropsychologia,45, 2764-2771.
Yule, W. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Int Rev Psychiat,13,194-200.
Zeitlin, S. B.,& McNally, R. J. (1991). Implicit and explicit memory bias for threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther,29,451-457.
Zhang, Y, Kong, F., Wang, L., Chen, H., Gao, X., Tan, X., Chen, H., Lv, J.,& Liu, Y. (2010). Mental health and coping styles of children and adolescent survivors one year after the 2008 Chinese earthquake. Child Youth Serv Rev,32,1403-1409.
Zhao, C., Deng, W.,& Gage, F. H. (2008). Mechanisms and functional implications of adult neurogenesis. Cell,132,645-660.
Zhou, A., Shi, Z., Zhang, P., Liu, P., Han, W., Wu, H., Li, Q., Zuo, Q.,& Xia, R. (2010). An ERP study on the effect of self-relevant possessive pronoun. Neurosci Lett, 480,162-166.
Zung, W. K. (1971)焦虑自评量表SAS (Rating Instrument for Anxiety Disorders).中国心理卫生杂志,1999,(增刊)：235-236.
白露,马慧,黄宇霞,罗跃嘉.(2005).中国情绪图片系统的编制——在46名中国大学生中的试用.中国心理卫生杂志,19(11)：719-722.
蔡兴林,杨远波.(2009).汶川地震创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)的发生调查及体育干预方式研究.中国体育科技,45(5)：107-110.
陈安涛,李红,邱江,罗跃嘉.(2006).视觉分类的时间过程：事件相关电位提供的电生理证据.科学通报,51,1281-1286.
戴琴,冯正直.(2008).郁患者的注意偏向.心理科学进展,16(2)：260-265.
董惠娟,顾建华.(2006).论重大突发事件的心理影响及本体应付——以印度洋地震海啸为例.自然灾害学报,15(4)：88-91.
冯龙喜.(2010).生物反馈治疗广泛性焦虑障碍对照研究.临床医学精神杂志,1,40-41.
冯文锋,罗文波,廖渝,陈红,罗跃嘉.(2010).胖负面身体自我女大学生对胖信息的注意偏好：注意警觉还是注意维持.心理学报,42(7)：779-790.
甘景梨,胡兴焕,李晓琼,高存友,杨代德,张伟红.(2004).军人心理创伤后应激障碍与适应障碍患者事件相关电位的对照研究.中国民康医学杂志,1反436-440.
高静,张先庚,林琳.(2009).眼动脱敏再加工对地震幸存者创伤后应激障碍及应对方式的研究.中国实用护理杂志,25(9)：8-11.
高培霞,刘惠军,丁妮,郭德俊.(2010).青少年对情绪性图片加工的脑电反应特征.心理学报,42(3)：342-351.
高笑.(2010).胖负面身体自我图式女性对身体信息的注意偏向：理论模型及加工规律.博士论文,西南大学.
郭旗,肖水源.(2010).灾难后的心理应激反应和危机干预.中国健康心理学杂志,(9)：118-121.
黄宇霞,罗跃嘉.(2009).负性情绪刺激是否总是优先得到加工：ERP研究.心理学报41(9)：822-831.
纪林芹,张文新.(2008).攻击性儿童的P300事件相关电位研究.心理科学,21,299-303.
李文峰,唐学锋,舒逍,丁杰,韦伟香.(2009).四川地震灾后心理干预的有效性研究.包头医学院学报,3,28-29
梁毅.(2009).胖负面身体自我女性拄意偏向的机制研究.硕士论文,西南大学.
廖声立,陶德清.(2004).无意识情绪启动研究新进展.心理科学27(3)：701-704.
廖文乾(2002).地震灾后国民小学实施心理复健之研究-所灾区小学之个案研究.硕士论文,台中：国立台中师范学院国民教育研究所.
林虹萍.(2008).论地震灾后儿童的心理重建.四川教育学院学报,24,5-8.
刘宏艳,胡治国,彭聃龄.(2008).积极与消极情绪关系的理论及研究,心理群学进属,16(2)：295-301.
刘松怀,梁志锋,金福英,祁长凤,张拉艳.(2008).地震伤残者应用心理放松疗法的探讨.中国康复理论与实践,7,677-679.
刘贤臣,马登岱,刘连启,赵贵芳,李传琦,杨杰等.(1998).心理创伤后应激障碍自评量表的编制和信度效度研究,中国行为医学群学7(2)：93-96.
刘娅,袁萍,贾红.(2011).汶川震后灾区PTSD时间趋势分析.中国公共卫生,3,303-305.
吕厚超,李敏.(2000).闪光灯记忆的理论模型.心理学动态,8(3)：23-28.
吕勇,韩宗义,杜英春.(2003).启动效应的ERP研究综述.心理与行为研究,1(2)：151-155.
罗非,罗劲,吴一兵,丁之光,李佳音,王锦琰等.(2009).脑功能可塑性与灾后心理功能康复.心理科学进展,17.594-601.
毛国红,洪冰.(2000).生物反馈疗法在心身疾病及神经症诊治中的应.华东冶金学院学报,3,126-129.
彭晓哲,周晓林.(2005).情绪信息与注意偏向.心理科学进属13(4)：488-496.
邱慧萍.(2004).灾难性危机事件的心理干预.江西农业大学学报,3,134.
邱江,李红,张庆林,黄砾卉,郭亚桥,涂燊,等(2009).创伤性事件(汶川地震) 对个体选择性注意的影响：一项ERP实验.中国科学C辑：生命科学39,287-294.
沈祺静.(2001).心理护理结合生物反馈疗法治疗焦虑症临床研究.中国疗养医学,8,62-63.
沈世琴,吴娅利,张敏.(2010).认知行为团体辅导对汶川地震伤员焦虑及抑郁情绪的影响.检验医学与临床,5,825-826.
施琪嘉.(2010).心理创伤记忆的脑机制及其治疗原理.神经损伤与功能重建(4)：18-20.
宋丽娜,施旺红(2008).生物反馈治疗神经症的进展.国际精神病杂志,3,186-188.
汪向东,张华彪,新福尚隆,范启亮,李俊福,王玉凤等.(1999).地震后受灾群体生活质量研究.中国心理卫生杂志.13,24-27
汪向东,赵丞智,新福尚隆,张富,范启亮,吕秋云.(1999).地震后PTSD的发生率及影响因素.中国心理卫生杂志,13.28-30.
王婷,韩布新.(2010).创伤后应激障碍记忆机制研究述评.中国农业大学学报(社会科学版),21,165-174.
魏景汉,罗跃嘉.(2002).以知事事件相关电位教程.北京：经济日报出版社
吴洣麓,童岱.(2009).“5·12”幸存孝大脑改变.北京科技报,9月14日.
杨丽明,刘秀勤.(2004).心理护理结合生物反馈促进焦虑症病人康.中华护理杂志10,783-784
杨小冬,罗跃嘉.(2004).注意受情绪信息影响的实验范式.心理科学进展,12(6)：833-841.
杨文静,张庆林,伍泽莲,贾磊.(2010).情绪记忆的主动遗忘.心理科学进展,18(6)：871-877.
杨晓云.(2007).医科大学生创伤后应激障碍的生成、归因及干预实验研究,博士论文,辽宁师范大学.
张蕾.(2008).不同认知任务和刺激呈现方式调节表情面孔加工的ERP研究.山东师范大学硕士.
张明,刘宁.(2007)视觉返回抑制的实验范式.心理科学进展,15(3)：385-393.
张胜康.(2009).灾难心理危机及其社会干预——关于地震灾后人群焦虑情绪的社会学研究.四川省社会科学院2,16-19.
张妍,孔繁昌,韩黎,石明莉,陈红.(2012).中学生与大学生地震亲历者对威胁性刺激记忆偏向的比较研究.心理发展与教育,2,52-60.
张妍,孔繁昌,权珍桢,许芳.(2010a).地震灾区大学生生命价值观与自杀态度的调查分析.中华行为医学与脑科学,19(7)：641-643.
张妍,孔繁昌,舒勃桥,向燕辉,陈红.(2010b).地震灾区大学生生活质量与自杀态度的调查研究.心理研究3(3)：83-88.
张妍,孔繁昌,许芳,向燕辉,谭小宏,陈红等.(2010c).地震对四川灾区初中生人格发展的影响.中国特殊教育,119(5)：65-72.
张妍,向燕辉,谭小宏,陈寒,任俊,权珍桢等.(2010d).地震灾区大学生不同时间段焦虑影响因素分析.中国公共卫生杂志，26(2)：131-132.
张妍,向燕辉,吴亚丽,尹茜,刘丽英.(2009a).5.12地震前后灾区大学生生命价值取向探析.社会心理研究,78(2)：27-33.
张妍,向燕辉,郑涌,吕建国,尹茜,陈寒.(2009b).5·12地震前后灾区大学生生命价值观比较.心理科学进展,17(3)：505-510.
张妍,许芳,孔繁昌,权珍桢.(2011).震后不同时期灾区初中生身心健康与应对方式特点.中国学校卫生，32(3)：294-296.
张玉婷,邱江,张庆林.(2010).地震亲历者执行两难决策任务的大脑机制：一项ERP研究.西南大学学报(自然科学版),32,157-162.
赵冬梅.(2009).心理创伤的治疗模型与理论.华南师范大学学报(社会科学版),(3)：125-129.
赵静波.(2008).灾后儿童青少年心理危机干预.中国医学论坛报,5,1-2.
周仁宇,李季桦,陈锦宏.(2001).儿董青少年的灾后心理复建(教师手册).中国台湾.http://921.yam.org.tw/care/cch1/3/1.htm.
朱蕴丽,苗元江.(2005).公共卫生事件的心理应激与干预策略.南昌大学学报,36,49-52.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC:Autllor.
Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E.,& Gabrieli, J. D. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. J Neurosci,23, 5627-5633.
Araki, T., Kasai, K., Yamasue, H., Kato, N., Kudo, N., Ohtani, T., Nakagome, K., Kirihara, K., Yamada, H., Abe, O.,& Iwanami, A. (2005). Association between lower P300 amplitude and smaller anterior cingulate cortex volume in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder:a study of victims of Tokyo subway sarin attack. Neuroimage,25,43-50.
Attias, J., Bleich, A., Furman, V.,& Zinger, Y. (1996). Event-related potentials in post-traumatic stress disorder of combat origin. Biol Psychiatry,40,373-381.
Buckley, T. C., Blanchard, E. B.,& Neill, W. T. (2000). Information processing and PTSD:a review of the empirical literature. Clin Psychol Rev,20,1041-1065.
Bar-Haim, Y, Lamy, D.,& Glickman, S. (2005). Attentional bias in anxiety:a behavioral and ERP study. Brain Cogn,59,11-22.
Bar-Haim, Y, Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J.,& van, I. M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals:a meta-analytic study. Psychol Bull,133,1-24.
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R.,& Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. JPers Soc Psychol,62,893-912.
Basoglu, M., Kilic, C., Salcioglu, E.,& Livanou, M. (2004). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbid depression in earthquake survivors in Turkey:an epidemiological study. J Trauma Stress,17,133-141.
Batty, M.,& Taylor, M. J. (2003). Early processing of the six basic facial emotional expressions. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res,17,613-620.
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E.,& Finkenauer, C. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Rev Gen Psychol,5,323-370.
Bleich, A. V., Attias, J.,& Furman, V. (1996). Effect of repeated visual traumatic stimuli on the event related P3 brain potential in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int J Neurosci,85,45-55.
Bosch, V., Mecklinger, A.,& Friederici, A. D. (2001). Slow cortical potentials during retention of object, spatial, and verbal information. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res, 10,219-237.
Bradley, B. P., Mogg, K.,& Lee, S. C. (1997). Attentional biases for negative information in induced and naturally occurring dysphoria. Behav Res Ther,35, 911-927.
Breiter, H. C., Etcoff, N. L., Whalen, P. J., Kennedy, W. A., Rauch, S. L., Buckner, R. L., Strauss, M. M., Hyman, S. E.,& Rosen, B. R. (1996). Response and habituation of the human amygdala during visual processing of facial expression. Neuron, 17,875-887.
Bremner, J. D., Elzinga, B., Schmahl, C.,& Vermetten, E. (2008). Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. Prog Brain Res,167,171-186.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T.,& Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Rev,103,670-686.
Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J. D., Lipton, M.,& Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders:characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychol Rev,117,210-232.
Brewin, C. R.,& Holmes, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clin Psychol Rev,23,339-376.
Britton, J. C., Phan, K. L., Taylor, S. F., Fig, L. M.,& Liberzon, I. (2005). Corticolimbic blood flow in posttraumatic stress disorder during script-driven imagery. Biol Psychiatry,57,832-840.
Broomfield, N. M.,& Turpin, G. (2005). Covert and overt attention in trait anxiety:a cognitive psychophysiological analysis. Biol Psychol,68,179-200.
Brown, R.,& Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition,5,73-99.
Bryant, R. A., Felmingham, K. L., Kemp, A. H., Barton, M., Peduto, A. S., Rennie, C., Gordon, E.,& Williams, L. M. (2005). Neural networks of information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry,58,111-118.
Calhoun, L. G., Cann, A., Tedeschi, R. G.,& McMillan, J. (2000). A correlational test of the relationship between posttraumatic growth, religion, and cognitive processing. J Trauma Stress,13,521-527.
Canli, T., Sivers, H., Thomason, M. E., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Gabrieli, J. D.,& Gotlib, I. H. (2004). Brain activation to emotional words in depressed vs healthy subjects. Neuroreport,15,2585-2588.
Carr, V. J., Lewin, T. J., Webster, R. A., Kenardy, J. A., Hazell, P. L.,& Carter, G. L. (1997). Psychosocial sequelae of the 1989 Newcastle earthquake:II. Exposure and morbidity profiles during the first 2 years post-disaster. Psychol Med,27, 167-178.
Carretie, L., Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mercado, F.,& Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic attention to emotional stimuli:neural correlates. Hum Brain Mapp, 22,290-299.
Carretie, L., Martin-Loeches, M., Hinojosa, J. A.,& Mercado, F. (2001). Emotion and attention interaction studied through event-related potentials. J Cogn Neurosci, 13,1109-1128.
Carretie, L., Mercado, F.,& Tapia, M. (2001). [Human brain activity in response to emotional visual stimuli:open issues and recent data]. Rev Neurol,33,973-979.
Charles, G, Hansenne, M., Ansseau, M., Pitchot, W., Machowski, R., Schittecatte, M., & Wilmotte, J. (1995). P300 in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychobiology,32,72-74.
Chiao, J. Y., Iidaka, T., Gordon, H. L., Nogawa, J., Bar, M., Aminoff, E., Sadato, N.,& Ambady, N. (2008). Cultural specificity in amygdala response to fear faces. J Cogn Neurosci,20,2167-2174.
Courchesne, E., Hillyard, S. A.,& Galambos, R. (1975). Stimulus novelty, task relevance and the visual evoked potential in man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol,39,131-143.
Crowley, K. E.,& Colrain, I. M. (2004). A review of the evidence for p2 being an independent component process:Age, sleep and modality. Clinical neurophysiology:official journal of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology,115 (4):732-744
Dalgleish, T. (2004). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder:the evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychol Bull,130,228-260.
Dalgleish, T., Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, M. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T.,& Yule, W. (2001). An experimental investigation of hypervigilance for threat in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol Med,31,541-547.
Danckwerts, A.,& Leathem, J. (2003). Questioning the link between ptsd and cognitive dysfunction. Neuropsychology review,13 (4):221-235.
Davidson, R. J. (2002). Anxiety and affective style:role of prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Biol Psychiatry,51,68-80.
Delplanque, S., Silvert, L., Hot, P.,& Sequeira, H. (2005). Event-related P3a and P3b in response to unpredictable emotional stimuli. Biol Psychol,68,107-120.
Donchin, E.,& Coles, M. G. H. (1988). Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating? Behav Brain Sci,11,357-374.
Doron-LaMarca, S., Vogt, D. S., King, D. W., King, L. A.,& Saxe, G. N. (2010). Pretrauma problems, prior stressor exposure, and gender as predictors of change in posttraumatic stress symptoms among physically injured children and adolescents. J Consult Clin Psychol,78,781-793.
Duncan-Johnson, C. C.,& Donchin, E. (1982). The P300 component of the event-related brain potential as an index of information processing. Biol Psychol, 14,1-52.
Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Steil, R., Clohessy, S., Wenninger, K.,& Winter, H. (2002). The nature of intrusive memories after trauma:The warning signal hypothesis. Behaviour research and therapy,40 (9):995-1002.
Eimer, M.,& Holmes, A. (2002). An ERP study on the time course of emotional face processing. Neuroreport,13,427-431.
Eimer, M.,& Holmes, A. (2007). Event-related brain potential correlates of emotional face processing. Neuropsychologia,45,15-31.
Eimer, M., Holmes, A.,& McGlone, F. P. (2003). The role of spatial attention in the processing of facial expression:an ERP study of rapid brain responses to six basic emotions. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci,3,97-110.
Eksi, A.,& Braun, K. L. (2007). Risk factors for the development of PTSD and depression among child and adolescent victims following a 7.4 magnitude earthquake. Int Jpsychiat clin,11 (3):190-199.
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C.,& Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. J Pers Soc Psychol,50,229-238.
Finkenauer, C., Luminet, O., Gisle, L., el-Ahmadi, A., van der Linden, M.,& Philippot, P. (1998). Flashbulb memories and the underlying mechanisms of their formation:toward an emotional-integrative model. Mem Cognit,26,516-531.
Finnigan, S., Humphreys, M. S., Dennis, S., & Geffen, G. (2002). ERP 'old/new' effects: memory strength and decisional factor(s). Neuropsychologia, 40, 2288-2304.
Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O.(1998).Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.
Fox, E., Russo, R., & Dutton, K. (2002). Attentional Bias for Threat: Evidence for Delayed Disengagement from Emotional Faces. Cogn Emot, 16, 355-379.
Friedman, D., Cycowicz, Y. M, & Gaeta, H. (2001). The novelty P3: an event-related brain potential (ERP) sign of the brain's evaluation of novelty. Neurosci BiobehavRev, 25, 355-373.
Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., Ruf, M., de Kloet, C. S., & Westenberg, H. G. (2008). Neural correlates of associative learning and memory in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. JPsychiatr Res, 42, 659-669.
Goenjian, A. K., Karayan, I., Pynoos, R. S., Minassian, D., Najarian, L. M., Steinberg, A. M., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1997). Outcome of psychotherapy among early adolescents after trauma. Am J Psychiatry, 154, 536-542.
Goenjian, A. K., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Najarian, L. M., Asarnow, J. R., Karayan, I., Ghurabi, M, & Fairbanks, L. A. (1995). Psychiatric comorbidity in children after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 34, 1174-1184.
Greenwald, A. G., Draine, S. C., & Abrams, R. L. (1996). Three cognitive markers of unconscious semantic activation. Science, 273, 1699-1702.
Groome, D., & Soureti, A. (2004). Post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety symptoms in children exposed to the 1999 Greek earthquake. BrJPsychol, 95, 387-397.
Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., Cusack, K. J., Wells, C, & Frueh, B. C.(2007). Screening for PTSD in public-sector mental health settings: the diagnostic utility of the PTSD checklist. Depress Anxiety, 24, 124-129.
Grubaugh, A. L., Elhai, J. D., Cusack, K. J., Wells, C, & Frueh, B. C. (2009). Screening for PTSD in public-sector mental health settings: the diagnostic utility of the checklist. Depress Anxiety, 24, 124-129.
Hadi, F. A., & Llabre, M. M. (1998). The Gulf crisis experience of Kuwaiti children: psychological and cognitive factors. J Trauma Stress, 11, 45-56.
Han, S., & Northoff, G. (2008). Culture-sensitive neural substrates of human cognition: a transcultural neuroimaging approach. Nat Rev Neurosci, 9, 646-654.
Harmer, C. J., Thilo, K. V., Rothwell, J. C, & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). Transcranial magnetic stimulation of medial-frontal cortex impairs the processing of angry facial expressions. Nat Neurosci,4,17-18.
Hendler, T., Rotshtein, P., Yeshurun, Y., Weizmann, T., Kahn, I., Ben-Bashat, D., Malach, R.,& Bleich, A. (2003). Sensing the invisible:differential sensitivity of visual cortex and amygdala to traumatic context. Neuroimage,19,587-600.
Hermans, D., De'Houwer, J.,& Eelen, P. (1994). The affective priming effect: Automatic activation evaluative information in memory. Congnition & Emotion,8,515-533.
Hermans, D., De'Houwer, J.,& Eelen, P. (2001). A time course analysis of the affective priming effect. Cognition & Emotion,15(2):143-165.
Hermans, D., Van den Broeck, A.,& Eelen, P. (1998). Affective priming using a color-naming task:a test of an affective-motivational account of affective priming effects. Z Exp Psychol,45,136-148.
Hillyard, S. A.,& Anllo-Vento, L. (1998). Event-related brain potentials in the study of visual selective attention. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,95,781-787.
Hillyard, S. A., Anllo-Vento, L., Clarck, V. P., Heinze, H., Luck, S. J.,& Mangun, G. R. (1995). Neuroimaging approaches to the study of visual attention:A tutorial. In A. F. Kramer, M. G. H. Coles,& G. D. Logan (Eds.), Converging operations in the study of visual selective attention (pp.107-138). Washington:American Psychological association.
Hizli, F. G., Taskintuna, N., Isikli, S., Kilic, C.,& Zileli, L. (2009). Predictors of posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents. Child Youth Serv Rev,31, 349-354.
Hopfinger, J. B., Buonocore, M. H.,& Mangun, G R. (2000). The neural mechanisms of top-down attentional control. Nat Neurosci,3,284-291.
Huang, Y. X.,& Luo, Y. J. (2004). New Development in ERPs studies of Emotion. Journal of the Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences,21, 433-440.
Huang, Y. X.,& Luo, Y. J. (2006). Temporal course of emotional negativity bias:an ERP study. Neurosci Lett,398,91-96.
Jenkins, W. M., Merzenich, M. M., Ochs, M. T., Allard, T.,& Guic-Robles, E. (1990). Functional reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in adult owl monkeys after behaviorally controlled tactile stimulation. J Neurophysiol,63, 82-104.
Johnson, R., Jr. (1986). A triarchic model of P300 amplitude. Psychophysiology,23, 367-384.
Johnson, R., Jr. (1993). On the neural generators of the P300 component of the event-related potential. Psychophysiology,30,90-97.
Joyce, C.,& Rossion, B. (2005). The face-sensitive N170 and VPP components manifest the same brain processes:the effect of reference electrode site. Clin Neurophysiol,116,2613-2631.
Karl, A., Malta, L. S.,& Maercker, A. (2006). Meta-analytic review of event-related potential studies in post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychol,71,123-147.
Karl, A., Schaefer, M., Malta, L. S., Dorfel, D., Rohleder, N.,& Werner, A. (2006). A meta-analysis of structural brain abnormalities in ptsd. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews,30(7):1004-1031.
Keil, A., Bradley, M. M., Hauk, O., Rockstroh, B., Elbert, T.,& Lang, P. J. (2002). Large-scale neural correlates of affective picture processing. Psychophysiology, 39,641-649.
Kimble, M., Kaloupek, D., Kaufman, M.,& Deldin, P. (2000). Stimulus novelty differentially affects attentional allocation in PTSD. Biol Psychiatry,47, 880-890.
Kimble, M. O., Fleming, K., Bandy, C.,& Zambetti, A. (2010). Attention to novel and target stimuli in trauma survivors. Psychiatry Res,178,501-506.
Klauer, K. C.,& Musch, J. (2001). Does sunshine prime loyal? Affective priming in the naming task. Q J Exp Psychol A,54,727-751.
Klauer, K. C., Rossnagel, C.,& Musch, J. (1997). List-context effects in evaluative priming. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn,23,246-255.
Lamprecht, F., Kohnke, C., Lempa, W., Sack, M., Matzke, M.,& Munte, T. F. (2004). Event-related potentials and EMDR treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Neurosci Res,49,267-272.
Lane, R. D., Chua, P. M.,& Dolan, R. J. (1999). Common effects of emotional valence, arousal and attention on neural activation during visual processing of pictures. Neuropsychologia,37,989-997.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Boksman, K., Densmore, M., Gupta, M., Neufeld, R. W., Gati, J. S.,& Menon, R. S. (2002). Brain activation during script-driven imagery induced dissociative responses in PTSD:a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation. Biol Psychiatry,52,305-311.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Densmore, M., Boksman, K., Neufeld, R. W., Gati, J. S., Menon, R. S. (2004). The nature of traumatic memories:a 4-T FMRI functional connectivity analysis. Am J Psychiatry,161,36-44.
Lanius, R. A., Williamson, P. C., Hopper, J., Densmore, M., Boksman, K., Gupta, M. A., Neufeld, R. W., Gati, J. S.,& Menon, R. S. (2003). Recall of emotional states in posttraumatic stress disorder:an fMRI investigation. Biol Psychiatry,53, 204-210.
Le Doux, J. E. (1996). The emotional brain. New York:Simon & Schuster.
LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci,23,155-184.
Lenroot, R. K.,& Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 30,718-729.
Leppanen, J. M., Hietanen, J. K.,& Koskinen, K. (2008). Differential early ERPs to fearful versus neutral facial expressions:a response to the salience of the eyes? Biol Psychol,78,150-158.
Leppanen, J. M., Moulson, M. C., Vogel-Farley, V. K.,& Nelson, C. A. (2007). An ERP study of emotional face processing in the adult and infant brain. Child Dev,78, 232-245.
Letourneau, S. M.,& Mitchell, T. V. (2008). Behavioral and ERP measures of holistic face processing in a composite task. Brain Cogn,67,234-245.
Leventhal, A. M., Waters, A. J., Breitmeyer, B. G, Miller, E. K., Tapia, E.,& Li, Y. (2008). Subliminal processing of smoking-related and affective stimuli in tobacco addiction. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol,16,301-312.
Liberzon, I.,& Sripada, C. S. (2008). The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD:a critical review. Prog Brain Res,167,151-169.
Lin, Z., Lin, Y,& Han, S. (2008). Self-construal priming modulates visual activity underlying global/local perception. Biol Psychol,77,93-97.
Livanou, M., Kasvikis, Y, Basoglu, M., Mytskidou, P., Sotiropoulou, V., Spanea, E., Mitsopoulou, T.,& Voutsa, N. (2005). Earthquake-related psychological distress and associated factors 4 years after the Parnitha earthquake in Greece. Eur Psychiatry,20,137-144.
Lonigan, C. J., Shannon, M. P., Taylor, C. M., Finch, A. J., Jr.,& Sallee, F. R. (1994). Children exposed to disaster:Ⅱ. Risk factors for the development of post-traumatic symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry,33, 94-105.
Lui, S., Huang, X., Chen, L., Tang, H., Zhang, T., Li, X., Li, D., Kuang, W., Chan, R. C., Mechelli, A., Sweeney, J. A.,& Gong, Q. (2009). High-field MRI reveals an acute impact on brain function in survivors of the magnitude 8.0 earthquake in China. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,106,15412-15417.
Luo, Q., Peng, D., Jin, Z., Xu, D., Xiao, L.,& Ding, G. (2004). Emotional valence of words modulates the subliminal repetition priming effect in the left fusiform gyrus:an event-related fMRI study. Neuroimage,21,414-421.
Luo, Y., Huang, X., Chen, Y., Jackson, T.,& Wei, D. (2010). Negativity bias of the self across time:an event-related potentials study. Neurosci Lett,475,69-73.
Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain. New York:Basic Books.
MacLeod, C., Mathews, A.,& Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. J Abnorm Psychol,95,15-20.
Mangun, G. R. (1995). Neural mechanisms of visual selective attention. Psychophysiology,32,4-18.
Mangun, G. R.,& Buck, L. A. (1998). Sustained visual-spatial attention produces costs and benefits in response time and evoked neural activity. Neuropsychologia,36, 189-200.
Mangun, G. R.,& Hillyard, S. A. (1990). Allocation of visual attention to spatial locations:tradeoff functions for event-related brain potentials and detection performance. Percept Psychophys,47,532-550.
Maratos, E. J., Allan, K.,& Rugg, M. D. (2000). Recognition memory for emotionally negative and neutral words:an ERP study. Neuropsychologia,38,1452-1465.
McDermott, B. M., Lee, E. M., Judd, M.,& Gibbon, P. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster. Can J Psychiatry,50,137-143.
McFarlane, A. C., Weber, D. L.,& Clark, C. R. (1993). Abnormal stimulus processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry,34,311-320.
Mecklinger, A., Kramer, A. F.,& Strayer, D. L. (1992). Event related potentials and EEG components in a semantic memory search task. Psychophysiology,29, 104-119.
Metzger, L. J., Carson, M. A., Paulus, L. A., Lasko, N. B., Paige, S. R., Pitman, R. K.,& Orr, S. P. (2002). Event-related potentials to auditory stimuli in female Vietnam nurse veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychophysiology,39,49-63.
Metzger, L. J., Orr, S. P., Lasko, N. B.,& Pitman, R. K. (1997). Auditory event-related potentials to tone stimuli in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry,42,1006-1015.
Metzger, L. J., Pitman, R. K., Miller, G. A., Paige, S. R.,& Orr, S. P. (2008). Intensity dependence of auditory p2 in monozygotic twins discordant for vietnam combat: Associations with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of rehabilitation research and development,45 (3):437-449.
Miltner, W. H., Trippe, R. H., Krieschel, S., Gutberlet, I., Hecht, H.,& Weiss, T. (2005). Event-related brain potentials and affective responses to threat in spider/snake-phobic and non-phobic subjects. Int J Psychophysiol,57,43-52.
Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Miles, F.,& Dixon, R. (2004). Time course of attentional bias for threat scenes:Testing the vigilance-avoidance hypothesis. Cognition & Emotion,18(5):689-700.
Mogg, K.,& Bradley, B. P. (2002). Selective orienting of attention to masked threat faces in social anxiety. Behav Res Ther,40,1403-1414.
Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P.,& Hallowell, N. (1994). Attentional bias to threat:roles of trait anxiety, stressful events, and awareness. Q J Exp Psychol A,47,841-864.
Mogg, K., Philippot, P.,& Bradley, B. P. (2004). Selective attention to angry faces in clinical social phobia. JAbnorm Psychol,113,160-165.
Moradi, A. R., Taghavi, R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., Yule, W.,& Dalgleish, T. (2000). Memory bias for emotional information in children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder:a preliminary study. J Anxiety Disord,14,521-534.
Morey, R. A., Petty, C. M., Cooper, D. A., Labar, K. S.,& McCarthy, G. (2008). Neural systems for executive and emotional processing are modulated by symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in Iraq War veterans. Psychiatry Res,162,59-72.
Morris, J. S., Friston, K. J., Buchel, C., Frith, C. D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J.,& Dolan, R. J. (1998). A neuromodulatory role for the human amygdala in processing emotional facial expressions. Brain,121 (Pt 1),47-57.
Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J.,& Dolan, R. J. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature,383,812-815.
Murphy, S. T., Monahan, J. L.,& Zajonc, R. B. (1995). Additivity of nonconscious affect:combined effects of priming and exposure. J Pers Soc Psychol,69, 589-602.
Naccache, L., Gaillard, R., Adam, C., Hasboun, D., Clemenceau, S., Baulac, M., Dehaene, S.,& Cohen, L. (2005). A direct intracranial record of emotions evoked by subliminal words. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA,102,7713-7717.
Navon, D.,& Margalit, B. (1983). Allocation of attention according to informativeness in visual recognition. Q.J Exp Psychol A,35,497-512.
Naatanen, R. (1990). The role of attention in auditory information processing as revealed by event-related potentials and other brain measures of cognitive function. Behav Brain Sci,13,201-288.
Neria, Y., Digrande, L.,& Adams, B. G. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11,2001, terrorist attacks:A review of the literature among highly exposed populations. Am Psychol,66,429-446.
Nixon, R. D., Nehmy, T. J., Ellis, A. A., Ball, S. A., Menne, A.,& McKinnon, A.C. (2010). Predictors of posttraumatic stress in children following injury:The influence of appraisals, heart rate, and morphine use. Behav res therapy,48, 810-815.
Nudo, R. J., Milliken, G. W., Jenkins, W. M.,& Merzenich, M. M. (1996). Use-dependent alterations of movement representations in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys. JNeurosci,16,785-807.
Ohman, A. (1986). Face the beast and fear the face:animal and social fears as prototypes for evolutionary analyses of emotion. Psychophysiology,23, 123-145.
Ohman, A., Flykt, A.,& Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention:detecting the snake in the grass. JExp Psychol Gen,130,466-478.
Pannu Hayes, J., Labar, K. S., Petty, C. M., McCarthy, G.,& Morey, R. A. (2009). Alterations in the neural circuitry for emotion and attention associated with posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Psychiatry Res,172,7-15.
Paul, R. L., Merzenich, M.,& Goodman, H. (1972). Representation of slowly and rapidly adapting cutaneous mechanoreceptors of the hand in Brodmann's areas 3 and 1 of Macaca mulatta. Brain Res,36,229-249.
Paunovi, N., Lundh, L. G.,& Ost, L. G. (2002). Attentional and memory bias for emotional information in crime victims with acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J Anxiety Disord,16,675-692.
Paunovic, N., Lundh, L. G.,& Ost, L. G. (2003). Memory bias for faces that are perceived as hostile by crime victims with acute post-traumatic stress disorder. Cogn Behav Ther,32,203-214.
Peres, J. F., Goncalves, A. L.,& Peres, M. F. (2009). Psychological trauma in chronic pain:implications of PTSD for fibromyalgia and headache disorders. Curr Pain Headache Rep,13,350-357.
Polich, J. (1998). P300 clinical utility and control of variability. JClin Neurophysiol,15, 14-33.
Polich, J. (2007). Updating P300:an integrative theory of P3a and P3b. Clin Neurophysiol,118,2128-2148.
Polich, J.,& Herbst, K. L. (2000). P300 as a clinical assay:rationale, evaluation, and findings. Int JPsychophysiol,38,3-19.
Portin, R., Kovala, T., Polo-Kantola, P., Revonsuo, A., Muller, K.,& Matikainen, E. (2000). Does P3 reflect attentional or memory performances, or cognition more generally? Scand J Psychol,41,31-40.
Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Q J Exp Psychol,32,3-25.
Posner, M. I., Cohen, Y. (1984). Components of visual orienting. In:Bouma H, Bouwhuis D G (eds.). Attention and Performance. Hillsdale, NJ:Erlbaum, 531-556.
Posner, M. I.,& Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annu Rev Neurosci,13,25-42.
Pourtois, G., Dan, E. S., Grandjean, D., Sander, D.,& Vuilleumier, P. (2005). Enhanced extrastriate visual response to bandpass spatial frequency filtered fearful faces: time course and topographic evoked-potentials mapping. Hum Brain Mapp,26, 65-79.
Pratto, F. (1994). Consciousness and automatic evaluation. In P M Niedenthal&S Kitayama (Eds.), The heart's eye:Emotional influences in perception and attention (pp.116-140). New York:Academic Press.
Pynoos, R. S., Goenjian, A., Tashjian, M., Karakashian, M., Manjikian, R., Manoukian, G., Steinberg, A. M.,& Fairbanks, L. A. (1993). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake. Br J Psychiatry,163,239-247.
Rauch, S. L., Whalen, P. J., Shin, L. M., McInerney, S. C., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P.,& Pitman, R. K. (2000). Exaggerated amygdala response to masked facial stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional MRI study. Biol Psychiatry,47,769-776.
Roca, V.,& Freeman, T. W. (2001). Complaints of impaired memory in veterans with PTSD. Am J Psychiatry,158,1738-1739.
Rugg, M. D., Mark, R. E., Walla, P., Schloerscheidt, A. M., Birch, C. S.,& Allan, K. (1998). Dissociation of the neural correlates of implicit and explicit memory. Nature,392,595-598.
Sakamoto, H., Fukuda, R., Okuaki, T., Rogers, M., Kasai, K., Machida, T., Shirouzu, I., Yamasue, H., Akiyama, T.,& Kato, N. (2005). Parahippocampal activation evoked by masked traumatic images in posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional MRI study. Neuroimage,26,813-821.
Schimmack, U. (2001). Pleasure and displeasure in reaction to conflicting picture pairs: examing appealingness andappallingness appraisals.2001,http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/～w3psyuli/msDATE.pdf.)
Schinder, A. F.,& Gage, F. H. (2004). A hypothesis about the role of adult neurogenesis in hippocampal function. Physiology (Bethesda),19,253-261.
Schupp, H. T., Junghofer, M., Weike, A. I.,& Hamm, A. O. (2003). Emotional facilitation of sensory processing in the visual cortex. Psychol Sci,14,7-13.
Schupp, H. T., Ohman, A., Junghofer, M., Weike, A. I., Stockburger, J.,& Hamm, A. O. (2004). The facilitated processing of threatening faces:an ERP analysis. Emotion,4,189-200.
Schwarz, E. D.,& Perry, B. D. (1994). The post-traumatic response in children and adolescents. Psychiatr Clin North Am,17,311-326.
Shannon, M. P., Lonigan, C. J., Finch, A. J., Jr,& Taylor, C. M. (1994). Children exposed to disaster:Epidemiology of post-traumatic 27 symptoms and symptom profiles. Journal of Amer Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry,33 (1), 80-93.
Sharot, T., Martorella, E. A., Delgado, M. R.,& Phelps, E. A. (2007). How personal experience modulates the neural circuitry of memories of September 11. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,104,389-394.
Shin, L. M., Whalen, P. J., Pitman, R. K., Bush, G, Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., McInerney, S. C.,& Rauch, S. L. (2001). An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry,50,932-942.
Shin, L. M., Wright, C. I., Cannistraro, P. A., Wedig, M. M., McMullin, K., Martis, B., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., Cavanagh, S. R., Krangel, T. S., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Whalen, P. J.,& Rauch, S. L. (2005). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to overtly presented fearful faces in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry,62, 273-281.
Shucard, J. L., McCabe, D. C.,& Szymanski, H. (2008). An event-related potential study of attention deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder during auditory and visual Go/NoGo continuous performance tasks. Biol Psychol,79,223-233.
Shum, M. S. (1998). The role of temporal landmarks in autobiographical memory processes. Psychol Bull,124,423-442.
Simmons, A. N., Paulus, M. P., Thorp, S. R., Matthews, S. C., Norman, S. B.,& Stein, M. B. (2008). Functional activation and neural networks in women with posttraumatic stress disorder related to intimate partner violence. Biol Psychiatry, 64,681-690.
Simson, R., Ritter, W.,& Vaughan, H. G., Jr. (1985). Effects of expectation on negative potentials during visual processing. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol,62, 25-31.
Smith, M. E. (1993). Neurophysiological Manifestations of Recollective Experience During Recognition Memory Judgments. J Cogn Neurosci,5,1-13.
Sprengelmeyer, R., Rausch, M., Eysel, U. T.,& Przuntek, H. (1998). Neural structures associated with recognition of facial expressions of basic emotions. Proc Biol Sci,265,1927-1931.
Spruyt, A., Hermans, D., De Houwer, J.,& Eelen, P. (2004). Automatic non-associative semantic priming:episodic affective priming of naming responses. Acta Psychol (Amst),116,39-54.
Spurrell, M. T.,& McFarlane, A. C. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder and coping after a natural disaster. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol,28,194-200.
Stam, R. (2007). PTSD and stress sensitisation:a tale of brain and body Part 1:human studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev,31,530-557.
Stanford, M. S., Vasterling, J. J., Mathias, C. W., Constans, J. I.,& Houston, R. J. (2001). Impact of threat relevance on P3 event-related potentials in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res,102,125-137.
Stekelenburg, J. J.,& de Gelder, B. (2004). The neural correlates of perceiving human bodies:an ERP study on the body-inversion effect. Neuroreport,15,777-780.
Stormark, K. M., Nordly, H.,& Hugdahl, K. (1995). Attentional shifts to emotionally charged cues:behavioral and ERP data. Cognition & Emotion,9,507-523.
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P.,& Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neurosci Biobehav Rev,27,33-44.
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P.,& Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews,27,33-44.
Thorpe, S., Fize, D.,& Marlot, C. (1996). Speed of processing in the human visual system. Nature,381,520-522.
Tian, Y., Klein, R. M., Satel, J., Xu, P.,& Yao, D. (2011). Electrophysiological explorations of the cause and effect of inhibition of return in a cue-target paradigm. Brain Topogr,24,164-182.
Topcuoglu, M. A., Ogilvy, C. S., Carter, B. S., Buonanno, F. S., Koroshetz, W. J.,& Singhal, A. B. (2003). Subarachnoid hemorrhage without evident cause on initial angiography studies:diagnostic yield of subsequent angiography and other neuroimaging tests. JNeurosurg,98,1235-1240.
Tural, U., Coskun, B., Onder, E., Corapcioglu, A., Yildiz, M., Kesepara, C., Karakaya, I., Aydin, M., Erol, A., Torun, F.,& Aybar, G. (2004). Psychological consequences of the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. J Trauma Stress,17,451-459.
Uemoto, M., Shioyama, A., Koide, K., Honda, M., Takamiya, S., Shirakawa, K., Utsumi, K., Matsumoto, H.,& Yamamoto, K. (2000). [The mental health of school children after the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake:I. Epidemiological study and risk factors for mental distress]. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi,102,459-480.
Van Strien, J. W., Glimmerveen, J. C., Martens, V. E.,& De Bruin, E. A. (2009). Age-related differences in brain activity during extended continuous word recognition in children. Neuroimage,47,688-699.
Vuilleumier, P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J.,& Dolan, R. J. (2001). Effects of attention and emotion on face processing in the human brain:an event-related fMRI study. Neuron,30,829-841.
Wald, I., Shechner, T., Bitton, S., Holoshitz, Y., Charney, D. S., Muller, D., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S.,& Bar-Haim, Y. (2011). Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depress Anxiety,28,406-411.
Weber, D. L., Clark, C. R., McFarlane, A. C., Moores, K. A., Morris, P.,& Egan, G. F. (2005). Abnormal frontal and parietal activity during working memory updating in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res,140,27-44.
Wei, D., Qiu, J., Tu, S., Tian, F., Su, Y.,& Luo, Y. (2010). Earthquake experience interference effects in a modified Stroop task:an ERP study. Neurosci Lett,474, 121-125.
Welsh, T. N.,& Pratt, J. (2006). Inhibition of return in cue-target and target-target tasks. Exp Brain Res,174,167-175.
Wessa, M., Jatzko, A.,& Flor, H. (2006). Retrieval and emotional processing of traumatic memories in posttraumatic stress disorder:peripheral and central correlates. Neuropsychologia,44,1683-1696.
Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Felmingham, K., Barton, M., Olivieri, G, Peduto, A., Gordon, E.,& Bryant, R. A. (2006). Trauma modulates amygdala and medial prefrontal responses to consciously attended fear. Neuroimage,29,347-357.
Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Felmingham, K., Liddell, B. J., Palmer, D. M.,& Bryant, R. A. (2007). Neural biases to covert and overt signals of fear:dissociation by trait anxiety and depression. J Cogn Neurosci,19,1595-1608.
Williams, L. M., Palmer, D., Liddell, B. J., Song, L.,& Gordon, E. (2006). The 'when' and 'where' of perceiving signals of threat versus non-threat. Neuroimage,31, 458-467.
Williams, J. M. G, Watts, F. N., Macleod, C.,& Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotion disorders(2nd ed.). Chichester, England:Wiley.
Winkielman, P., Berridge, K. C.,& Wilbarger, J. L. (2005). Unconscious affective reactions to masked happy versus angry faces influence consumption behavior and judgments of value. Pers Soc Psychol Bull,31,121-135.
Yalug, I., Corapcioglu, F., Fayda, M., Aksu, G., Basar, E., Yalug, K.,& Aker, T. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder and risk factors in parents of children with a cancer diagnosis. Pediatr Hematol Oncol,25,27-38.
Yang, P., Wu, M. T., Hsu, C. C.,& Ker, J. H. (2004). Evidence of early neurobiological alternations in adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder:a functional MRI study. Neurosci Lett,370,13-18.
Yantis, S.,& Jonides, J. (1996). Attentional capture by abrupt onsets:new perceptual objects or visual masking? J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform,22,1505-1513.
Yiend, J.,& Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A,54,665-681.
Yiend, J.,& Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. Q J Exp Psychol A,54,665-681.
Yuan, J., Zhang, Q., Chen, A., Li, H., Wang, Q., Zhuang, Z.,& Jia, S. (2007). Are we sensitive to valence differences in emotionally negative stimuli? Electrophysiological evidence from an ERP study. Neuropsychologia,45, 2764-2771.
Yule, W. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Int Rev Psychiat,13,194-200.
Zeitlin, S. B.,& McNally, R. J. (1991). Implicit and explicit memory bias for threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther,29,451-457.
Zhang, Y, Kong, F., Wang, L., Chen, H., Gao, X., Tan, X., Chen, H., Lv, J.,& Liu, Y. (2010). Mental health and coping styles of children and adolescent survivors one year after the 2008 Chinese earthquake. Child Youth Serv Rev,32,1403-1409.
Zhao, C., Deng, W.,& Gage, F. H. (2008). Mechanisms and functional implications of adult neurogenesis. Cell,132,645-660.
Zhou, A., Shi, Z., Zhang, P., Liu, P., Han, W., Wu, H., Li, Q., Zuo, Q.,& Xia, R. (2010). An ERP study on the effect of self-relevant possessive pronoun. Neurosci Lett, 480,162-166.
Zung, W. K. (1971)焦虑自评量表SAS (Rating Instrument for Anxiety Disorders).中国心理卫生杂志,1999,(增刊)：235-236.
白露,马慧,黄宇霞,罗跃嘉.(2005).中国情绪图片系统的编制——在46名中国大学生中的试用.中国心理卫生杂志,19(11)：719-722.
蔡兴林,杨远波.(2009).汶川地震创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)的发生调查及体育干预方式研究.中国体育科技,45(5)：107-110.
陈安涛,李红,邱江,罗跃嘉.(2006).视觉分类的时间过程：事件相关电位提供的电生理证据.科学通报,51,1281-1286.
戴琴,冯正直.(2008).郁患者的注意偏向.心理科学进展,16(2)：260-265.
董惠娟,顾建华.(2006).论重大突发事件的心理影响及本体应付——以印度洋地震海啸为例.自然灾害学报,15(4)：88-91.
冯龙喜.(2010).生物反馈治疗广泛性焦虑障碍对照研究.临床医学精神杂志,1,40-41.
冯文锋,罗文波,廖渝,陈红,罗跃嘉.(2010).胖负面身体自我女大学生对胖信息的注意偏好：注意警觉还是注意维持.心理学报,42(7)：779-790.
甘景梨,胡兴焕,李晓琼,高存友,杨代德,张伟红.(2004).军人心理创伤后应激障碍与适应障碍患者事件相关电位的对照研究.中国民康医学杂志,1反436-440.
高静,张先庚,林琳.(2009).眼动脱敏再加工对地震幸存者创伤后应激障碍及应对方式的研究.中国实用护理杂志,25(9)：8-11.
高培霞,刘惠军,丁妮,郭德俊.(2010).青少年对情绪性图片加工的脑电反应特征.心理学报,42(3)：342-351.
高笑.(2010).胖负面身体自我图式女性对身体信息的注意偏向：理论模型及加工规律.博士论文,西南大学.
郭旗,肖水源.(2010).灾难后的心理应激反应和危机干预.中国健康心理学杂志,(9)：118-121.
黄宇霞,罗跃嘉.(2009).负性情绪刺激是否总是优先得到加工：ERP研究.心理学报41(9)：822-831.
纪林芹,张文新.(2008).攻击性儿童的P300事件相关电位研究.心理科学,21,299-303.
李文峰,唐学锋,舒逍,丁杰,韦伟香.(2009).四川地震灾后心理干预的有效性研究.包头医学院学报,3,28-29
梁毅.(2009).胖负面身体自我女性拄意偏向的机制研究.硕士论文,西南大学.
廖声立,陶德清.(2004).无意识情绪启动研究新进展.心理科学27(3)：701-704.
廖文乾(2002).地震灾后国民小学实施心理复健之研究-所灾区小学之个案研究.硕士论文,台中：国立台中师范学院国民教育研究所.
林虹萍.(2008).论地震灾后儿童的心理重建.四川教育学院学报,24,5-8.
刘宏艳,胡治国,彭聃龄.(2008).积极与消极情绪关系的理论及研究,心理群学进属,16(2)：295-301.
刘松怀,梁志锋,金福英,祁长凤,张拉艳.(2008).地震伤残者应用心理放松疗法的探讨.中国康复理论与实践,7,677-679.
刘贤臣,马登岱,刘连启,赵贵芳,李传琦,杨杰等.(1998).心理创伤后应激障碍自评量表的编制和信度效度研究,中国行为医学群学7(2)：93-96.
刘娅,袁萍,贾红.(2011).汶川震后灾区PTSD时间趋势分析.中国公共卫生,3,303-305.
吕厚超,李敏.(2000).闪光灯记忆的理论模型.心理学动态,8(3)：23-28.
吕勇,韩宗义,杜英春.(2003).启动效应的ERP研究综述.心理与行为研究,1(2)：151-155.
罗非,罗劲,吴一兵,丁之光,李佳音,王锦琰等.(2009).脑功能可塑性与灾后心理功能康复.心理科学进展,17.594-601.
毛国红,洪冰.(2000).生物反馈疗法在心身疾病及神经症诊治中的应.华东冶金学院学报,3,126-129.
彭晓哲,周晓林.(2005).情绪信息与注意偏向.心理科学进属13(4)：488-496.
邱慧萍.(2004).灾难性危机事件的心理干预.江西农业大学学报,3,134.
邱江,李红,张庆林,黄砾卉,郭亚桥,涂燊,等(2009).创伤性事件(汶川地震) 对个体选择性注意的影响：一项ERP实验.中国科学C辑：生命科学39,287-294.
沈祺静.(2001).心理护理结合生物反馈疗法治疗焦虑症临床研究.中国疗养医学,8,62-63.
沈世琴,吴娅利,张敏.(2010).认知行为团体辅导对汶川地震伤员焦虑及抑郁情绪的影响.检验医学与临床,5,825-826.
施琪嘉.(2010).心理创伤记忆的脑机制及其治疗原理.神经损伤与功能重建(4)：18-20.
宋丽娜,施旺红(2008).生物反馈治疗神经症的进展.国际精神病杂志,3,186-188.
汪向东,张华彪,新福尚隆,范启亮,李俊福,王玉凤等.(1999).地震后受灾群体生活质量研究.中国心理卫生杂志.13,24-27
汪向东,赵丞智,新福尚隆,张富,范启亮,吕秋云.(1999).地震后PTSD的发生率及影响因素.中国心理卫生杂志,13.28-30.
王婷,韩布新.(2010).创伤后应激障碍记忆机制研究述评.中国农业大学学报(社会科学版),21,165-174.
魏景汉,罗跃嘉.(2002).以知事事件相关电位教程.北京：经济日报出版社
吴洣麓,童岱.(2009).“5·12”幸存孝大脑改变.北京科技报,9月14日.
杨丽明,刘秀勤.(2004).心理护理结合生物反馈促进焦虑症病人康.中华护理杂志10,783-784
杨小冬,罗跃嘉.(2004).注意受情绪信息影响的实验范式.心理科学进展,12(6)：833-841.
杨文静,张庆林,伍泽莲,贾磊.(2010).情绪记忆的主动遗忘.心理科学进展,18(6)：871-877.
杨晓云.(2007).医科大学生创伤后应激障碍的生成、归因及干预实验研究,博士论文,辽宁师范大学.
张蕾.(2008).不同认知任务和刺激呈现方式调节表情面孔加工的ERP研究.山东师范大学硕士.
张明,刘宁.(2007)视觉返回抑制的实验范式.心理科学进展,15(3)：385-393.
张胜康.(2009).灾难心理危机及其社会干预——关于地震灾后人群焦虑情绪的社会学研究.四川省社会科学院2,16-19.
张妍,孔繁昌,韩黎,石明莉,陈红.(2012).中学生与大学生地震亲历者对威胁性刺激记忆偏向的比较研究.心理发展与教育,2,52-60.
张妍,孔繁昌,权珍桢,许芳.(2010a).地震灾区大学生生命价值观与自杀态度的调查分析.中华行为医学与脑科学,19(7)：641-643.
张妍,孔繁昌,舒勃桥,向燕辉,陈红.(2010b).地震灾区大学生生活质量与自杀态度的调查研究.心理研究3(3)：83-88.
张妍,孔繁昌,许芳,向燕辉,谭小宏,陈红等.(2010c).地震对四川灾区初中生人格发展的影响.中国特殊教育,119(5)：65-72.
张妍,向燕辉,谭小宏,陈寒,任俊,权珍桢等.(2010d).地震灾区大学生不同时间段焦虑影响因素分析.中国公共卫生杂志，26(2)：131-132.
张妍,向燕辉,吴亚丽,尹茜,刘丽英.(2009a).5.12地震前后灾区大学生生命价值取向探析.社会心理研究,78(2)：27-33.
张妍,向燕辉,郑涌,吕建国,尹茜,陈寒.(2009b).5·12地震前后灾区大学生生命价值观比较.心理科学进展,17(3)：505-510.
张妍,许芳,孔繁昌,权珍桢.(2011).震后不同时期灾区初中生身心健康与应对方式特点.中国学校卫生，32(3)：294-296.
张玉婷,邱江,张庆林.(2010).地震亲历者执行两难决策任务的大脑机制：一项ERP研究.西南大学学报(自然科学版),32,157-162.
赵冬梅.(2009).心理创伤的治疗模型与理论.华南师范大学学报(社会科学版),(3)：125-129.
赵静波.(2008).灾后儿童青少年心理危机干预.中国医学论坛报,5,1-2.
周仁宇,李季桦,陈锦宏.(2001).儿董青少年的灾后心理复建(教师手册).中国台湾.http://921.yam.org.tw/care/cch1/3/1.htm.
朱蕴丽,苗元江.(2005).公共卫生事件的心理应激与干预策略.南昌大学学报,36,49-52.
© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号 地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083 电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700 |