企业污染的舆论监督为什么需要多层次的公众参与——基于美国TRI数据库实践的研究
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摘要
针对企业环境污染的舆论监督,本文考察了美国公众在TRI数据库基础上各层面的公众参与,以及它们对于企业风险进行舆论监督的作用,进而考察对政府公共部门制定风险管控政策的影响。在这四个层面当中,企业的公众参与使得风险评估中多了不同的利益主体;公民与社区的参与是公众参与的初级形式,参与机会是主要目标;部分公众参与是利用大众传媒与社会专业组织为公众传播风险知识并进一步形成舆论;充分公众参与是在政策制定层面影响风险管控政策与立法的科学与正义性。这四个层面是阶梯性、递进式的,彼此不可或缺又各有所用。
This paper examines the public participation and its roles at all levels on the basis of TRI practices in the USA in order to supervise the enterprise pollution by public opinions.Among these four levels,public participation of enterprises makes risk assessment have different stakeholders,and citizen and community participation is the primary form of public participation,in which participation opportunity is the main goal.Part participation is to use mass media and social professional organizations to disseminate risk knowledge to the public to form the public opinion,while full participation exerts great influence on the risk legislation at the policy-making level.These four levels of public participation are ladder-like and indispensable to each other.
This paper examines the public participation and its roles at all levels on the basis of TRI practices in the USA in order to supervise the enterprise pollution by public opinions.Among these four levels,public participation of enterprises makes risk assessment have different stakeholders,and citizen and community participation is the primary form of public participation,in which participation opportunity is the main goal.Part participation is to use mass media and social professional organizations to disseminate risk knowledge to the public to form the public opinion,while full participation exerts great influence on the risk legislation at the policy-making level.These four levels of public participation are ladder-like and indispensable to each other.
引文
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(1)参见Safety Health and the Environment[DB/OL].Boeing Company Website,January 7th,2003。
(2)参见Ford Sustainability Report 2017—2018[R].Ford Motor Company,2018。
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(1)参见JSI Center for Environmental Health Studies:A Division of the JSIR Rearch and Training Institute[DB/OL].data available at the website www.jsi.com/JSIInternet/IntlHealth/index.cfm on Oct 30,2018。
(2)参见TRI Curriculum Project for Universities and High Schools[DB/OL].data available at the website www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/bk2_wed_8_katers_eggert_0.pdf on Oct 30,2018。
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(1)参见How are the Toxics Release Inventory Data Used?[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,2003,p36。
(2)参见8.5Million Pounds of Toxic Materials in New Jersey’s Waterway[N].Dredging Today,April 5th,2012。
(1)参见Economic Analysis of the Final Rule to Add Certain Industry Groups to EPCRA Section 313[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,April 1997,pp.6-29。
(2)参见States as Innovators:It’s Time for a New Look to Our Laboratories of Democracy in the Effort to Improve Our Approach to Environmental Regulation[N].Alabama Law Review347,pp370-371。
(3)参见Economic Analysis of the Final Rule to Add Certain Industry Groups to EPCRA Section 313[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,April 1997,pp.6-29。
(1)参见《积弊清理:2016—2017年度120城市污染源监管信息公开指数(PITI)报告》[R].北京:公众环境研究中心,2017年版,第11至13页。
[2]Fischhoff,B.,S.R.Watson,C.Hope.Defining risk[J].Policy Sciences,1984(17).
[3]Cvetkovich,G.Social Trust and the Management of Risk[M].London:Earthscan Publication(first edition),1999.
[4]Lauber,T.B.,B.A.Knuth.Fairness in Moose management decision-making:The citizens’perspective[J].Wild Society Bulletin,1997(4).
[5]Mirel,B.Debating nuclear energy:Theories of risk and purposes of communication[J].Technical Communication Quarterly,1994(3).
[6]Waddell,C.Defining sustainable development:A case study in environmental communication[J].Technical Communication Quarterly,1994(4).
[7]Winner,L.Citizen virtues in a technological order[A].Andrew Feenberg&Alastair Hannay(Eds.)Technology and the Politics of Knowledge[C].Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1995.
[8]Rowan,K.What risk communicators need to know:An agenda for research[A].Brant Burleson(Ed.)Communication Yearbook 18,International Communication Association[C].1994.
[9]Stratman,J.E.,C.Boykin,M.C.Holmes.Risk communication meta-communication,and rhetorical states in the Aspen EPA superfund controversy[J].Journal of Business and Technical Communication,1995(9).
[10]Renn,O.,T.Webler,P.M.Wiedmann.Fairness and Competence in Citizen Participation:Evaluating Models for Environmental Discourse[M].Dordrecht:Kluwer,1995.
[11]Lynn,F.M.,J.D.Kartez.Environmental democracy in action:The toxics release inventory[J].Environmental Management,1994(4).
[12]Iacofano,D.,R.Moore,S.Goltsman.Public involvement in transit planning:A case study of piece transit,Tacoma,Washington,USA[A].H.Sanoff(Ed.)Participatory Design:Theory&Techniques[C].Henry Sanoff,1990.
[13]Belsten,L.Environmental risk communication and community collaboration[A].Star Muir&Thomas Veenendall(Eds.)Earthtalk,Westport,Connecticut:Praeger Series in Political Communication[C].1996.
[14]Pine,J.1997 Toxics Release Inventory and Right-to-Know Conference Proceedings[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,1997-09-08.
[15]McDonnell,Jeff S.The Toxics Release Inventory:A New Challenge for Electric Utilities,How are the Toxics Release Inventory Data Used?[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,2003.
[16]Rice,F.Who Scores Best on the Environment[N].Fortune,Vol.128,No.2,1993-07-26.
[17]Grabill,J.T.,W.M.Simmons.Toward a critical rhetoric of risk communication:Producing citizens and the role of technical communicators[J].Technical Communication Quarterly,7(4),1998.
[18]Rowe,G.,L.J.Frewer.A typology of public engagement mechanisms[J].Science Technology&Human Values,2005(20).
[19]Wilson,D.An Unreasonable Woman a True Story of Shrimpers,Politicos,Polluters,and the Flight for Seadrift,Texas[M].Chelsea Green Publishing Company,2006.
[20]Kolacovic,G.Poor Neighborhoods and Poor Health[N].Los Angels Times,2001-10-18.
[21]Plough,A.,S.Krimsky.Environmental Hazards:Communicating Risks as a Social Process[M].Dover:Auburn House,1988.
[22]Eilperin,J.Toxic Releases Rose 16persent in 2010,EPA Says[N].The Washington Post,2012-01-05.
[23]Penn,B.The Smokestack Effect:Toxic Air and America’s Schools[N].Special Report,USA TODAY,2009-04-01.
[24]Brennan,M.America’s 10Most Toxic Cities[N].Forbus,2011-02-28.
[25]Oltman,S.,S.Kate.America’s Top 10Polluting Power Stations[N].The Guardian,2012-01-12.
[26]Augenstein,S.Delaware River is 5th most Polluted River in U.S.,Environmental Group Says[N].New Jersey Real-Time News,2012-04-05.
[27]Ross,S.M.Two rivers,two vessels:Environmental problem solving in an intercultural context[A].Star Muir&Thomas Veenendall(Eds.)Earthtalk,Westport,Connecticut:Praeger Series in Political Communication[C].1996.
[28]Fung and O’Bourke.Reinventing environmental regulations from the grassroots up[J].Environmental Management,2000(2).
[29]McQuaid,J.Q&A:What is Environmental Justice?[N].NOLA Live,2002-01-07.
[30]Bullard,R.Confronting Environmental Racism in the Twenty-First Century[N].Global Dialogue,2012-04-26.
[31]Foucault,M.The Subject and Power[A].Huber L.Dreyfus&Paul Rabinow(Eds.)Michel Foucault:Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics,Chicago:University of Chicago[C].1982.
[32]Simmons,M.Participation and Power Civic Discourse in Environmental Policy Decision[C].Oneonta:State University of New York Press,2005.
[33]若弘.中国NGO:非政府组织在中国[M].北京:人民出版社,2015.
[34]刘奇,张金池.基于比较分析的中央环保督察制度研究[J].环境保护,2018(11).
[35]常纪文,王鑫.由督企、督政到督地方党委:环境监督模式转变的历史逻辑[J].环境保护,2016(7).
(1)参见Understanding Risk:Informing Decision in a Democratic Society[C].National Research Council,Washington D.C.:National Academy Press,1996,129-133。
(1)参见Safety Health and the Environment[DB/OL].Boeing Company Website,January 7th,2003。
(2)参见Ford Sustainability Report 2017—2018[R].Ford Motor Company,2018。
(3)参见《绿色供应链:CITI指数2015年度评价报告》[R].北京:公众环境研究中心,2016年版,第2页。
(1)参见A Citizen’s Guide to Reducing Toxic Risks,Putting the Toxics Release Inventory to Work![R].Washington D.C.:EPA,1998。
(2)参见State Directory:33/50 and Voluntary Pollution Prevention Program[R].Washington D.C.:U.S.Environmental Protection Agency,October 1993。
(3)参见Breathing Poison:The Toxic Costs of Industries in Calcasieu Parish[R].Residents of Calcasieu Parish,Louisiana,Mossville Environmental Action Network,June 2000。
(4)参见A Citizen’s Guide to Reducing Toxic Risks,Using the Toxics Release Inventory[R].EPA’s Pacific Southwest Regional Office,Summer,2002。
(1)参见JSI Center for Environmental Health Studies:A Division of the JSIR Rearch and Training Institute[DB/OL].data available at the website www.jsi.com/JSIInternet/IntlHealth/index.cfm on Oct 30,2018。
(2)参见TRI Curriculum Project for Universities and High Schools[DB/OL].data available at the website www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-10/documents/bk2_wed_8_katers_eggert_0.pdf on Oct 30,2018。
(3)参见Beale,S.The Most Toxic Towns in Rhode Island[DB/OL].golocalprov.com,April 12,2012。
(1)参见How are the Toxics Release Inventory Data Used?[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,2003,p36。
(2)参见8.5Million Pounds of Toxic Materials in New Jersey’s Waterway[N].Dredging Today,April 5th,2012。
(1)参见Economic Analysis of the Final Rule to Add Certain Industry Groups to EPCRA Section 313[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,April 1997,pp.6-29。
(2)参见States as Innovators:It’s Time for a New Look to Our Laboratories of Democracy in the Effort to Improve Our Approach to Environmental Regulation[N].Alabama Law Review347,pp370-371。
(3)参见Economic Analysis of the Final Rule to Add Certain Industry Groups to EPCRA Section 313[R].Washington D.C.:EPA,April 1997,pp.6-29。
(1)参见《积弊清理:2016—2017年度120城市污染源监管信息公开指数(PITI)报告》[R].北京:公众环境研究中心,2017年版,第11至13页。