缅甸民盟政府的国家治理及面临的挑战
|
摘要
2016年缅甸民盟政府在短时间内确立了昂山素季在党内第一权威和国务资政的政治地位,组建了精简、团结、廉洁、高效、亲民的新政府,推动"21世纪彬龙大会"的召开,在国家治理上取得一定成效。然而,民盟政府与军方围绕以国家强制力为实质内容而展开的博弈、罗兴亚人问题的国际化和若开族群冲突引起的内外风波削弱了民盟政府国家治理能力的建设。民盟政府后续执政仍需在统领、濡化、再分配以及吸纳和整合等国家治理能力上实现突破和进步。
The state governance of Myanmar in 2016 focused on three aspects:Suu Kyi and NLD's leading capacity building;the tests of absorption and integration to NLD's governance during the promotion of national reconciliation;the challenges of assimilation and integration to NLD's governance from military and ethnic problems.NLD supported Suu Kyi as the leader and the state counselor of Myanmar in short time,and shaped compact,unity,efficient and populist government,and achieved some goals by holding"21 Century Panglong Conference",which demonstrated that Myanmar had achieved some goals of governance.However,it also resulted to negative implications on the relations among the parties because of means using for Rohingya and ethnic problem solving.So,balancing national reconciliation and economic development,coordinating the interest distribution among parties are the keys for NLD's governance.
The state governance of Myanmar in 2016 focused on three aspects:Suu Kyi and NLD's leading capacity building;the tests of absorption and integration to NLD's governance during the promotion of national reconciliation;the challenges of assimilation and integration to NLD's governance from military and ethnic problems.NLD supported Suu Kyi as the leader and the state counselor of Myanmar in short time,and shaped compact,unity,efficient and populist government,and achieved some goals by holding"21 Century Panglong Conference",which demonstrated that Myanmar had achieved some goals of governance.However,it also resulted to negative implications on the relations among the parties because of means using for Rohingya and ethnic problem solving.So,balancing national reconciliation and economic development,coordinating the interest distribution among parties are the keys for NLD's governance.
引文
(1)国家治理能力可分为专断性国家能力和基础性国家能力,前者指国家干预的范围,后者包括强制能力(合法的垄断暴力)、汲取能力(从社会汲取经济产出,表现为财政税收)、濡化能力(表现为国家认同与核心价值)、认证能力(国家与收税、征兵、征劳役的对应关系)、规管能力(规管人们的外部行为)、统领能力(政府自我管理)、再分配能力(对稀缺资源的权威性调配)以及吸纳和整合能力(将所有政治化的社会势力纳入制度化的参与渠道)等八种能力。其中强制、汲取和濡化能力为近代国家的基本能力,认证、规管、统领和再分配能力为现代国家基本能力。参阅王绍光《国家治理与基础性国家能力》,载于欧阳康主编《国家治理的“道”与“术”》,中国社会科学出版社,2015年,第42-47页。(1)王绍光:《国家治理与基础性国家能力》,载于欧阳康主编《国家治理的“道”与“术”》,中国社会科学出版社,2015年,第43页。(2)王子昌:《2013年缅甸的政治发展》,《东南亚研究》2014年第2期。(3)《缅甸新政府呈现五大特点》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15549,2016-11-24.(4)“Aung San Suu Kyi Offers New Year Message”,Mizzima,http://www.mizzima.com/news-domestic/aung-san-suu-kyi-offers-new-year-message,2016-11-21.(5)有关“State Counselor”,我国官方媒体给出了两种翻译方法:新华社将其译为“国家顾问”,而人民网将其译为“国务资政”。本文以中国外交部发言为准,统一使用“国务资政”一词(直接引用除外)。有关“国家顾问”和“国务资政”的称谓请分别参阅《昂山素季出任缅甸国家顾问》,新华社,http://news.xinhuanet.com/mrdx/2016-04/07/c_135257379.htm;《缅甸国务资政昂山素季》,人民网,http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2016/0817/c1002-28641351.html(1)《昂山素季:若民盟胜选我的权力将高于总统》,央广网,http://news.cnr.cn/gjxw/gnews/20151106/t20151106_520410490.shtml,2016-11-15.(2)《缅甸研究所舆情周报(2016.01.10-2016.01.16)》,中国-东盟研究院,http://cari.gxu.edu.cn/info/1367/9483.htm,2016-11-17.(3)“NLD Makes Bid to Give Suu Kyi Powerful New Role”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/nld-makesbid-to-give-suu-kyi-powerful-new-role/61516,2016-11-19.(4)“Appointment of Union Ministers(Order 3/2016)”,Myanmar President Office,http://203.81.89.211/2015en/?q=briefing-room/orders/2016/03/31/id-6495,2016-11-23.(5)民盟提案的宪法依据有二:一是第二百零二条(一)款:总统在征得联邦议会的同意后,根据需要确定联邦政府部门的设置,并可对联邦政府部门进行改变和增补;二是第二百一十七条:联邦议会有权赋予职能机构或个人以职权。根据法案内容,设置国务资政是为实现国家和平、发展市场经济制度、联邦制和繁荣发展等目标。缅甸国务资政的职责和权限是在不违反宪法的前提下,为了国家和人民利益提出建议,并为落实建议与政府、相关部门、组织和个人等联络协商。(6)“NLD Clashes with Military over Suu Kyi Role”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/nld-clashes-with-military-over-suu-kyi-role/61557,2016-11-15.(7)吴登盛在其任期内曾两次遭到外界指责其涉嫌参与巩发党党务工作。第一次是在2012年,登盛出席巩发党代表大会;第二次是巩发党非常规人事变动,吴瑞曼下台。参见《昂山素季“无名乃大”》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15420,2016-11-11.(8)《缅甸研究所舆情周报(2016.03.27-2016.04.02)》,中国-东盟研究院,http://cari.gxu.edu.cn/info/1367/10116.htm,2016-04-02.(1)“Suu Kyi Gives up Two Ministerial Posts”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/suu-kyi-gives-up-two-ministerial-posts/61606,2016-11-16.(2)军方代表在会议上要求对该项草案八章中的七章进行修改,未获通过,最后以投票方式解决,军方代表以不投票起立表示抗议。投票结果为:有权投票者为406人,实际286人投票,其中赞成票262张,反对票22张,弃权票2张。参见《人民议会通过国家资政法草案》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15642,2016-11-24.(3)“Military Appointees Complain of‘Democratic Bullying’in Parliament”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/military-appointees-complain-of-democratic-bullying-in-parliament/61650,2016-11-16.(4)“‘State Counselor’Bill Signed,Creating Powerful Position for Suu Kyi”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/state-counselor-bill-signed-creating-powerful-position-for-suu-kyi.html,2016-11-21.(5)“‘State Counselor’Law Signed by President”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/state-counselor-law-signed-by-president/61714,2016-11-21.(1)《缅甸领导人退隐后为何能放心出家?》,新浪网,http://news.sina.com.cn/zl/ruijian/2016-04-12/09065763.shtml,2017-02-16.(2)《缅甸研究所舆情周报(2016.01.24-2016.01.30)》,中国-东盟研究院,http://cari.gxu.edu.cn/info/1367/9481.htm,2016-11-24.(3)《昂山素季“无名乃大”》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15420,2016-11-18.(4)《昂山素季周三将“秘会”缅总统和总司令》,中国青年网,http://news.youth.cn/gj/201512/t20151201_7366294.htm,2017-02-16.(1)《缅甸政府36部改为21部》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15366,2016-11-18.(2)根据缅甸宪法规定,总统在组建政府时,只需要向联邦国会提交各部数量、任命的部长数量以及部长名单,如有需要还可以任命副部长,但并没有规定一定要任命副部长。(3)“New State Counselor Ministry Proposed for Suu Kyi”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/new-state-counselor-ministry-proposed-for-suu-kyi.html,2016-11-21.(4)“Myanmar General Election,2015”,Wikipedia,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar_general_election,_2015,2017-02-16.(1)《缅甸新政府呈现五大特点》,新华网,http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2016-03/30/c_1118488498.htm,2017-02-16.(2)《杜昂山素会见候任部长谈百日维新》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15497,2016-11-06.(3)“Burma Removes Hundreds of Names from Blacklist”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/burma-removes-hundreds-of-names-from-blacklist.html,2016-11-18.(4)“100-Days Plans of Ministry of Foreign Affairs”,Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Myanmar,http://www.mofa.gov.mm/?p=7722,2016-11-21.(5)“Four More National Committees Formed”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/four-more-national-committees-formed.html,2016-11-21.(1)缅甸联邦共和国国务资政办公室第一号命令(1/2016号声明)内容如下:(一)释放政治犯、政治激进分子、受政治牵连正接受司法程序的学生,是由人民推选上任的人民政府的优先工作之一。为落实该项工作,兹列出三项原则:(1)根据宪法第204(甲)条款表明国家总统可行使赦免权,可赦免某个人或一群人、某个团伙。国家总统可援引刑事法第401/1条款,对正在服刑者给予有限制性或无限制性的赦免。(2)国家总统可根据宪法第204(乙)条款,经国民安全委员会的同意,行使赦免权,包括对正在服刑的和正在受审的人犯颁布大赦令。(3)任何政府律师在根据刑事法第494条款起诉个人,对被起诉人所涉案件的指控,都应取得法院同意才可结案。(二)尽快争取在新年吉祥时刻,运用上述途径对上述第一项之(1)和(3)条进行落实。参见《缅甸联邦共和国国务资政办公室(1/2016号声明)》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15685,2016-11-21.(2)“Suu Kyi Outlines Strategies To Free Political Prisoners”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-outlines-strategies-free-political-prisoners.html,2016-11-19.(3)《当局开始释放政治犯及学运人士》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15692,2016-11-16.(4)《缅甸再大赦83名政治犯仍有数百名在押》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsView.asp?ID=15768,2017-02-16.(5)以蓄意扰乱、危害国家为主要定罪依据的《国家安全法》于1975年出台,主要是国家境内某个地区,或部分地区,或全国范围发生动乱需要宣布紧急法令时,针对相关地区居民的人权以及大多数人的需要而颁布限定基本人权的法令。2008年缅甸宪法明确规定保护居住于被实施紧急状况地区人民的基本权利,若违反此规定,将被视为触犯刑事条例。民盟认为这两者存在冲突,遂予以废除。(6)该条例设立于1950年,其中最为民众所熟悉的是第(5/10)条款。西方国家将触犯此条例而被关押的人称为政治犯,而缅甸则不认可,这也成为西方与缅甸争论其国内政治犯数额的一个焦点。军方代表及巩发党代表指出,为了国家安全,应该保留该条例。参阅“Bill Committee Moves to Abolish Controversial Emergency Provisions Act”,The Irrawaddy,https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/bill-committee-moves-to-abolish-controversial-emergency-provisions-act.html,2017-02-16.(1)《总统办公厅发布有关赠送礼品的指导手册》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=15716,2016-11-11.(2)“Government Rebukes Attempt by‘Large Media Company’to Bribe Official”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/government-rebukes-attempt-by-large-media-company-to-bribe-official/62135,2016-11-21.(3)“Suu Kyi Says Peace Process will be Government's Priority”,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-says-peace-process-will-be-governments-priority.htm;l“‘Herculean’Effort Needed to Rebuild Country,Says Suu Kyi”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/herculean-effort-needed-to-rebuild-countrysays-suu-kyi/61955,2016-11-18.(4)“‘Herculean’Effort Needed to Rebuild Country,Says Suu Kyi”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/herculean-effort-needed-to-rebuild-country-says-suu-kyi/61955,2016-11-18.(5)“Suu Kyi's Call for‘Second Panglong’Gets Lukewarm Reception”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/suu-kyi-second-panglong/62371,2016-11-21.(1)“MPC to be Renamed‘National Reconciliation and Peace Center’”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/mpc-to-be-renamed-national-reconciliation-and-peace-center.html,2016-11-18.(2)2012年,时任总统吴登盛在国际社会的强力财政援助下成立了旨在重建和平的组织——缅甸和平中心(MPC),但问题在于要求“民地武”先签署全国范围的停火协议后再进行政治协商,这超出了缅甸和平中心的权限。(1)“Suu Kyi,NCA Groups Agree to Start‘Second Panglong’in August”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/suu-kyi-nca-start-second-panglong-august/67648,2016-11-19.(2)“Suu Kyi to Meet Ethnic Army Leaders”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/suu-kyi-to-meet-ethnic-army-leaders/68119,2016-11-21.(3)“Suu Kyi Begins Talks with NCA Non-Signatories”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-begins-talks-with-nca-non-signatories.html,2016-11-19.(4)“Suu Kyi to Meet Wa and Mongla Armed Group Leaders”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-to-meet-wa-and-mongla-armed-group-leaders.html,2016-11-21.(5)“Wa Pledge not to Split from Union”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/wapledge-not-to-split-from-union.html,2016-11-19.(6)“Three Armed Groups‘Ready to Join’Peace Conference”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/three-armed-groups-ready-to-join-peace-conference.html,2016-11-19.(1)“17 Ethnic Delegations Meet in Maijayang to Plan for 21CPC”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/17-ethnic-delegations-meet-in-maijayang-to-plan-for-21cpc/68694,2016-11-19.(2)《联合国、东盟、中国代表出席迈扎央峰会》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsView.asp?ID=17366,2016-11-21.(3)“Ethnic Armed Group Leaders Discuss Formation of a Burman State”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/ethnic-armed-group-leaders-discuss-formation-of-a-burman-state.html,2016-11-21.(4)“和平进程领导小组”曾在2015年8支非政府武装组织与登盛政府签署“全国停火协定”的和平谈判中承担领导角色。(5)“Ethnic Armed Alliance Joins Political Framework Review Meeting”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/us-based-burmese-muslim-group-calls-on-nld-govt-to-end-rohingya-persecution-restore-rights.html,2016-11-21.(6)“Union Army should be Under Civilian Jurisdiction,Say Maijayang Delegates”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/union-army-should-be-under-civilian-jurisdiction-says-maijayang-delegates/68831,2016-11-19.(1)“UWSA Peace Delegate:Observer Status Restrictions Made Us Uncomfortable”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/in-person/interview/uwsa-peace-delegate-observer-status-restrictions-made-usuncomfortable.html,2016-11-21.(2)“UWSA Criticizes Peace Conference for‘Poor Management and Discrimination’”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/uwsa-criticizes-peace-conference-for-poor-management-anddiscrimination.html,2016-11-19.(3)“UNFC will not Sign Ceasefire Unless All Members Included”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/unfc-will-not-sign-ceasefire-unless-members-included.html,2016-11-21.(4)“21st Century Panglong Conference Kicks off in Naypyidaw”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/21st-century-panglong-conference-kicks-off-in-naypyidaw.html,2016-11-21.(5)“State Counselor Wants All to Sign NCA Before February Peace Conference”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/state-counselor-wants-all-to-sign-nca-before-february-peaceconference.html,2016-11-21.(6)“State-Level Political Dialogue Planned for November”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/state-level-political-dialogue-planned-for-november.html,2016-11-21.(7)“Analysis:Rushing the Peace Process”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/analysis-rushing-the-peace-process.html,2016-11-23.(8)“Ethnic Alliance Holds off on Signing Ceasefire Agreement”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/ethnic-alliance-holds-off-on-signing-ceasefire-agreement.html,2016-11-20.(9)“Analysis:Rushing the Peace Process”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/analysis-rushing-the-peace-process.html,2016-11-24.(10)“Dateline Irrawaddy:‘We have Seen a Certain Degree of Deadlock in the Peace Process.’”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/in-person/dateline-irrawaddy-we-have-seen-a-certain-degree-ofdeadlock-in-the-peace-process.html,2016-11-21.(1)张伟玉:《缅甸军人政权转型的原因分析》,《国际社会科学》2016年第2期。(1)“Suu Kyi,Army Chief Hold Third Meeting in Naypyidaw”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-army-chief-hold-third-meeting-in-naypyidaw.html,2016-11-21.(2)“Suu Kyi,Army Chief Hold Third Meeting in Naypyidaw”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-army-chief-hold-third-meeting-in-naypyidaw.html,2016-11-21.(3)“国家和平七步路线图”的七步为:1.商议政治对话框架;2.修改政治对话框架;3.按照政治对话框架召开“21世纪彬龙大会”;4.根据“21世纪彬龙大会”结果签署“21世纪彬龙协议”;5.根据“21世纪彬龙协议”修宪;6.依照宪法举行多党民主制全国大选;7.根据大选结果建立民主联邦。参阅“Statement of the First Anniversary of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement”,The Republic of The Union of Myanmar Ministry of Information,http://m.moi.gov.mm/moi:eng/?q=news/17/10/2016/id-8772,2017-02-16.(4)“UNFC-Without Meaningful Political Dialogue Conflict will Continue”,The Burma Net News,http://www.burmanet.org/news/2016/10/11/mon-news-agency-unfc-without-meaningful-political-dialogueconflict-will-continue-aik-sai/,2017-02-16.(5)11月初,克钦独立军(KIA)组织发言人表示,“21世纪彬龙大会”之后,国防军与KIA之间发生了150次战斗。而“缅甸和平执行观察”(Myanmar Peace Monitor)记录显示,在8-10月3个月里,国防军与“民地武”组织之间发生了63次冲突,其中,以国防军与KIA之间发生的武装冲突次数最多。参阅《21世纪彬龙会议后国防军与KIA之间发生150次战斗》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=19460,2017-02-17.(1)《缅甸国务资政昂山素季以缅甸联邦共和国民族和解与和平中心名义发表公告》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=19811,2017-02-16.(2)2016年12月初,缅甸联邦议会和昂山素季否决了将4家“民地武”定性为“恐怖组织”的议案。但12月8日,巩发党还是在掸邦议会提出了将附若开军(军方不承认其地位)以外的三家“民地武”定性为恐怖组织的议案,掸邦军方议员也给予了支持。参阅“Shan State Parliament Puts Peace Process in Jeopardy”,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/shan-state-parliament-puts-peace-process-injeopardy.html,2016-12-08.(3)“四同盟”是军方武力攻击缅北“民地武”后“民地武”走向自主联合的结果,它们包括:克钦独立军(民族解放军)、德昂民族解放军、果敢同盟军、若开民族解放军。(4)《民盟政府、军方及多组织代表参加在仰光举行的和平论坛》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=20906,2017-02-17.(5)“Army Chief Pledges to Cooperate with Htin Kyaw”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/army-chiefpledges-cooperation-with-htin-kyaw/61098;“Military Chief:We will Do Our Duty under NLD Govt”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/military-chief-duty-nld/65870,2016-11-21.(1)《仰光军区妙吞乌中将表示政府与军方和谐共处》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsView.asp?ID=17237,2016-11-22.(2)“Aung San Suu Kyi Aide:Rohingya are not Our Priority”,Telegraph,http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/burma/12006208/Aung-San-Suu-Kyi-aide-Rohingya-are-not-ourpriority.html,2016-11-21.(3)“Heavy Casualties Reported in Arakan Fighting”,DVB,http://www.dvb.no/news/heavy-casualtiesreported-in-arakan-fighting/62080,2016-11-24.(1)该委员会有9名成员,其中6名为外国专家学者,3名为缅甸机构或社会团体主席。其职责是在预防冲突、人道协助、维权与和解、机构设置、促进发展方面做出评估,并向缅甸政府提交最终调查结果,提出冲突解决建议。由于缅甸国内一直不认可若开地区罗兴亚人的政治地位,导致该委员会受到缅甸11个政党的联名反对,认为该委员会的成立违反法定程序,将使若开邦民族宗教问题上升为国际问题,并给当地居民利益和国家安全带来隐患。除此之外,有的政党担心该委员会的成立将会使原本不被承认的罗兴亚人成为缅甸的民族之一。参见《缅甸袭警事件新形势》,http://cati.nwupl.cn/Item/13965.aspx,2016-11-21.(2)“Appointment of Region/State Chief Ministers(Order 4/2016)”,Myanmar President Office,http://203.81.89.211/2015en/?q=briefing-room/orders/2016/03/31/id-6497,2016-11-21.(3)“Aung San Suu Kyi to Include Non-Party Members in Myanmar Government Cabinet”,The Radio Free A-sia,http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/aung-san-suu-kyi-to-include-non-party-membersin-myanmar-government-cabinet-03042016161557.html,2017-02-17.(4)若开民族党的前身是若开民主联盟和若开民族发展党。若开民族党开除了多名中央执委,都是前若开民主联盟成员,因此,在若开民族党内部,原若开民主联盟和原若开民族发展党成员之间的矛盾也日益突出。(5)“Have Ethnic Groups Lost Faith in the NLD?”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/commentary/have-ethnic-groups-lost-faith-in-the-nld.html,2016-11-21.(6)“Aung San Suu Kyi's‘silence’on the Rohingya:Has‘The Lady’Lost Her Voice?”,CNN,http://edition.cnn.com/2014/04/15/world/asia/myanmar-aung-san-suu-kyi-rohingya-disappointment/,2016-11-17.(7)“Presidential Spokesman Hits Back Against UN Criticism Over Rohingya”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/presidential-spokesman-hits-back-against-un-criticism-overrohingya.html,2016-11-22.(1)“Rohingya a Term‘People Can't Accept’,Shwe Mann Tells US Ambassador”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/rohingya-a-term-people-cant-accept-shwe-mann-tells-us-ambassador.html,2016-11-24.(2)敏昂莱还表示:“1824年第一次英缅战争后,英人佔领了若开地区,从孟加拉地区输入人群,在进进出出中,留下的人逐渐多起来,我们称呼这些留下来的人为‘宾格里’。后来,宾格里人把远离出去的穆斯林人称为‘罗兴亚’人(到远方去住的人),这是他们自己的称呼,而且也是为1950年举行的选举所使用的词汇,并不是一个正式词汇”。参见“Military Chief:There are no Rohingyas”,The Eleven,http://www.elevenmyanmar.com/politics/military-chief-there-are-no-rohingyas,2017-02-16.(3)《民盟表示缅甸历史上不曾有“罗兴亚”一词》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsView.asp?ID=15934,2017-02-16.(4)“Myanmar's Aung San Suu Kyi won't Use Term‘Rohingya’”,Theage,http://www.theage.com.au/world/myanmars-aung-san-suu-kyi-wont-use-term-rohingya-20160621-gpnzvg.html,2016-11-21.(5)“Rohingya a Term‘People Can't Accept’,Shwe Mann Tells US Ambassador”,The Irrawaddy,https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/rohingya-a-term-people-cant-accept-shwe-mann-tells-us-ambassador.html,2017-02-16.(6)“US-Based Burmese Muslim Group Calls on NLD Govt to End Rohingya Persecution,Restore Rights”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/us-based-burmese-muslim-group-calls-on-nld-govt-to-end-rohingya-persecution-restore-rights.html,2016-11-21.(7)“Obama to Relax U.S.Sanctions Against Myanmar”,The New York Times,https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/18/world/asia/myanmar-burma-sanctions.html?_r=0,2017-02-16.(8)“Peace Talks Must Focus on Rights”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/opinion/peace-talks-must-focus-on-rights.html,2016-11-19.(1)若开民族党认为,6月17日在瑞士日内瓦举行的第32届人权会议上,缅甸政府代表谈及若开邦“宾格里”事件时使用“若开邦穆斯林社群”一词,完全违背了缅甸联邦共和国的“联邦精神”,而把“宾格里”事件定位为只是若开民族内部的事情。6月22日,若开民族党发表4/2016号声明,表示完全不能同意当局把宾格里人称呼为“若开邦穆斯林社群”或“若开邦信仰穆斯林者”的作法。参见《若开民族党表示不能接受“若开穆斯林社群称谓”》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=16795,2016-11-24.(2)“Arakanese and Rohingya Criticize New Govt Term for Muslims”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/arakanese-and-rohingya-criticize-new-govt-term-for-muslims.html,2016-11-22.(3)“After Protests,State Government to Use Only‘Arakanese Race’”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/after-protests-state-government-to-use-only-arakanese-race.html,2016-11-20.(4)“Kofi Annan‘Confident’in Arakan State Advisory Commission's Mandate”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/kofi-annan-confident-in-arakan-state-advisory-commissionsmandate.html,2016-11-21.(5)“Ma Ba Tha Denies Responsibility for‘Coffee Annan’Gaffe”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/ma-ba-tha-denies-responsibility-for-coffee-annan-gaffe.html,2016-11-21.(6)“State Counselor to Attend Asean Summit in Laos”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/state-counselor-to-attend-asean-summit-in-laos.html,2016-11-20.(7)“Suu Kyi Speaks at UN General Assembly”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/suu-kyi-speaks-at-un-general-assembly.html,2016-11-23.(8)“Hundreds Flee Arakan Violence”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/hundreds-flee-arakan-violence.html,2016-11-20;“Burma Army Says 86 Killed in Fighting in Arakan State”,The Irrawaddy,http://www.irrawaddy.com/news/burma/burma-army-says-86-killed-in-fighting-in-arakan-state.html,2016-11-20.(1)“Citing‘General Crisis’,Parties Urge Powerful Security Council Meeting”,The Myanmar Times,http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/23949-citing-general-crisis-parties-urge-powerfulsecurity-council-meeting.html,2017-02-17.(2)2016年6月27日,缅甸警方在若开邦实兑市查获一批价值30亿缅币的麻黄素片,捣毁运毒团伙“一条龙”,使得缅甸若开邦毒品案件再创新记录。参阅《缅甸袭警事件新形势》,反恐怖主义信息网,http://cati.nwupl.cn/Item/13965.aspx,2017-02-16.(3)“Aung San Suu Kyi Calls off Trip as Pressure Grows Over Rohingya Muslims”,The Wall Street Journal,https://www.wsj.com/articles/aung-san-suu-kyi-calls-off-trip-as-pressure-grows-over-rohingyamuslims-1480322954,2017-02-17.(4)“Malaysia PM Urges World to Act Against‘Genocide’of Myanmar's Rohingya”,The Guardian,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=20091,2017-02-17.(5)“Myanmar Stops Migrant Workers Going to Malaysia after Rohingya Row”,The Reuters,http://in.reuters.com/article/myanmar-rohingya-malaysia-id INKBN13W1AD,2017-02-17.(6)《杜昂山素季警告不要在若开事件上火上加油》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsView.asp?ID=20032,2017-02-17.(7)2017年1月初,缅甸社交媒体上爆出2016年11月缅甸警察暴力殴打若开邦少数民族人员的视频,瞬间引爆网络,迫使政府罕见地就警察打人事件进行调查。随后,缅甸调查委员会否认安全部队迫害罗兴亚人的指控,转移了警察打人事件话题。参阅“Myanmar Police Brutally Beat the Video of Rakhine National Minority”,The New York Times,https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/03/world/asia/myanmar-video-policebrutality.html,2017-02-17;“Myanmar Accused of‘Whitewash’as Panel Rejects Claims It is Persecuting Rohingya”,The Reuters,http://news.trust.org/item/20170105064102-bylz5/,2017-02-17.(1)“UN Calls on Myanmar's Suu Kyi to Visit Crisis-Hit Rakhine”,The Star,http://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2016/12/09/un-calls-on-myanmars-suu-kyi-to-visit-crisis-hit-rakhine/,2017-02-17.(2)“ASEAN FMs Pledge Support on Rakhine”,The Myanmar Time,http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/24298-asean-fms-pledge-support-on-rakhine.html,2017-02-17.(3)《当局将在茂都地区扩建七个联邦民族村》,缅华网,http://www.mhwmm.com/Ch/NewsV iew.asp?ID=20341,2017-02-17.(4)张云飞:《缅甸新政百天,昂山素季可以打几分?》,观察者网,http://www.guancha.cn/zhangyunfei/2016_07_08_366812.shtml,2016-11-21.
© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号 地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083 电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700 |