北京城市建成环境对犯罪行为和居住安全感的影响
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摘要
犯罪地理学领域存在"街道眼"理论、防卫空间理论、破窗理论、环境设计预防犯罪等多种观点,但在开放与封闭谁更有益、设计与管理谁更重要、以及客观犯罪行为与主观安全感知的影响机制差异等问题上仍有争议。本文整合北京市的大样本调查、刑事案件及空间数据,系统探究城市建成环境对犯罪行为和居住安全感的影响。研究发现:(1)社区出入控制有助于提升居住安全感,并能抑制小尺度上的犯罪活动,但封闭式居住小区存在犯罪现象的"挤出效应",无法有效削减较大空间尺度上的犯罪总量。(2)人流活动密集、城市功能集中、可渗透性较好的开放性空间对增进居住安全感具有正面影响,但由于为罪犯提供了更多作案对象和逃逸机会,助长了犯罪活动的发生。(3)城市环境的管理维护比设计建设环节更能增进居住安全感,也是在较大尺度上阻遏犯罪行为的关键手段。
When the concept of 'Narrow Road, Intensive Grid, and Open Space' commenced to be popularized in Chinese urban planning, some citizens had serious doubts about whether permeable environment could cause crime and unsafety or not. Theoretically, which one was safer, open or enclosed space? Which one was more critical on safety, design or management?What were the differences between factors influencing crime behavior and safety perception?All these academic debates were not resolved in criminal geography. This paper discussed how built environment around communities influenced crime behavior and sense of security on the basis of social investigations, criminal cases and geographic data in Beijing. Among them, the subjective evaluation and objective indicators were introduced to measure features of physical environment. On the other hand, crime occurrence was illustrated by both the criminal recalls and crime cases on record. This research indicated that the theory of which was better open or enclosed space actually depended on its space dimension. An enclosed community could make the residents feel safer and restrain low-dimensional crime activities, yet it caused the'crowding-out' effect of crime activities. Therefore, 'Door closing' was unable to decrease crime rate essentially. Secondly, the influencing mechanism of crime behavior was quiet different from safety perception. Open space with intensive social activities, mixed urban function and high permeability had positive effects on sense of security. However, it allowed criminals to have more targets and increase their survival possibility which contributed to the occurrence of crimes. Thirdly, compared with the 'hard' section of physical environment, the 'soft' section of management and maintenance played a more important role in improving safety perception.Meanwhile, it could decrease the number of criminal activities in a higher spatial dimension. In summary, planners and governors should pay more attention to environmental maintenance and management as well as urban design in order to pursue crime prevention.
When the concept of 'Narrow Road, Intensive Grid, and Open Space' commenced to be popularized in Chinese urban planning, some citizens had serious doubts about whether permeable environment could cause crime and unsafety or not. Theoretically, which one was safer, open or enclosed space? Which one was more critical on safety, design or management?What were the differences between factors influencing crime behavior and safety perception?All these academic debates were not resolved in criminal geography. This paper discussed how built environment around communities influenced crime behavior and sense of security on the basis of social investigations, criminal cases and geographic data in Beijing. Among them, the subjective evaluation and objective indicators were introduced to measure features of physical environment. On the other hand, crime occurrence was illustrated by both the criminal recalls and crime cases on record. This research indicated that the theory of which was better open or enclosed space actually depended on its space dimension. An enclosed community could make the residents feel safer and restrain low-dimensional crime activities, yet it caused the'crowding-out' effect of crime activities. Therefore, 'Door closing' was unable to decrease crime rate essentially. Secondly, the influencing mechanism of crime behavior was quiet different from safety perception. Open space with intensive social activities, mixed urban function and high permeability had positive effects on sense of security. However, it allowed criminals to have more targets and increase their survival possibility which contributed to the occurrence of crimes. Thirdly, compared with the 'hard' section of physical environment, the 'soft' section of management and maintenance played a more important role in improving safety perception.Meanwhile, it could decrease the number of criminal activities in a higher spatial dimension. In summary, planners and governors should pay more attention to environmental maintenance and management as well as urban design in order to pursue crime prevention.
引文
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(1)根据《最高人民法院关于人民法院在互联网公布裁判文书的规定》(法释(2013)26号、法释(2016)9号),北京市三级法院需统一在北京法院审判信息网(www.bjcourt.gov.cn)上全面、及时、规范地公布裁判文书。
(2)与居住安全无关的刑事案件类型包括重婚罪、医疗事故罪、诬告陷害罪、交通肇事罪、危险驾驶罪、行贿罪、受贿罪、贪污罪、滥用职权罪、挪用公款罪、玩忽职守罪、伪证罪、挪用资金罪、骗取贷款罪、侵犯著作权罪、私分国有资产罪等。
(3)用地分类包括行政办公(A1)、文化设施(A2)、教育科研(A3)、体育(A4)、医疗卫生(A5)、社会福利(A6)、文物古迹和宗教(A7、A9)、外事(A8)、零售商业(B11)、批发(B12)、餐饮(B13)、旅馆(B14)、金融保险(B21)、艺术传媒(B22)、其他商务设施(B29)、娱乐康体(B3)、加油加气站(B41)、其他公用设施(B49)、其他服务设施(B9)、公园绿地(G1)、广场(G3)、一类住宅(R11)、二类三类住宅(R21、R31)、居住服务设施(R12、R22、R32)、城市道路(S1)、轨道交通(S2)、综合交通枢纽(S3)、公共交通设施(S41)、社会停车场(S42)、工业(M)、物流仓储(W)等31种性质。
(4)安全感的范畴还包括交通安全感、街道安全感等不同维度[53],为明确特定内涵,本文仅关注与犯罪相关的居住安全感。
(5)熵指数越大,说明各类功能愈加多元混合;反之,则说明城市功能相对单一。
[2] Cornish D B, Clarke R V. Reasoning Criminal:Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York:Springer-Verlag,1986.
[3] Felson M, Clarke R V. Opportunity Makes the Thief:Practical Theory for Crime Prevention. London:Home Office,Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, 1998.
[4] Wilson J Q, Kelling G L. Broken windows. The Atlantic Monthly, 1982, 249(3):29-38.
[5] Jeffery C R. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. Beverly Hills:Sage, 1971.
[6] Crowe T D, Fennelly L J. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design. 3rd ed. Beijing:China People's Public Security University Press, 2015.[Crowe T D, Fennelly L J.环境设计预防犯罪. 3版.北京:中国人民公安大学出版社, 2015.]
[7] Marzbali M H, Abdullah A, Ignatius J, et al. Examining the effects of crime prevention through environmental design(CPTED)on residential burglary. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 2016, 46:86-102.
[8] Armitage R, Monchuk L, Rogerson M. It looks good, but what is it like to live there? Exploring the impact of innovative housing design on crime. European Journal on Criminal Policy&Research, 2011, 17(1):29-54.
[9] Gibson V, Johnson D. CPTED, but not as we know it:Investigating the conflict of frameworks and terminology in crime prevention through environmental design. Security Journal, 2016, 29(2):256-275.
[10] Landman K. Boundaries, bars, and barricades:Reconsidering two approaches to crime prevention in the built environment. Journal of Architectural&Planning Research, 2009, 26(3):213-227.
[11] Kitchen T. New urbanism and CPTED in the British planning system:Some critical reflections. Journal of Architectural&Planning Research, 2005, 22(4):342-357.
[12] Jacobs J. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York:Vintage, 1961.
[13] Xu Bing, He Yaoxuan. An overview of studies on the relationship between residential spatial form and crime in the United Kingdom:The quantitative analysis method based on space syntax. City Planning Review, 2014, 38(10):91-94.[徐冰,贺耀萱.英国居住空间形态与犯罪的关系研究概述:基于空间句法量化分析方法的典型建构.城市规划,2014, 38(10):91-94.]
[14] Gilderbloom J I, Riggs W W, Meares W L. Does walkability matter? An examination of walkability's impact on housing values, foreclosures and crime. Cities, 2015, 42:13-24.
[15] Hong J, Chen C. The role of the built environment on perceived safety from crime and walking:Examining direct and indirect impacts. Transportation, 2014, 41(6):1171-1185.
[16] Sohn D. Residential crimes and neighbourhood built environment:Assessing the effectiveness of crime prevention through environmental design(CPTED). Cities, 2016, 52(3):86-93.
[17] Matthews S A, Yang T, Hayslett-McCall K, et al. Built environment and property crime in Seattle, 1998-2000:A Bayesian analysis. Environment and Planning A, 2010, 42(6):1403-1420.
[18] Foster S, Hooper P, Knuiman M, et al. Are liveable neighbourhoods safer neighbourhoods? Testing the rhetoric on new urbanism and safety from crime in Perth, Western Australia. Social Science&Medicine, 2016, 164:150-157.
[19] Foster S, Giles-corti B, Knuiman M. Neighbourhood design and fear of crime:A social-ecological examination of the correlates of residents'fear in new suburban housing developments. Health&Place, 2010, 16(6):1156-1165.
[20] Donder L D, Buffel T, Dury S, et al. Perceptual quality of neighbourhood design and feelings of unsafety. Ageing and Society, 2013, 33(6):917-937.
[21] Newman O. Defensible Space:Crime Prevention through Urban Design. New York:Macmillan, 1972.
[22] Zhang W. Does compact land use trigger a rise in crime and a fall in ridership? A role for crime in the land use-travel connection. Urban Studies, 2016, 53(14):3007-3026.
[23] Wood L, Shannon T, Bulsara M, et al. The anatomy of the safe and social suburb:An exploratory study of the built environment, social capital and residents'perceptions of safety. Health&Place, 2008, 14(1):15-31.
[24] Schweitzer J H, Kim J W, Mackin J R. The impact of the built environment on crime and fear of crime in urban neighborhoods. Journal of Urban Technology, 1999, 6(3):59-73.
[25] Foster S, Wood L, Christian H, et al. Planning safer suburbs:Do changes in the built environment influence residents'perceptions of crime risk? Social Science&Medicine, 2013, 97:87-94.
[26] Kytta M, Kuoppa J, Hirvonen J, et al. Perceived safety of the retrofit neighborhood:A location-based approach. Urban Design International, 2014, 19(4):311-328.
[27] Wilcox P, Quisenberry N, Jones S. The built environment and community crime risk interpretation. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 2003, 40(3):322-345.
[28] Wilcox P, Quisenberry N, Cabrera D T, et al. Busy places and broken windows? Toward defining the role of physical structure and process in community crime models. The Sociological Quarterly, 2004, 45(2):185-207.
[29] Marzbali M H, Abdullah A, Tilaki M J M. The effectiveness of interventions in the built environment for improving health by addressing fear of crime. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 2016, 45:120-140.
[30] Brunton-Smith I, Sturgis P. Do neighborhoods generate fear of crime? An empirical test using the British crime survey.Criminology, 2011, 49(2):331-369.
[31] Snedker K A. Neighborhood conditions and fear of crime:A reconsideration of sex differences. Crime&Delinquency,2015, 61(1):45-70.
[32] Hinkle J C, Weisburd D. The irony of broken windows policing:A micro-place study of the relationship between disorder, focused police crackdowns and fear of crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 2008, 36(6):503-512.
[33] Abdullah A, Marzbali M H, Woolley H, et al. Testing for individual factors for the fear of crime using a multiple indicator-multiple cause model. European Journal on Criminal Policy&Research, 2014, 20(1):1-22.
[34] Wyant B R. Multilevel impacts of perceived incivilities and perceptions of crime risk on fear of crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 2008, 45(1):39-64.
[35] Swatt M L, Varano S P, Uchida C D, et al. Fear of crime, incivilities, and collective efficacy in four Miami neighborhoods. Journal of Criminal Justice, 2013, 41(1):1-11.
[36] Lee J S, Park S, Jung S. Effect of crime prevention through environmental design(CPTED)measures on active living and fear of crime. Sustainability, 2016, 8(9):872-888.
[37] Barton M S, Weil F, Jackson M, et al. An investigation of the influence of the spatial distribution of neighborhood violent crime on fear of crime. Crime&Delinquency, 2017, 63(13):1757-1776.
[38] Markowitz F E, Bellair P E, Liska A E, et al. Extending social disorganization theory:Modeling the relationships between cohesion, disorder, and fear. Criminology, 2001, 39(2):293-320.
[39] Sampson R J, Raudenbush S W. Systematic social observation of public spaces:A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 1999, 105(3):603-651.
[40] Doran B J, Lees B G. Investigating the spatiotemporal links between disorder, crime, and fear of crime. The Professional Geographer, 2005, 57(1):1-12.
[41] Foster S, Giles-corti B. The built environment, neighborhood crime and constrained physical activity:An exploration of inconsistent findings. Preventive Medicine, 2008, 47(3):241-251.
[42] Breetzke G D, Pearson A L. The fear factor:Examining the spatial variability of recorded crime on the fear of crime.Applied Geography, 2014, 46(1):45-52.
[43] Feng J, Dong Y, Song L. A spatio-temporal analysis of urban crime in Beijing:Based on data for property crime. Urban Studies, 2016, 53(15):3223-3245.
[44] Mao Yuanyuan, Ding Jiajun. Study on spatial-temporal patterns of robbery and snatch:A case study of Pudong New Area, Shanghai. Human Geography, 2014, 29(1):49-54.[毛媛媛,丁家骏.抢劫与抢夺犯罪行为时空分布特征研究:以上海市浦东新区为例.人文地理, 2014, 29(1):49-54.]
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(1)根据《最高人民法院关于人民法院在互联网公布裁判文书的规定》(法释(2013)26号、法释(2016)9号),北京市三级法院需统一在北京法院审判信息网(www.bjcourt.gov.cn)上全面、及时、规范地公布裁判文书。
(2)与居住安全无关的刑事案件类型包括重婚罪、医疗事故罪、诬告陷害罪、交通肇事罪、危险驾驶罪、行贿罪、受贿罪、贪污罪、滥用职权罪、挪用公款罪、玩忽职守罪、伪证罪、挪用资金罪、骗取贷款罪、侵犯著作权罪、私分国有资产罪等。
(3)用地分类包括行政办公(A1)、文化设施(A2)、教育科研(A3)、体育(A4)、医疗卫生(A5)、社会福利(A6)、文物古迹和宗教(A7、A9)、外事(A8)、零售商业(B11)、批发(B12)、餐饮(B13)、旅馆(B14)、金融保险(B21)、艺术传媒(B22)、其他商务设施(B29)、娱乐康体(B3)、加油加气站(B41)、其他公用设施(B49)、其他服务设施(B9)、公园绿地(G1)、广场(G3)、一类住宅(R11)、二类三类住宅(R21、R31)、居住服务设施(R12、R22、R32)、城市道路(S1)、轨道交通(S2)、综合交通枢纽(S3)、公共交通设施(S41)、社会停车场(S42)、工业(M)、物流仓储(W)等31种性质。
(4)安全感的范畴还包括交通安全感、街道安全感等不同维度[53],为明确特定内涵,本文仅关注与犯罪相关的居住安全感。
(5)熵指数越大,说明各类功能愈加多元混合;反之,则说明城市功能相对单一。