人工智能教育应用的实然分析:教学自动化的方法与限度

详细信息    查看全文 | 推荐本文 |

英文篇名：An analysis of the actual application of AI in education: Means and limitations of instructional automation 作者：张志祯 ; 张玲玲 ; 罗琼菱子 ; 郑葳 英文作者：Zhizhen Zhang;Lingling Zhang;QiongLingzi Luo;Wei Zheng; 关键词：人工智能教育应用 ; 教学自动化 ; 智能教学系统 ; 计算机教育应用 ; 交互主体 ; 媒体工具 ; 专家系统 ; 机器学习 ; CognitiveTutor ; AutoTutor ; Course ; Signals ; WISE+c-Rator 英文关键词：artificial intelligence(AI) in education;;instructional automation;;intelligent tutoring system;;computer in education;;interactive subject;;media tools;;expert system;;machine learning;;Cognitive Tutor;;Auto Tutor;;Course Signals;;WISE+c-Rator 中文刊名：DDJY 英文刊名：Distance Education in China 机构：北京师范大学教育学部教育技术学院; 出版日期：2019-03-30 出版单位：中国远程教育 年：2019 期：No.530 基金：全国教育科学“十三五”规划课题“大学教学现代化的战略愿景与理论创新研究”(项目编号:BCA180085) 语种：中文; 页：DDJY201903002 页数：14 CN：03 ISSN：11-4089/G4 分类号：5-17+96

摘要

在设想与推进人工智能的大范围教育应用时,不仅应关注未来、可能与工程技术,还应关注历史、局限与教学过程。为此,本文采用文献综述、历史研究与案例研究方法,从教育教学过程与历史发展角度,而非技术开发、系统架构角度,分析了人工智能对于计算机教育应用的增强与扩展,从教育"应用"完整过程中的人机分工问题呈现人工智能到底"自动化"了什么以及如何"自动化"。利用舒尔曼的教学实践推理框架,以Cognitive Tutor和AutoTutor为例,分析了以专家系统为核心的智能辅导系统的自动化方法;按照实现与应用流程,以Course Signals和WISE+c-Rater为例,分析了以机器学习为核心的学习分析系统和适应性指导系统的自动化方法。人工智能教育应用受限于人工智能技术的常识与符号接地、迁移等难题,智能教学系统则存在设计、开发与迁移、生态化应用、识别与评价等难题。总体上,在教育领域依托人工智能技术实现的自动化程度还很有限,增强教师的设计比替代教师的设计更具现实可能性。
        Designing and promoting the use of artificial intelligence(AI) in education on a large scale needs to take into account not only the future, affordances and engineering technology but also the history,limitations and teaching process. To this end, using the methods of literature review, historical research and case study, this study set out to analyze the enhancement and expansion of the use of AI in computer education in terms of educational and teaching processes and historical development rather than technology development and system architecture. It also deals with the human-machine division of labor in the overall process of educational application, showing what can be automated and how automation can take place. Using Schulman.s teaching practice reasoning framework with Cognitive Tutor and Autotutor as examples, the study analyzes the automation method of intelligent tutoring systems featuring expert system. In accordance with the implementation and application flow, it uses Course Signals and WISE+c-Rater to illustrate the automation method of learning analysis systems and adaptive guidance systems featuring machine learning. Problems in relation to AI in education and intelligent teaching systems are also discussed. It is argued that AI-enabled automation in education still has a long way to go.

引文

布希涅尔.1979.在将来的教学系统中计算机的作用[M].普莱西,斯金纳,等.程序教学和教学机器.刘范,等,译.第2版.北京:人民教育出版社:323-351.
    科利斯.2011.计算机在教育中的应用(Computers in Education)[M].T.普洛波,D.P.埃利.教育大百科全书:教育技术.刘美凤,宋继华,等,译.第2版.重庆:西南师范大学出版社:85-91.
    刘清堂,吴林静,刘嫚,范桂林,毛刚.2016.智能导师系统研究现状与发展趋势[J].中国电化教育(10):39-44.
    马文·明斯基.2016.情感机器:人类思维与人工智能的未来[M].王文革,程玉婷,李小刚,译.杭州:浙江人民出版社.
    麦尔荀伯格,库基耶.2014.大数据教育篇:教学与学习的未来趋势[M].台北:远见天下文化.
    皮埃罗·斯加鲁菲(Piero Scaruffi).2017.智能的本质[M].任莉,张建宇,译.北京:人民邮电出版社.
    平克.2015.语言本能:人类语言进化的奥秘[M].欧阳明亮,译.杭州:浙江人民出版社.
    普莱西a.1979.一架以练习材料进行自动教学的机器[M].普莱西,斯金纳,等.程序教学和教学机器.刘范,等,译.第2版.北京:人民教育出版社:57-64.
    普莱西b.1979.教学机器(和学习理论)的危机[M].普莱西,斯金纳,等.程序教学和教学机器.刘范,等,译.第2版.北京:人民教育出版社:120-131.
    斯金纳a.1979.学习的科学和教学的艺术[M].普莱西,斯金纳,等.程序教学和教学机器.刘范,等,译.第2版.北京:人民教育出版社:65-81.
    斯金纳b.1979.教学机器[M].普莱西,斯金纳,等.程序教学和教学机器.刘范,等,译.第2版.北京:人民教育出版社:82-105.
    斯莱文(Slavin,R.E.).2007.教育心理学[M].姚梅林,等,译.北京:人民邮电出版社.
    松尾丰.2016.人工智能狂潮:机器人会超越人类吗?[M].赵函宏,高华彬,译.北京:机械工业出版社.
    王珠珠.2018.教育信息化2.0:核心要义与实施建议[J].中国远程教育(7):5-8.
    危辉,黄旗明,潘云鹤.1999.常识:知识获取的瓶颈[J].计算机科学,26(9):17-19.
    魏顺平.2013.学习分析技术:挖掘大数据时代下教育数据的价值[J].现代教育技术(2):5-11.
    维尔斯曼(Wiersma,W.).1997.教育研究方法导论[M].袁振国,等,译.北京:教育科学出版社.
    沃森.2011.计算机辅助学习(Computer-assisted Learning)[M].T.普洛波,D.P.埃利.教育大百科全书:教育技术.刘美凤,宋继华,等,译.第2版.重庆:西南师范大学出版社:77-81.
    吴军.2014.数学之美[M].第2版.北京:人民邮电出版社.
    约翰·E.凯利,史蒂夫·哈姆.2016.机器智能[M].马隽,译.北京:中信出版社.
    张志祯,张玲玲,李芒.2019.人工智能教育应用的应然分析:教学自动化的必然与可能[J].中国远程教育(1):23-35.
    Smaldino,S.E.,Russell,J.D.,Heinich,R.et al.2008.教学媒体与技术[M].郭文革,等,译.第8版.北京:高等教育出版社.
    Aleven,V.,McLaren,B.M.,Sewall,J.&Koedinger,K.R.(2009).Anew paradigm for intelligent tutoring systems:Example-tracing tutors.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,19:105-154.
    Aleven,V.,Baker,R.,Wang,Y.,et al.(2016).Bringing non-programmer authoring of intelligent tutors to MOOCs.Proceedings of the Third ACM Conference on Learning@Scale,313-316.https://doi.org/10.1145/2876034.2893442
    Anderson,J.R.,Corbett,A.T.,Koedinger,K.R.&Pelletier,R.(1995).Cognitive tutors:Lessons learned.The Journal of The Learning Sciences,4(2),167-207.
    Arnold,K.E.&Pistilli,M.D.(2012).Course signals at Purdue:Using learning analytics to increase student success.ACM International Conference Proceeding Series.Doi:10.1145/2330601.2330666.
    Baker,R.S.2016.Stupid tutoring systems,intelligent humans.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,26(2):600-614.
    Brundage,M.,Avin,S.,Clark,J.,Toner,H.,Eckersley,P.,Garfinkel,B.et al.2018.The malicious use of artificial intelligence:Forecasting,prevention,and mitigation.https://maliciousaireport.com/
    Collins,A.,&Grignetti,M.1975.Intelligent CAI.Final Report(1 March1971-31 August 1975).[2018-10-10].https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED114089
    Dzikovska,M.,Steinhauser,N.,Farrow,E.,et al..2014.BEETLE II:Deep natural language understanding and automatic feedback generation for intelligent tutoring in basic electricity and electronics.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,24(3):284-332.
    Graesser,A.C.,Jackson,G.T.&McDaniel,B.(2007).AutoTutor holds conversations with learners that are responsive to their cognitive and emotional states.Educational Technology,47(1):19-23.
    Graesser,A.C.2016.Conversations with AutoTutor help students learn.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,26(1):124-132.
    Grandbastien,M.,Luckin,R.,Mizoguchi,R.,&Aleven,V.(2016).Preface to the IJAIED 25th anniversary issue.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,26(1):1-3.
    Heffernan,N.T.,&Heffernan,C.L.(2014).The ASSISTments ecosystem:Building a platform that brings scientists and teachers together for minimally invasive research on human learning and teaching.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,24(4):470-497.
    Johnson,W.L.,&Lester,J.C.(2016).Face-to-face interaction with pedagogical agents,twenty years later.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,26(1):25-36.
    Koedinger,K.R.,&Aleven,V.(2016).An interview reflection on“intelligent tutoring goes to school in the big city”.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,26(1):13-24.
    Le,Q.V.,Ranzato,M.,Monga,R.,Devin,M.,Corrado,G.S.,Chen,K.,Dean,J.,&Ng,A.Y.(2012).Building high-level features using large scale unsupervised learning.2013 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics,Speech and Signal Processing,8595-8598.
    Liu,O.L.,Brew,C.,Blackmore,J.,Gerard,L.,Madhok,J.,&Linn,M.C.(2014).Automated scoring of constructed-response science items:Prospects and obstacles.Educational Measurement:Issues and Practice,33(2):19-28.
    Liu,O.L.,Rios,J.A.,Heilman,M.,Gerard,L.and Linn,M.C.(2016).Validation of automated scoring of science assessments.J Res Sci Teach,53:215-233.Doi:10.1002/tea.21299.
    Mora,C.,Rollins,R.L.,Taladay,K.,Kantar,M.B.,Chock,M.K.,Shimada,M.,&Franklin,E.C.(2018).Bitcoin emissions alone could push global warming above 2°C.Nature Climate Changevolume,8(11):931-933.
    Merriam,S.B.2009.Qualitative research:A guide to design and implementation.San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
    Nye,B.D.,Graesser,A.C.,&Hu,X.(2014).AutoTutor and family:Areview of 17 years of natural language tutoring.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,24(4):427-469.
    Park,O.,&Seidel,R.J.1987.Conventional CBI versus intelligent CAI:Suggestions for the development of future systems.Educational Technology,27(5):15-21.
    Raschka,S.,&Mirjalili,V.(2017).Python machine learning.Birmingham:Packt Publishing Ltd.
    Sclater,N.,Peasgood,A.,&Mullan,J.(2016,April).Learning analytics in higher education:A review of UK and international practice.Retrieved December 12,2018,from https://www.jisc.ac.uk/sites/default/files/learning-analytics-in-he-v3.pdf
    Shulman,L.(1987).Knowledge and teaching:Foundations of the new reform.Harvard Educational Review,57(1):1-22.
    Tegos,S.,Demetriadis,S.,&Tsiatsos,T.2014.A configurable conversational agent to trigger students’productive dialogue:A pilot study in the CALL Domain.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,24(1):62-91.
    Tegos,S.,&Demetriadis,S.2017.Conversational agents improve peer learning through building on prior knowledge.Journal of Educational Technology&Society,20(1):99-111.
    VanLehn,K.2006.The behavior of tutoring systems.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education,16(3):227-265.
    Woolf,B.P.2009.Building intelligent interactive tutors.Burlington:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.
    Yao,M.,Jia,M.,Zhou,A.2017.Applied artificial intelligence:A handbook for business leaders.ISBN 978-0-9982890-5-2(Kindle)(kindle edition).
    (1)既然本文强调微观教与学活动过程中学生“感知”到的计算机的角色,那也就限定了本文的分析不涉及计算机教育应用中不直接影响教与学活动的应用方式,诸如计算机应用于高利害教学评价(如阅卷)、教育管理与政策决策、校园安保等。
    (1)有关PLATO系统的详细介绍,参见https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLATO_(computer_system)。
    (2)为符合汉语表达方式,本文中“教”常写作“教学”。这里的“教学”并不是“教与学的活动的统一”,而仅指人类个体或者机器支持、促进学习的活动。严格地说,人类个体的“学”涉及主体的认知加工、可创设环境、组织活动诱发,但不能直接设计,更无法被自动化。
    (1)IJAIED创刊于1989年,为庆祝创刊25周年,杂志社选择了过去25卷中34篇高影响力文章(Google学术上引用超过100次),请作者对文章进行回顾反思,形成了两期专刊(Grandbastien, et al., 2016)。这组文章发表的时间跨度为17年(1992—2009年),实证研究(empirical study)21篇(占比61.8%),非实证研究13篇(占比38.2%)。这组文章是20世纪90年代初到2010年左右人工智能教育应用领域最受关注的研究问题、方法与成果的缩影。
    (1)参见麦尔荀伯格与库基耶(2014)第19~20页。
    (1)WISE(Web-based Inquiry Science Environment)是美国加州大学伯克利分校Linn M.教授研究团队持续20余年的研究项目,也是所开发的网络科学探究平台的名称。平台上有系列公开的项目单元,如“热能的传递”“光合作用”等。详见https://wise.berkeley.edu/。自动反馈研究基于已有WISE项目,其教学内容、活动为教师与研究者一起设计、开发,c-Rater为学生的短文回答做自动评分(分类)。