Medicinal plants of Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi:Insights from phylogeny and biogeography
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摘要
Objective: The Chinese Pharmacopoeia(2015) includes 584 plant medicines, of which 284 also contain high quality subsets, so called "Daodi" components, where Daodi denotes superior clinical properties compared to non-Daodi counterparts despite being sourced from the same species. Commercial and clinical drivers of selection for Daodi have been described elsewhere. Our objective is to investigate the overall composition of Daodi to determine in what ways medicines with Daodi as a whole differ from the other plants of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. A further objective is to characterise the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi in terms of the plant species including their traits and distribution.Methods: We used trait analysis to identify whether Daodi species were significantly different from the remaining Chinese Pharmacopoeia plant species in any traits. We used biogeographic methods and an existing classification of Daodi into 10 regions to identify spatial patterns amongst the species. Regression and binomial analyses were used to test for over-and under-use of plant families and endemic species.Preferences for lineages were visualized using phylogenetic mapping.Results: We found that Daodi species(species with any Daodi subset) were more likely to be roots that are "hot" or "warm", and less likely to be "oxic", according to traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) concepts. Roots were over-represented in the Bei region, and whole plants over-represented in Guang. Both the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi indicated preferences for families not common in previously studied ethnopharmacopoeias, and fewer endemic species were represented than expected by chance.Conclusion: Using the phylogenetic and biogeographical methods, we highlighted patterns of plant use,and the biological characters of Daodi medicinal plants. Our study points towards cultural preferences in need of scientific explanation.
Objective: The Chinese Pharmacopoeia(2015) includes 584 plant medicines, of which 284 also contain high quality subsets, so called "Daodi" components, where Daodi denotes superior clinical properties compared to non-Daodi counterparts despite being sourced from the same species. Commercial and clinical drivers of selection for Daodi have been described elsewhere. Our objective is to investigate the overall composition of Daodi to determine in what ways medicines with Daodi as a whole differ from the other plants of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. A further objective is to characterise the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi in terms of the plant species including their traits and distribution.Methods: We used trait analysis to identify whether Daodi species were significantly different from the remaining Chinese Pharmacopoeia plant species in any traits. We used biogeographic methods and an existing classification of Daodi into 10 regions to identify spatial patterns amongst the species. Regression and binomial analyses were used to test for over-and under-use of plant families and endemic species.Preferences for lineages were visualized using phylogenetic mapping.Results: We found that Daodi species(species with any Daodi subset) were more likely to be roots that are "hot" or "warm", and less likely to be "oxic", according to traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) concepts. Roots were over-represented in the Bei region, and whole plants over-represented in Guang. Both the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi indicated preferences for families not common in previously studied ethnopharmacopoeias, and fewer endemic species were represented than expected by chance.Conclusion: Using the phylogenetic and biogeographical methods, we highlighted patterns of plant use,and the biological characters of Daodi medicinal plants. Our study points towards cultural preferences in need of scientific explanation.
Objective: The Chinese Pharmacopoeia(2015) includes 584 plant medicines, of which 284 also contain high quality subsets, so called "Daodi" components, where Daodi denotes superior clinical properties compared to non-Daodi counterparts despite being sourced from the same species. Commercial and clinical drivers of selection for Daodi have been described elsewhere. Our objective is to investigate the overall composition of Daodi to determine in what ways medicines with Daodi as a whole differ from the other plants of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. A further objective is to characterise the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi in terms of the plant species including their traits and distribution.Methods: We used trait analysis to identify whether Daodi species were significantly different from the remaining Chinese Pharmacopoeia plant species in any traits. We used biogeographic methods and an existing classification of Daodi into 10 regions to identify spatial patterns amongst the species. Regression and binomial analyses were used to test for over-and under-use of plant families and endemic species.Preferences for lineages were visualized using phylogenetic mapping.Results: We found that Daodi species(species with any Daodi subset) were more likely to be roots that are "hot" or "warm", and less likely to be "oxic", according to traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) concepts. Roots were over-represented in the Bei region, and whole plants over-represented in Guang. Both the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and Daodi indicated preferences for families not common in previously studied ethnopharmacopoeias, and fewer endemic species were represented than expected by chance.Conclusion: Using the phylogenetic and biogeographical methods, we highlighted patterns of plant use,and the biological characters of Daodi medicinal plants. Our study points towards cultural preferences in need of scientific explanation.
引文
Al-Adhroey,A.H.,Nor,Z.M.,Al-Mekhlafi,H.M.,&Mahmud,R.(2010).Ethnobotanical study on some Malaysian anti-malarial plants:A community based survey.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,132(1),362-364.
Beckwith,C.I.(1979).The introduction of Greek medicine into Tibet in the seventh and eighth centuries.Journal of the American Oriental Society,99,297-313.
Bennett,B.C.,&Husby,C.E.(2008).Patterns of medicinal plant use:An examination of the Ecuadorian Shuar medicinal flora using contingency table and binomial analyses.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,116,422-430.
CFDA.(2014).CDFA Announcement 2014 No.1.China:China Food and Drug Admission.
Chinese Pharmacopeoia Commission.(2015).Chinese pharmacopoeia 2015(Chinese edition).Beijing,China:China Medical Science Press.
Balick,M.J.,&Cox,P.A.(1996).Plants,people,and culture:The science of ethnobotany.New York:Scientific American Library.
Bertea,C.M.,Azzolin,C.M.M.,Bossi,S.,Dogli,G.,&Maffei,M.E.(2005).Identification of an EcoRI restriction site for a rapid and precise determination ofβ-asarone-free Acorus calamus cytotypes.Phytochemistry,66(5),507-514.
Browner,C.H.(1985).Criteria for selecting herbal remedies.Ethnology,24(1),13-32.
ESRI.(2011).ArcGIS Desktop:Release 10.4 Redlands.CA:Environmental Systems Research Institute.
Fu,P.P.,Yang,Y.,Xia,Q.,Chou,M.W.,Cui,Y.Y.,&Lin,G.(2002).Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids-Tumorigenic Components in Chinese Herbal Medicines and Dietary Supplements.Journal of Food and Drug Analysis,10(4),198-211.
Gorji,A.(2003).Pharmacological treatment of headache using traditional Persian medicine.Trends in Pharmacological Sciences,24(7),331-334.
Heinrich,M.,Ankli,A.,Frei,B.,Weimann,C.,&And Sticher,O.Medicinal plants in Mexico:Healers’consensus and cultural importance.Social Science&Medicine,47 11,1859-1871.
Heinrich,M.(2000).Ethnobotany and its role in drug development.Phytotherapy Research,14,479-488.
Hu,S.(1989a).The authentic and superior medicinal herbals in China.Harbin,China:Heilongjiang Science and Technology Publishing House.
Hu,S.(1998b).Illustration of the Chinese herbs in the place of the genuine.Jinan,China:Shandong Science and Technology Publishing House.
Huang,J.,Chen,J.,Ying,J.,&Ma,K.(2011).Features and distribution patterns of chinese endemic seed plant species.Journal of Systematics and Evolution,49(2),81-94.
Huang,L.,&Wang,Y.(2015).Theories and Prospects on Daodi Herbs.Modern Chinese Medicine,17(8),770-776.
Jamal,J.A.,Ghafar,Z.A.,&Husain,K.(2011).Medicinal plants used for postnatal care in Malay traditional medicine in the peninsular Malaysia.Pharmacognosy Journal,3(24),15-24.
Kala,C.P.,Farooquee,N.A.,&Dhar,U.(2004).Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge,existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal,India.Biodiversity Conservation,13453-13469.
Kishore,G.,Ranjan,S.,Pandey,A.,&Gupta,S.(2010).Influence of altitudinal variation on the antioxidant potential of tartar buckwheat of Western Himalaya.Food Science and Biotechnology,195,1355-1363.
Leon,C.,&Lin,Y.(2017).Chinese medicinal plants,herbal drugs and substitutes:An identification guide.London,UK:Kew publishing.
Leonti,M.,Stafford,G.I.,Dal Cero,M.,Cabras,S.,Castellanos,M.E.,Casu,L.,et al.(2017).Reverse ethnopharmacology and drug discovery.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,198(2017),417-431.
Letunic,I.,&Bork,P.(2016).Interactive tree of life(i TOL)v3:An online tool for the display and annotation of phylogenetic and other trees.Nucleic Acids Res,44(W1),W242-W245.doi:10.1093/nar/gkw290.
Meng,Q.,Niu,Y.,Niu,X.,Roubin,R.H.,&&Hanrahan,J.R.(2009).Ethnobotany,phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Caragana used in traditional Chinese medicine.Journal of Ethnobiology,243,350-368.
Minitab 17 Statistical Software.(2010).[Computer software].State College,PA:Minitab,Inc Retrieved from www.minitab.com.
Moerman,D.E.(1991).The medicinal flora of native North-America-an analysis.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,311,1-42.
Moerman,D.E.,Pemberton,R.W.,Kiefer,D.,&Berlin,B.(1999).A comparative analysis of five medicinal floras.Journal of Ethnobiology,191,49-67.
Ouarghidi,A.,Powell,B.,Martin,G.J.,De Boer,H.,&Abbad,A.(2012).Species substitution in medicinal roots and possible implications for toxicity of herbal remedies in Morocco.Economic Botany,66,370-382.
Pan,F.(2011).Daodi medicinal material is the essence of Chinese medicine-a review of the 390th session of Xiangshan science conference.Science Times.
Qian,X.(1987).Foreword.Hu,S.The authentic and superior medicinal herbals in China(p.2).Harbin,China:Heilongjiang Science and Technology Publishing House.
Qian,H.,&Jin,Y.(2016).An updated megaphylogeny of plants,a tool for generating plant phylogenies and an analysis of phylogenetic community structure.Journal of Plant Ecology,92,233-239.
R Core Team.(2014).R:A language and environment for statistical computing.Vienna,Austria:R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Revell,L.J.(2011).Phyphytools:An R package for phylogenetic comparative biology(and other things).Methods in Ecology and Evolution,3,217-223.
Saslis-Lagoudakis,C.H.,Williamson,E.M.,Savolainen,V.,&Hawkins,J.A.(2011).Cross-cultural comparison of three medicinal floras and implications for bioprospecting strategies.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,135(2),476-487.
Saslis-Lagoudakis,C.H.,Savolainen,V.,Williamson,E.M.,Forest,F.,Wagstaff,S.J.,Baral,S.R.,et al.(2012).Phylogenies reveal predictive power of traditional medicine in bioprospecting.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,109,15835-15840.
Saslis-Lagoudakis,C.H.,Hawkins,J.A.,Greenhill,S.J.,Pendry,C.A.,Watson,M.F.,Tuladhar-Douglas,W.,et al.(2014).The evolution of traditional knowledge:Environment shapes medicinal plant use in Nepal.Proceeding of the Royal Society of London B:Biological,281,20132768.
Sivasankari,B.,Pitchaimani,S.,&Anandharaj,M.(2013).A study on traditional medicinal plants of Uthapuram,Madurai District,Tamilnadu,South India.Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine,312,975-979.
Shrestha,P.M.,&Dhillion,S.S.(2003).Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district,Nepal.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,86(1),81-96.
Stein,R.A.(1972).Tibetan Civilization.London:Faber and Faber.
Tan,X.(2016).The systematizations and researches of exotic medicinal plants(Masters dissertation).Beijing,China:Peking Union Medical College.
Tan,H.,Hu,D.,Song,J.,Xu,Y.,Ca,IS.,Chen,Q.,et al.(2015).Distinguishing Radix Angelica Sinensis from different regions by HS-SFME/GC-MS.Food Chemistry,186,200-206.
Uniyal,S.K.,Singh,K.N.,Jamwal,P.,&Lal,B.(2006).Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of ChhotaBhangal,Western Himalaya.Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine,2(14).doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-14.
van Andel,T.R.,van’t Klooster,C.I.E.A.,Quiroz,D.,Towns,A.M.,Ruysschaert,S.,&van den Berg,M.(2014).Local plant names reveal that enslaved Africans recognized substantial parts of the New World flora.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,111(50),E5346-E5353.
Weber,E.,Sun,S.,&Li,B.(2008).Invasive alien plants in China:Diversity and ecological insights.Biological Invasions,10,1411-1429.
Weckerle,C.S.,Ineichena,R.,Huber,F.K.,&Yang,Y.(2009).Mao’s heritage:Medicinal plant knowledge among the Bai in Shaxi,China,at a crossroads between distinct local and common widespread practice.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,123 1,213-228.
Xing,Y.,&Ree,R.H.(2017).Uplift-driven diversification in the Hengduan Mountains,a temperate biodiversity hotspot.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,114(17),E3444-E3451.
Xue,J.,Huang,L.F.,Zheng,S.,&Chen,S.(2013).Sulfur Fumigation,a Better or Worse Choice in Preservation of Traditional Chinese Medicine?Phytomedicine,20(1),97-105.
Zhang,X.(2007).Vegetation map of the People’s Republic of China 1:1 000 000.Beijing China:The Geological Publishing House.
Zhao,Z.,Guo,P.,&Brand,E.(2012).The formation of Daodi medicine materials.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,140(1),476-481.
Beckwith,C.I.(1979).The introduction of Greek medicine into Tibet in the seventh and eighth centuries.Journal of the American Oriental Society,99,297-313.
Bennett,B.C.,&Husby,C.E.(2008).Patterns of medicinal plant use:An examination of the Ecuadorian Shuar medicinal flora using contingency table and binomial analyses.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,116,422-430.
CFDA.(2014).CDFA Announcement 2014 No.1.China:China Food and Drug Admission.
Chinese Pharmacopeoia Commission.(2015).Chinese pharmacopoeia 2015(Chinese edition).Beijing,China:China Medical Science Press.
Balick,M.J.,&Cox,P.A.(1996).Plants,people,and culture:The science of ethnobotany.New York:Scientific American Library.
Bertea,C.M.,Azzolin,C.M.M.,Bossi,S.,Dogli,G.,&Maffei,M.E.(2005).Identification of an EcoRI restriction site for a rapid and precise determination ofβ-asarone-free Acorus calamus cytotypes.Phytochemistry,66(5),507-514.
Browner,C.H.(1985).Criteria for selecting herbal remedies.Ethnology,24(1),13-32.
ESRI.(2011).ArcGIS Desktop:Release 10.4 Redlands.CA:Environmental Systems Research Institute.
Fu,P.P.,Yang,Y.,Xia,Q.,Chou,M.W.,Cui,Y.Y.,&Lin,G.(2002).Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids-Tumorigenic Components in Chinese Herbal Medicines and Dietary Supplements.Journal of Food and Drug Analysis,10(4),198-211.
Gorji,A.(2003).Pharmacological treatment of headache using traditional Persian medicine.Trends in Pharmacological Sciences,24(7),331-334.
Heinrich,M.,Ankli,A.,Frei,B.,Weimann,C.,&And Sticher,O.Medicinal plants in Mexico:Healers’consensus and cultural importance.Social Science&Medicine,47 11,1859-1871.
Heinrich,M.(2000).Ethnobotany and its role in drug development.Phytotherapy Research,14,479-488.
Hu,S.(1989a).The authentic and superior medicinal herbals in China.Harbin,China:Heilongjiang Science and Technology Publishing House.
Hu,S.(1998b).Illustration of the Chinese herbs in the place of the genuine.Jinan,China:Shandong Science and Technology Publishing House.
Huang,J.,Chen,J.,Ying,J.,&Ma,K.(2011).Features and distribution patterns of chinese endemic seed plant species.Journal of Systematics and Evolution,49(2),81-94.
Huang,L.,&Wang,Y.(2015).Theories and Prospects on Daodi Herbs.Modern Chinese Medicine,17(8),770-776.
Jamal,J.A.,Ghafar,Z.A.,&Husain,K.(2011).Medicinal plants used for postnatal care in Malay traditional medicine in the peninsular Malaysia.Pharmacognosy Journal,3(24),15-24.
Kala,C.P.,Farooquee,N.A.,&Dhar,U.(2004).Prioritization of medicinal plants on the basis of available knowledge,existing practices and use value status in Uttaranchal,India.Biodiversity Conservation,13453-13469.
Kishore,G.,Ranjan,S.,Pandey,A.,&Gupta,S.(2010).Influence of altitudinal variation on the antioxidant potential of tartar buckwheat of Western Himalaya.Food Science and Biotechnology,195,1355-1363.
Leon,C.,&Lin,Y.(2017).Chinese medicinal plants,herbal drugs and substitutes:An identification guide.London,UK:Kew publishing.
Leonti,M.,Stafford,G.I.,Dal Cero,M.,Cabras,S.,Castellanos,M.E.,Casu,L.,et al.(2017).Reverse ethnopharmacology and drug discovery.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,198(2017),417-431.
Letunic,I.,&Bork,P.(2016).Interactive tree of life(i TOL)v3:An online tool for the display and annotation of phylogenetic and other trees.Nucleic Acids Res,44(W1),W242-W245.doi:10.1093/nar/gkw290.
Meng,Q.,Niu,Y.,Niu,X.,Roubin,R.H.,&&Hanrahan,J.R.(2009).Ethnobotany,phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Caragana used in traditional Chinese medicine.Journal of Ethnobiology,243,350-368.
Minitab 17 Statistical Software.(2010).[Computer software].State College,PA:Minitab,Inc Retrieved from www.minitab.com.
Moerman,D.E.(1991).The medicinal flora of native North-America-an analysis.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,311,1-42.
Moerman,D.E.,Pemberton,R.W.,Kiefer,D.,&Berlin,B.(1999).A comparative analysis of five medicinal floras.Journal of Ethnobiology,191,49-67.
Ouarghidi,A.,Powell,B.,Martin,G.J.,De Boer,H.,&Abbad,A.(2012).Species substitution in medicinal roots and possible implications for toxicity of herbal remedies in Morocco.Economic Botany,66,370-382.
Pan,F.(2011).Daodi medicinal material is the essence of Chinese medicine-a review of the 390th session of Xiangshan science conference.Science Times.
Qian,X.(1987).Foreword.Hu,S.The authentic and superior medicinal herbals in China(p.2).Harbin,China:Heilongjiang Science and Technology Publishing House.
Qian,H.,&Jin,Y.(2016).An updated megaphylogeny of plants,a tool for generating plant phylogenies and an analysis of phylogenetic community structure.Journal of Plant Ecology,92,233-239.
R Core Team.(2014).R:A language and environment for statistical computing.Vienna,Austria:R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Revell,L.J.(2011).Phyphytools:An R package for phylogenetic comparative biology(and other things).Methods in Ecology and Evolution,3,217-223.
Saslis-Lagoudakis,C.H.,Williamson,E.M.,Savolainen,V.,&Hawkins,J.A.(2011).Cross-cultural comparison of three medicinal floras and implications for bioprospecting strategies.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,135(2),476-487.
Saslis-Lagoudakis,C.H.,Savolainen,V.,Williamson,E.M.,Forest,F.,Wagstaff,S.J.,Baral,S.R.,et al.(2012).Phylogenies reveal predictive power of traditional medicine in bioprospecting.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,109,15835-15840.
Saslis-Lagoudakis,C.H.,Hawkins,J.A.,Greenhill,S.J.,Pendry,C.A.,Watson,M.F.,Tuladhar-Douglas,W.,et al.(2014).The evolution of traditional knowledge:Environment shapes medicinal plant use in Nepal.Proceeding of the Royal Society of London B:Biological,281,20132768.
Sivasankari,B.,Pitchaimani,S.,&Anandharaj,M.(2013).A study on traditional medicinal plants of Uthapuram,Madurai District,Tamilnadu,South India.Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine,312,975-979.
Shrestha,P.M.,&Dhillion,S.S.(2003).Medicinal plant diversity and use in the highlands of Dolakha district,Nepal.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,86(1),81-96.
Stein,R.A.(1972).Tibetan Civilization.London:Faber and Faber.
Tan,X.(2016).The systematizations and researches of exotic medicinal plants(Masters dissertation).Beijing,China:Peking Union Medical College.
Tan,H.,Hu,D.,Song,J.,Xu,Y.,Ca,IS.,Chen,Q.,et al.(2015).Distinguishing Radix Angelica Sinensis from different regions by HS-SFME/GC-MS.Food Chemistry,186,200-206.
Uniyal,S.K.,Singh,K.N.,Jamwal,P.,&Lal,B.(2006).Traditional use of medicinal plants among the tribal communities of ChhotaBhangal,Western Himalaya.Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine,2(14).doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-14.
van Andel,T.R.,van’t Klooster,C.I.E.A.,Quiroz,D.,Towns,A.M.,Ruysschaert,S.,&van den Berg,M.(2014).Local plant names reveal that enslaved Africans recognized substantial parts of the New World flora.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,111(50),E5346-E5353.
Weber,E.,Sun,S.,&Li,B.(2008).Invasive alien plants in China:Diversity and ecological insights.Biological Invasions,10,1411-1429.
Weckerle,C.S.,Ineichena,R.,Huber,F.K.,&Yang,Y.(2009).Mao’s heritage:Medicinal plant knowledge among the Bai in Shaxi,China,at a crossroads between distinct local and common widespread practice.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,123 1,213-228.
Xing,Y.,&Ree,R.H.(2017).Uplift-driven diversification in the Hengduan Mountains,a temperate biodiversity hotspot.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,114(17),E3444-E3451.
Xue,J.,Huang,L.F.,Zheng,S.,&Chen,S.(2013).Sulfur Fumigation,a Better or Worse Choice in Preservation of Traditional Chinese Medicine?Phytomedicine,20(1),97-105.
Zhang,X.(2007).Vegetation map of the People’s Republic of China 1:1 000 000.Beijing China:The Geological Publishing House.
Zhao,Z.,Guo,P.,&Brand,E.(2012).The formation of Daodi medicine materials.Journal of Ethnopharmacology,140(1),476-481.
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