斯里兰卡的殖民进程研究
摘要
斯里兰卡在近代经历了将近450年的西方殖民时期。对于一个古代长期在印度洋上过着世外桃源般生活的岛国而言,西方殖民打破了自古以来两千年历史的宁静。从此这个国家再不能闭关锁国不问世事。从葡萄牙到荷兰再到英国,殖民强权的介入深刻改变了斯里兰卡固有的文化传承和社会秩序。到今天这种影响在很多社会层面依然根深蒂固不可清除。本文讨论了自1505年葡萄牙人登陆以来到1948年实现独立这一段历史时期中,斯里兰卡政府统治、经济发展和文化构成等社会形态的变迁以及相应的影响。四百多年的时间跨度对于一篇论文而言似乎太长,但是如果考虑斯里兰卡六万多平方公里的国土面积以及殖民时期不足百万的人口规模,这样选题的原因就可以理解了。
在结构上,本文首先简要叙述斯里兰卡的古代史沿革以及斯里兰卡与印度的文化渊源关系。在整个的殖民进程中,按照殖民强权的更迭次序,本文将主体分为三个部分：葡萄牙殖民时期、荷兰殖民时期和英国殖民时期。更进一步,则分别讨论三个不同时期殖民统治给斯里兰卡的政治、文化和社会经济方面都带来了怎样的影响和变化。
在葡萄牙殖民时期,本文讨论了这一历史阶段中外来殖民政权与本地政权之间的互动、冲突及产生的后果。在文化方面,由于这是斯里兰卡近代与殖民者的第一次接触,所以可以看到它对于斯里兰卡,尤其是沿海地区的语言和文化价值观念形成了较大的冲击。僧伽罗语中大量外来词涌入,种姓制度遇到了古代以来最大的挑战,佛教信仰也面临与天主教的竞争。在经济方面,殖民政府主要利用香料贸易将斯里兰卡经济融入到全球化进程之中。斯里兰卡传统上以种姓为基础的社会分工体系逐步瓦解。
在荷兰殖民时期,首先讨论荷兰人在斯里兰卡沿海地区殖民统治的确立,内容涉及荷兰殖民者与斯里兰卡本地政权的关系以及与葡萄牙殖民政权的霸权争夺。荷兰人在斯里兰卡的政权交接是与葡萄牙人和英国人完成的,在军事上和政治上对本地政权和社会秩序的触动最少。相对平和的殖民气氛使得荷兰文化在斯里兰卡得到较大范围的接受。罗马-荷兰法作为一种规范的法律制度,在这一时期得以在斯里兰卡推行。荷兰风格的建筑遗迹以及混血族群人数的增加也成为荷兰殖民时期的显著特点。在社会经济方面,荷兰人基本延续了以香料为主的出口贸易模式。本地族群在这种经济环境中继续分化,中低种姓的人群获得越来越多的社会权利并积累更多的社会财富。
英国殖民时期的一个重要事件是康提沦陷,斯里兰卡从此沦为完全的殖民地。岛国延续千年的历史传统,包括种姓制度和佛教信仰等,都失去了最后的避难所,其固有的文化发展脉络被折断。但是英国人在制度建设方面也给斯里兰卡的发展带来了一些积极因素。殖民政府实行了具有三权分立特征的民主制度。立法和司法制度也较过去更加完善。英国人在斯里兰卡大力发展种植园经济,使得茶叶和椰子等作物慢慢成为产业支柱。新经济的繁荣使得本地中产阶级的崛起成为可能。而当受过良好西方教育的人群占据社会文化生活主导位置的时候,就为民族觉醒和民族主义复苏提供了条件。殖民后期英国人与斯里兰卡完成了平稳的政权交接。客观而言,殖民时期的政治制度与基础设施建设成果成为了斯里兰卡独立后发展的宝贵遗产。
本文最后从全球化以及殖民主义双重性角度观察斯里兰卡近代殖民进程。以大航海为发端和殖民为过程的全球化既给斯里兰卡带来了苦难,也打破了这个国家的旧秩序。从理论视角而言,马克思在19世纪对殖民主义展开批判并确立的马克思主义反殖民理论成为本文的指导思想。殖民进程对斯里兰卡的社会发展产生了破坏作用,撕裂了其固有的文化和经济的发展脉络,这是本文的论述基础。对于那些殖民过程中所发生的建设性因素,则不以殖民原罪为由而忽略。近代斯里兰卡历史的一个主要特点,就在于它被卷入了全球化进程。本文结尾以全球化史为叙事背景,对斯里兰卡近代殖民进程进行总结。
Sri Lanka experienced more than four hundred years of western colonization in her history. As an island in the Indian Ocean, ancient Sri Lanka had not much concern on foreign invasion except for some short periods of threats from the southern part of the subcontinent. Starting from early16th century, Portugal and Holland had successively colonized the coastal areas of Sri Lanka. Britain occupied the whole island and made the country one of its Crown colonies in the19th century. The colonization process had substantially changed the cultural and social tradition of Sri Lanka. This paper discusses the political, cultural and economic development of Sri Lanka in the period from1505to its independence in1948. It focuses in particular the contact and conflict between Sri Lanka originally as an island country with unique cultural history and the western powers as colonizers.
As an overall background, the paper first briefly discusses the ancient historical development of Sri Lanka and her cultural relation with the Subcontinent. Then it studies the process of colonization in three chapters according to the sequence of the coming of three European powers, namely Portugal, Holland and Britain. In each of the three chapters, the paper further discusses the impact brought upon local community of Sri Lanka by the colonial rules respectively.
In the chapter discussing the Portuguese rule in Sri Lanka, the focus is put on the interaction between colonial government and local political powers as well as its consequence. As the result of the very first contact of Sri Lanka with a western country, the Portuguese rule on coastal Sri Lanka generated notable impacts not only on local politics and economy but also on cultural factors such as language and religion etc. Lots of Portuguese vocabularies were borrowed into local language and have been used ever since then till now. The traditional caste system and also the Buddhist belief also were challenged due to the change of cultural value as invoked by the Portuguese. The profitable spice trade which was the major revenue source of the Portuguese also helped to bring Sri Lanka into the globalizing world.
The rule of the Dutch on coastal Sri Lanka began with the power transfer from the Portuguese and ended with the coming of Britain. There had been comparatively less military confrontation during this period. The Dutch continued to focus on the spice trade in coastal Sri Lanka while Kandy and its surrounding areas remained under the rule of the Sinhala kingdom. More discussion is made on the cultural implication of the Dutch rule and also the social economic change of local community during this period. The change of the social status of some low castes under the Dutch rule is noticeable while the Govigama which is generally regarded as the top caste seemed to be losing some of its high profile. The conquer of Kandy by the British was significant to the history of Sri Lanka due to the fact that it was an area never occupied by any former colonial ruler. Under the British rule, Sri Lankan economy saw development mainly due to expansion of commercial plantations such as coffee, tea and coconut trees etc. Some local population benefited from the export oriented economy and Sri Lanka had a rising middle class starting from the second half of the19th century. The nationalism awaked when a well educated elite class recognized independence would not be far since the military strength of Britain was weakened during the two world wars. The British colonial heritage helped Sri Lanka to develop during the period of peaceful power transfer at1940s.
The paper studies the colonization process of Sri Lanka from the perspective of globalization as well as the Marxist theory of anti-colonization. The history of Sri Lanka starting from16th century has become more interwoven with the globalized world as a result of the colonial rules. The Marxist theory on colonialism in particular its analysis of the British rule in India provides the paper with a theoretical perspective to look at the colonial process of Sri Lanka. While the destruction generated by colonial rule should be discussed comprehensively and profoundly, the construction resulted from such rule should not be ignored.
在结构上,本文首先简要叙述斯里兰卡的古代史沿革以及斯里兰卡与印度的文化渊源关系。在整个的殖民进程中,按照殖民强权的更迭次序,本文将主体分为三个部分：葡萄牙殖民时期、荷兰殖民时期和英国殖民时期。更进一步,则分别讨论三个不同时期殖民统治给斯里兰卡的政治、文化和社会经济方面都带来了怎样的影响和变化。
在葡萄牙殖民时期,本文讨论了这一历史阶段中外来殖民政权与本地政权之间的互动、冲突及产生的后果。在文化方面,由于这是斯里兰卡近代与殖民者的第一次接触,所以可以看到它对于斯里兰卡,尤其是沿海地区的语言和文化价值观念形成了较大的冲击。僧伽罗语中大量外来词涌入,种姓制度遇到了古代以来最大的挑战,佛教信仰也面临与天主教的竞争。在经济方面,殖民政府主要利用香料贸易将斯里兰卡经济融入到全球化进程之中。斯里兰卡传统上以种姓为基础的社会分工体系逐步瓦解。
在荷兰殖民时期,首先讨论荷兰人在斯里兰卡沿海地区殖民统治的确立,内容涉及荷兰殖民者与斯里兰卡本地政权的关系以及与葡萄牙殖民政权的霸权争夺。荷兰人在斯里兰卡的政权交接是与葡萄牙人和英国人完成的,在军事上和政治上对本地政权和社会秩序的触动最少。相对平和的殖民气氛使得荷兰文化在斯里兰卡得到较大范围的接受。罗马-荷兰法作为一种规范的法律制度,在这一时期得以在斯里兰卡推行。荷兰风格的建筑遗迹以及混血族群人数的增加也成为荷兰殖民时期的显著特点。在社会经济方面,荷兰人基本延续了以香料为主的出口贸易模式。本地族群在这种经济环境中继续分化,中低种姓的人群获得越来越多的社会权利并积累更多的社会财富。
英国殖民时期的一个重要事件是康提沦陷,斯里兰卡从此沦为完全的殖民地。岛国延续千年的历史传统,包括种姓制度和佛教信仰等,都失去了最后的避难所,其固有的文化发展脉络被折断。但是英国人在制度建设方面也给斯里兰卡的发展带来了一些积极因素。殖民政府实行了具有三权分立特征的民主制度。立法和司法制度也较过去更加完善。英国人在斯里兰卡大力发展种植园经济,使得茶叶和椰子等作物慢慢成为产业支柱。新经济的繁荣使得本地中产阶级的崛起成为可能。而当受过良好西方教育的人群占据社会文化生活主导位置的时候,就为民族觉醒和民族主义复苏提供了条件。殖民后期英国人与斯里兰卡完成了平稳的政权交接。客观而言,殖民时期的政治制度与基础设施建设成果成为了斯里兰卡独立后发展的宝贵遗产。
本文最后从全球化以及殖民主义双重性角度观察斯里兰卡近代殖民进程。以大航海为发端和殖民为过程的全球化既给斯里兰卡带来了苦难,也打破了这个国家的旧秩序。从理论视角而言,马克思在19世纪对殖民主义展开批判并确立的马克思主义反殖民理论成为本文的指导思想。殖民进程对斯里兰卡的社会发展产生了破坏作用,撕裂了其固有的文化和经济的发展脉络,这是本文的论述基础。对于那些殖民过程中所发生的建设性因素,则不以殖民原罪为由而忽略。近代斯里兰卡历史的一个主要特点,就在于它被卷入了全球化进程。本文结尾以全球化史为叙事背景,对斯里兰卡近代殖民进程进行总结。
Sri Lanka experienced more than four hundred years of western colonization in her history. As an island in the Indian Ocean, ancient Sri Lanka had not much concern on foreign invasion except for some short periods of threats from the southern part of the subcontinent. Starting from early16th century, Portugal and Holland had successively colonized the coastal areas of Sri Lanka. Britain occupied the whole island and made the country one of its Crown colonies in the19th century. The colonization process had substantially changed the cultural and social tradition of Sri Lanka. This paper discusses the political, cultural and economic development of Sri Lanka in the period from1505to its independence in1948. It focuses in particular the contact and conflict between Sri Lanka originally as an island country with unique cultural history and the western powers as colonizers.
As an overall background, the paper first briefly discusses the ancient historical development of Sri Lanka and her cultural relation with the Subcontinent. Then it studies the process of colonization in three chapters according to the sequence of the coming of three European powers, namely Portugal, Holland and Britain. In each of the three chapters, the paper further discusses the impact brought upon local community of Sri Lanka by the colonial rules respectively.
In the chapter discussing the Portuguese rule in Sri Lanka, the focus is put on the interaction between colonial government and local political powers as well as its consequence. As the result of the very first contact of Sri Lanka with a western country, the Portuguese rule on coastal Sri Lanka generated notable impacts not only on local politics and economy but also on cultural factors such as language and religion etc. Lots of Portuguese vocabularies were borrowed into local language and have been used ever since then till now. The traditional caste system and also the Buddhist belief also were challenged due to the change of cultural value as invoked by the Portuguese. The profitable spice trade which was the major revenue source of the Portuguese also helped to bring Sri Lanka into the globalizing world.
The rule of the Dutch on coastal Sri Lanka began with the power transfer from the Portuguese and ended with the coming of Britain. There had been comparatively less military confrontation during this period. The Dutch continued to focus on the spice trade in coastal Sri Lanka while Kandy and its surrounding areas remained under the rule of the Sinhala kingdom. More discussion is made on the cultural implication of the Dutch rule and also the social economic change of local community during this period. The change of the social status of some low castes under the Dutch rule is noticeable while the Govigama which is generally regarded as the top caste seemed to be losing some of its high profile. The conquer of Kandy by the British was significant to the history of Sri Lanka due to the fact that it was an area never occupied by any former colonial ruler. Under the British rule, Sri Lankan economy saw development mainly due to expansion of commercial plantations such as coffee, tea and coconut trees etc. Some local population benefited from the export oriented economy and Sri Lanka had a rising middle class starting from the second half of the19th century. The nationalism awaked when a well educated elite class recognized independence would not be far since the military strength of Britain was weakened during the two world wars. The British colonial heritage helped Sri Lanka to develop during the period of peaceful power transfer at1940s.
The paper studies the colonization process of Sri Lanka from the perspective of globalization as well as the Marxist theory of anti-colonization. The history of Sri Lanka starting from16th century has become more interwoven with the globalized world as a result of the colonial rules. The Marxist theory on colonialism in particular its analysis of the British rule in India provides the paper with a theoretical perspective to look at the colonial process of Sri Lanka. While the destruction generated by colonial rule should be discussed comprehensively and profoundly, the construction resulted from such rule should not be ignored.
引文
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④ Karl Marx, The British Rule in India, the New-York Daily Tribune, June 25,1853.
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① W.S. Karunatillake, Historical Phonology of Sinhala:From Old Indo-Aryan to the 14th Century AD. Colombo:S. Godage& Brothers,2001, P56.
① 参见季羡林,《原始佛教的语言问题》,《佛教十五题》,中华书局,2007年,第27-34页。
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658,American Ceylon Press,1920, P15.
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② Henry Marshall, Ceylon:A General Description of the Island and Its Inhabitants, The Ceylon Historical Journal Volume Fifteen, Tisara Prakasakayao,1969, P36.
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第57页。
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② Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka.1998. Lusotopie 2000. University of London.
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① M.H. Goonatilleka, A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka:A Brief Socio-Linguistic Survey, Indo-Portuguese History:Old Issues, New Questions, P147, Naurang Rai Concept Publishing Company, Delhi,1985.
② Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka. Lusotopie,2000.
① 张西平,《东方的希望—泰戈尔访华与新时代预言》,《中华读书报》,2012年03月07日,第17版。
② 佟加蒙,《斯里兰卡的中国学研究》,《国际汉学》,第19期,2010年,第181页。
① C. Gaston Perera, The Portuguese Missionary in 16th and 17th Century Ceylon, Vijitha Yapa Publications,2009, P232.
① Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka. Lusotopie,1998.
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第59页。
② K. M. De. Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1981, P128.
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658, American Ceylon Press,1920, P43.
① 尼古拉斯,帕拉纳维特纳,《锡兰简明史》,李荣熙译,商务印书馆,1972年,第12页。
② 法显,《佛国记》,长春出版社,1995,第127页。
③ 僧伽罗语中的“种姓”与印度的“瓦尔纳”含义不尽相同。更多的是指“Jati”,含有人群分类、族群的意思。
① 一种观点认为"Radala"是“高维伽摩”种姓的子种姓。实际上王亲权贵阶层和占人口一半左右的“高维”种姓中的大部分人群存在天然的社会隔阂,其社会地位的差别巨大。Bryce Ryan就认为"Radala",尤其是殖民之前的贵族阶层认为自己是一个独立的种姓群体。参见：Bryce Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon:the Sinhalese.system in transition, Rutgers University Press,1953, P99
① 王兰,《僧伽罗人的种姓制度》,《南亚研究》,2004年第1期,第73页。
② 法显, 《佛国记》,长春出版社,1995年,第127页。
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第55页。
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658, American Ceylon Press,1920, P29.
② Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.2009, P437.
① P E.Pieris,Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658,American Ceylon Press,1920,P29.
③ 一个巴哈尔重量单位相当于176公斤。
② P.E.Pieris,P34
⑤ P E.Pieris.P7
⑥ P.E.Pieris,P182
① 桑贾伊·苏拉马尼亚姆,《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲：1500-1700》,何吉贤译,朗文书屋,1993年,第122页。
② Donald Ferguson, The Earliest Dutch Visits to Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1998, P5.
① Robort Knox, An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon In The East Indies, Printed by Richard Chiswell, Royal Society, London,1681.
② P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P1
① 十七世纪中期斯里兰卡西南、西部和南部沿海大约35万人口,北部贾夫纳大约有12万人口。参见：P.E.Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P3.
① P. E. Pieris. Cevlon and the Hollanders, American Cevlon Mission Press.1918. P23.
② Philalethes, A.M. Oxon., The History of Ceylon, Printed by J.F. Dove, St. John's Square, London, P130.
③ P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P10.
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P11.
① 明·马欢,《瀛涯胜览》,冯承钧校注,商务印书馆,1935年,第56页。
① 袁坚,《斯里兰卡的郑和布施碑》,《南亚研究》,1981年第1期,第139页。
② Marco Ramerini, Remains of Dutch and Portuguese Buildings in Sri Lanka, Colonial Voyage Website, http://www.colonialvoyage.com/eng/asia/sri_lanka/remains.html
① John Duncan Martin Derrett, The Origins of the Laws of the Kandyans, Ceylon University Press,1956, P46.
② Marleen H.J. van den Horst, The Roman Dutch Law in Sri Lanka, Free University Press, Amsterdam,1985, P35.
① Cooray, Anton. "Oriental and Occidental Laws in Harmonious Co-existence:The Case of Trusts in Sri Lanka.' Electronic Journal of Comparative Law. v.12.1 (May 2008) P1-17.
① Aryadasa Ratnasinghe, Alien Words in Sinhala Vocabulary, Daily News, Dec 1st,2004.
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P3.
① P. Finkelman and J.C. Miller eds., MacMillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery, New York 1998, P851.
② Markus Vink, "The World's Oldest Trade":Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century, Journal of World History, June 2003, P142-145.
③ S. Arasaratnam, Dutch Power in Ceylon,1658-1687, Amsterdam,1958, P132-34.
① 斯里兰卡一般将殖民时期作为奴隶和劳工从南印度贩入的泰米尔人及其后裔称为“印度泰米尔人”。
② P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P26.
③ Vijaya Samaraweera, The Cinnamon Trade of Ceylon, Indian Economic Social History Review,1971, P415.
① Memoir of Hendrick Zwaardecroon, Commander of Jaffnapatnam 1697, P52.
② R. Van. Goens, Memoir of R. Van. Goens 1663-1675, Colombo,1932, P 20.
① Mills, L.A. Ceylon under British Rule,1795-1932, Taylor & Francis,1964, P21.
① Mendis, V.L.B. The Advent of the British to Ceylon,1762-1803, Tisara Prakasakayo, Colombo,1971, P18.
① Douglas, edited by Father S. G. Perera, The Douglas Papers, Ceylon Observer Press, Colombo,1933, P27.
① History of Ceylon, Vol III, The Kandyan Kingdom and the British-The Last Phase, University of Peradeniya, P16.
① History of Ceylon, Vol III, The Development of the Administrative System from 1802-1832, University of Peradeniya, P34.
② Colvin R. De Silva, Ceylon Under the British Occupation,1795-1833, Colombo Apothecaries' Co.,1942, P223.
① Edward Ives,A Voyage from England to India, in the Year 1754, Admant Media Cooperation, London,2005, P56.
② History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, Economic and Social Developments under the British, by Vijaya Samaraweera, University of Peradeniya, P48.
① Mills,L.A.Ceylon under British Rule,1795-1932,Taylor & Francis,1964,P89.
① History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, The Development of the Administrative System, by K. M. De. Silva, University of Peradeniya,P219.
① John Richard Weinman, Our Legislature, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo,1974, P55.
① Donald R. Snodgrass, Ceylon:an Export Economy in Transition, R. D. Irwin, Illinois,1966, P22.
② Alastair MacKenzie Ferguson, Ferguson's Ceylon Directory, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited,1968, P369.
① Donald R. Snodgrass, Ceylon:an Export Economy in Transition, R. D. Irwin, Illinois,1966, P54.
① Michael W. Roberts, Grain Taxes in British Ceylon,1832-1878:Problems in the Fields, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No.4, Association of Asian Studies,1968, P812.
① Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford University Press,1992.
① Robert Percival, An Account of the Island of Ceylon, Printed by and for C. and R. Baldwin, London,1803, P297.
② Goonetilleke, D. C. R. A. "The Interface of Language, Literature and Politics in Sri Lanka:A Paradigm for Ex-Colonies of Britain." The Politics of English as a World Language:New Horizons in Postcolonial Cultural Studies. Ed. Christian Mair. New York:Rodopi,2003. P37-58.
① Wickramasinghe, Wimal. Sinenglish:A De-hegemonized Variety of English in Sri Lanka. Nugegoda,2000.
① 邵铁生,《斯里兰卡文学》,外语教学与研究出版社,北京,1999年,第43页。
① History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, Language and Literature in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, University of Peradeniya, P343.
① Sarachchandra, E. R. The Sinhalese Novel, Colombo, Gunasena,1956, P121.
② Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Christianity in Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, London,1950, P71.
③ Charles Edmund Godakumbura, Literature of Sri Lanka, Department of Cultural Affairs, Sri Lanka,1976, P143.
① 邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版,1991年,第63页。
① History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, Religion and the State in the Early Nineteenth Century, University of Peradeniya, P67.
① History of Ceylon, Vol III, The Government and Religion:Problems and Policies c1832 to c1910, University of Peradeniya,P199.
② 邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版,1991年,第69页。
① Edited by K. M. De Silva, Letters on Ceylon,1846-50, the Administration of Viscount Totrington and the Rebellion of 1848, K. V. G. de Silva & Sons,1965, P3.
① 班达拉奈克家族在独立后的斯里兰卡执政将近30年,出过三位总理和一位总统。其中,班达拉奈克1956年到1959年任总理,共3年；班夫人1960到1965年、1970到1977年以及1994到2000年任总理,共18年；库马拉通加1994年到2005年任总统,在位11年。
Ceylon Blue Book for 1921, Ceylon Department of Census and Statistics, George J. A. Skeen, Colombo, P280.
Bryce F. Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon:the Sinhalese system in transition, Rutgers University Press,1953, P264.
① Edward W Said, Orientalism, London:Routledege,1978, P154.
② Edward W Said, Criticism Between Culture and System, The world, the Text, and the Critic, Harvard University Press, 1983, P180.
① K. N. Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe:Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press,1990, P246.
① Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient:Global Economy in the Asian Age, University of California Press,1998, P167-174.
① 季羡林、曹葆华译,《马克思论印度》,人民出版社,北京,1951年,第13页。
② 同上,第13页。
王兰：《斯里兰卡的民族宗教与文化》,昆仑出版社,2005年
林承节主编：《殖民主义史·南亚卷》,北京大学出版社,1999年
尼古拉斯、帕拉纳维达纳著,李荣熙译：《锡兰简明史》,商务印书馆,1972年
静海：《南传佛教史》,宗教文化出版社,2002年
玄奘,辩机,《大唐西域记》,季羡林等校注,中华书局,2000年
R.C.马宗达等,《高级印度史》,商务出版社,张澍霖等译,1986年
法显,《佛国记注释》,长春出版社,郭鹏注译,1995年
季羡林,《佛教十五题》,中华书局,2007年
雅依梅·柯尔特桑,《葡萄牙的发现》,邓兰珍译,中国对外翻译出版公司,北京,1996年
桑贾伊·苏拉马尼亚姆,《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲：1500-1700》,何吉贤译,朗文书屋,1993年
K.M.德席尔瓦,《斯里兰卡历史》,德里,1981年
明·马欢,《瀛涯胜览》,冯承钧校注,商务印书馆,1935年
邵铁生,《斯里兰卡文学》,外语教学与研究出版社,北京,1999年
邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版,1991年
季羡林、曹葆华译,《马克思论印度》,人民出版社,北京,1951年
爱德华·W·萨义德,王宇根译,《东方学》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2007年
贡德·弗兰克,刘北成译,《白银资本》,中央编译出版社,北京,2008年中文期刊
邓殿臣,斯里兰卡的新都：科特,《世界知识》,1982年第22期
王兰,葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响,《南亚研究》1987年第2期
张西平,东方的希望—泰戈尔访华与新时代预言,《中华读书报》,2012年03月07日
王兰,僧伽罗人的种姓制度,《南亚研究》,2004年第1期
袁坚,斯里兰卡的郑和布施碑,《南亚研究》,1981年第1期 英文专著
Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia-History, Culture, Political Economy, Routeledge, 2004
Edited by K. M. de Silva, History of Ceylon, University of Peradeniya,2009
Karl Marx, The British Rule in India, the New-York Daily Tribune, June 25,1853
Karl Marx, The Future Results of British Rule in India, the New-York Daily Tribune, August 8,1853
C.Gaston Perera,The Portuguese Missionary in 16th and 17th Century Ceylon:The Spiritual Conquest,Vijitha Yapa Publications,2009
A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire,1415-1808, The Johns Hopkins University Press,1998
Paul Edward Pieris, Ceylon:The Portuguese era, being the history of the island for the period 1505-1658, The Colombo apothecaries co., ltd., printers,1914
Adwin Ranavaka, Layanal Lokuliyana, Buniya Seenanayaka, The Western Rule in Sri Lanka, M.D.Gunasena,1959
W.S. Karunatillake, Historical Phonology of Sinhala:From Old Indo-Aryan to the 14th Century AD. Colombo:S. Godage & Brothers,2001
P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658, American Ceylon Press,1920
Henry Marshall, Ceylon:A General Description of the Island and Its Inhabitants, The Ceylon Historical Journal Volume Fifteen, Tisara Prakasakayao,1969
Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese in the East:A Cultural History of a Maritime Trading Empire, Tauris Academic Studies,2008
Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka.1998. Lusotopie 2000. University of London
Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka creole Portugese phonology, Dravidian Linguistics Association,1978
M.H. Goonatilleka, A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka:A Brief Socio-Linguistic Survey, Naurang Rai Concept Publishing Company, Delhi,1985
Bryce Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon:the Sinhalese system in transition, Rutgers University Press,1953
Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.2009
Donald Ferguson, The Earliest Dutch Visits to Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1998
Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Ceylon and the Dutch,1600-1800:external influences and internal change in early modern Sri Lanka, Variorum,1996
Alicia Schrikker, Dutch and British colonial intervention in Sri Lanka,1780-1815:expansion and reform, BRILL,2007
Sinnappah Arasaratnam, Dutch power in Ceylon,1658-1687, Djambatan.1958
Robort Knox, An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon In The East Indies, Printed by Richard Chiswell, Royal Society, London,1681
P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press.1918
Philalethes, A.M. Oxon., The History of Ceylon, Printed by J.F. Dove, St. John's Square, London,1950
John Duncan Martin Derrett, The Origins of the Laws of the Kandyans, Ceylon University Press,1956
Marleen H. J. van den Horst, The Roman Dutch Law in Sri Lanka, Free University Press, Amsterdam, 1985
R.G. Anthonisz, Richard Gerald Anthonisz, The Dutch in Ceylon:an account of their early visits to the island, their conquests, and their rule over the maritime regions during a century and a half, Asian Educational Services,2003
P. Finkelman and J.C. Miller eds., MacMillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery, New York 1998
George Davison Winius, The fatal history of Portuguese Ceylon:transition to Dutch rule, Harvard University Press,1971
S. Arasaratnam, Dutch Power in Ceylon,1658-1687, Amsterdam,1958
Goonewardena Karunadasa Wijesiri, The foundation of Dutch power in Ceylon,1638-1658, Djambatan, Amsterdam,1958
Lorna Srimathie Dewaraja,A Study of the Political, Administrative, and Social Structure of the Kandyan Kingdom of Ceylon,1707-1760, Lake House Investments,1972
Loma Srimathie Dewaraja,The Kandyan Kingdom of Sri Lanka,1707-1782, Lake House Investments, 1988
Nihal Karunaratna, Madhyama Samskrtika Aramudala, Kandy, past and present,1474-1998 A.D., Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Religious and Cultural Affairs,1999
R. Van. Goens, Memoir ofR. Van. Goens 1663-1675, Colombo,1932
Mills, L.A. Ceylon under British Rule,1795-1932, Taylor & Francis,1964
Lennox Algernon Mills,Ceylon under British rule,1795-1932:with an account of the East India Company's embassies to Kandy,1762-1795, Oxford University Press, H. Milford,1933
GC. Mendis, Ceylon under the British, Asian Educational Services,2005
James Joseph Errington, Linguistics in a colonial world:a story of language, meaning, and power, Blackwell Publishing,2008
Paulus Edaward Peiris. Tri Sinhala:the last phase.1796-1815, Asian Educational Services,2001
Manjusri Dhall, The British missionary activities in Orissa,1822-1947, Har-Anand Publications, 1997
Edward Thompson,Geoffrey Theodore Garratt, History of British rule in India, Atlantic Publishers and Distributers,1999
Mendis, V.L.B. The Advent of the British to Ceylon.1762-1803, Tisara Prakasakayo, Colombo,1971
John Holland Rose, Ernest Alfred Benians, Arthur Percival Newton, The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Macmillan Company. New York,1929
H. A. J. Hulugalle, British governors of Ceylon, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon,1963
Lilian Charlotte Anne Knowles, Charles Matthew Knowles, The economic development of the British overseas empire, G Routledge,1924
B.C. Law, On the Chronicles of Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1994
Walter J. T. Small, A History of the Methodist Church in Ceylon,1814-1964,Wesley Press,1971
Douglas, edited by Father S. G Perera,The Douglas Papers, Ceylon Observer Press, Colombo,1933
Colvin R. De Silva, Ceylon Under the British Occupation,1795-1833, Colombo Apothecaries'Co., 1942
Edward Ives, A Voyage from England to India, in the Year 1754, Admant Media Cooperation, London, 2005
John Richard Weinman, Our Legislature, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo,1974
Donald R. Snodgrass, Ceylon:an Export Economy in Transition, R. D. Irwin, Illinois,1966
Alastair MacKenzie Ferguson, Ferguson's Ceylon Directory, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited, 1968
Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford University Press,1992
Goonetilleke, D. C. R. A. "The Interface of Language, Literature and Politics in Sri Lanka:A Paradigm for Ex-Colonies of Britain" The Politics of English as a World Language:New Horizons in Postcolonial Cultural Studies. Ed. Christian Mair. New York:Rodopi,2003
Wickramasinghe, Wimal. Sinenglish:A De-hegemonized Variety of English in Sri Lanka. Nugegoda, 2000.
Sarachchandra, E. R. The Sinhalese Novel, Colombo, Gunasena,1956
Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Christianity in Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, London,1950
Charles Edmund Godakumbura, Literature of Sri Lanka, Department of Cultural Affairs, Sri Lanka, 1976
Rev. Walpola Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Gunasena & Co. Ltd. Colombo,1956
Edited by K. M. De Silva, Letters on Ceylon,1846-50, the Administration of Viscount Torrington and the Rebellion of 1848, K. V. G. de Silva & Sons,1965
Ceylon Blue Book for 1921, Ceylon Department of Census and Statistics, George J. A. Skeen, Colombo
Edward W Said, Orientalism, London:Routledege,1978
Edward W Said, Criticism Between Culture and System, The world, the Text, and the Critic, Harvard University Press,1983
K. N. Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe:Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press,1990
Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient:Global Economy in the Asian Age, University of California Press,1998英文期刊
Cooray, Anton."Oriental and Occidental Laws in Harmonious Co-existence:The Case of Trusts in Sri Lanka."Electronic Journal of Comparative Law. v.12.1,2008
Aryadasa Ratnasinghe, Alien Words in Sinhala Vocabulary, Daily News, Dec 1st,2004
Markus Vink, "The World's Oldest Trade ":Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century, Journal of World History, June 2003
Vijaya Samaraweera, The Cinnamon Trade of Ceylon, Indian Economic Social History Review,1971
Michael W. Roberts, Grain Taxes in British Ceylon,1832-1878:Problems in the Fields, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.27, No.4, Association of Asian Studies,1968
2008
② 王兰,《斯里兰卡的民族宗教与文化》,昆仑出版社,2005年。
③ 林承节主编,《殖民主义史·南亚卷》,北京大学出版社,1999年。
① 静海法师,《南传佛教史》,宗教文化出版社,2002年。
② 邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版社,1991年。
① Robert Knox, An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon In The East Indies, Printed by Richard Chiswell, Royal Society, London,1681.
② Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia-History, Culture, Political Economy, Routeledge,2004.
① History of Ceylon, Edited by K. M. de Silva, University of Peradeniya,2009.
② C. Gaston Perera, The Portuguese Missionary in 16th and 17th Century Ceylon:The Spiritual Conquest, Vijitha Yapa Publications,2009.
③ Adwin Ranavaka, Layanal Lokuliyana, Buniya Seenanayaka, M.D.Gunasena, The Western Rule in Sri Lanka,1959.
④ Karl Marx, The British Rule in India, the New-York Daily Tribune, June 25,1853.
⑤ Karl Marx, The Future Results of British Rule in India, the New-York Daily Tribune, August 8,1853.
① 尼古拉斯、帕拉纳维达纳著,李荣熙译：《锡兰简明史》,商务印书馆,1972年,第26页。
② 同上,第27页。
① 玄奘,辩机,《大唐西域记》,季羡林等校注,中华书局,2000年,第161页。
① R.C.马宗达等, 《高级印度史》,商务出版社,张澍霖等译,1986年,第45页。
① 法显,《佛国记注释》,郭鹏注译,长春出版社,1995年,第123页。
① Mahanama, Mahavamsa, Chapter 6, http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/06-coming-vijaya/
② 静海, 《南传佛教史》,宗教文化出版社,2002,第18页。
① W.S. Karunatillake, Historical Phonology of Sinhala:From Old Indo-Aryan to the 14th Century AD. Colombo:S. Godage& Brothers,2001, P56.
① 参见季羡林,《原始佛教的语言问题》,《佛教十五题》,中华书局,2007年,第27-34页。
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658,American Ceylon Press,1920, P15.
① 邓殿臣,《斯里兰卡的新都：科特》,《世界知识》,1982年第22期,第22页。
② 尼古拉斯,帕拉纳维达纳著,《锡兰简明史》,李荣熙译,商务印书馆,1972年,第492页。
③ 法显,《佛国记注释》,郭鹏注译,长春出版社,1995年,第145页
② Henry Marshall, Ceylon:A General Description of the Island and Its Inhabitants, The Ceylon Historical Journal Volume Fifteen, Tisara Prakasakayao,1969.
③ 雅依梅·柯尔特桑,《葡萄牙的发现》,邓兰珍译,中国对外翻译出版公司,1996年。
④ 桑贾伊·苏拉马尼亚姆,《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲：1500-1700)),何吉贤译,朗文书屋,1993年。
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第56页。
② Henry Marshall, Ceylon:A General Description of the Island and Its Inhabitants, The Ceylon Historical Journal Volume Fifteen, Tisara Prakasakayao,1969, P36.
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第57页。
① Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese in the East:A Cultural History of a Maritime Trading Empire, Tauris Academic Studies.2008.
② Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka.1998. Lusotopie 2000. University of London.
③ Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka creole Portugese phonology, Dravidian Linguistics Association,1978.
① M.H. Goonatilleka, A Portuguese Creole in Sri Lanka:A Brief Socio-Linguistic Survey, Indo-Portuguese History:Old Issues, New Questions, P147, Naurang Rai Concept Publishing Company, Delhi,1985.
② Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka. Lusotopie,2000.
① 张西平,《东方的希望—泰戈尔访华与新时代预言》,《中华读书报》,2012年03月07日,第17版。
② 佟加蒙,《斯里兰卡的中国学研究》,《国际汉学》,第19期,2010年,第181页。
① C. Gaston Perera, The Portuguese Missionary in 16th and 17th Century Ceylon, Vijitha Yapa Publications,2009, P232.
① Jayasuriya, Shihan de Silva, The Portuguese Cultural Imprint on Sri Lanka. Lusotopie,1998.
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第59页。
② K. M. De. Silva, A History of Sri Lanka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1981, P128.
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658, American Ceylon Press,1920, P43.
① 尼古拉斯,帕拉纳维特纳,《锡兰简明史》,李荣熙译,商务印书馆,1972年,第12页。
② 法显,《佛国记》,长春出版社,1995,第127页。
③ 僧伽罗语中的“种姓”与印度的“瓦尔纳”含义不尽相同。更多的是指“Jati”,含有人群分类、族群的意思。
① 一种观点认为"Radala"是“高维伽摩”种姓的子种姓。实际上王亲权贵阶层和占人口一半左右的“高维”种姓中的大部分人群存在天然的社会隔阂,其社会地位的差别巨大。Bryce Ryan就认为"Radala",尤其是殖民之前的贵族阶层认为自己是一个独立的种姓群体。参见：Bryce Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon:the Sinhalese.system in transition, Rutgers University Press,1953, P99
① 王兰,《僧伽罗人的种姓制度》,《南亚研究》,2004年第1期,第73页。
② 法显, 《佛国记》,长春出版社,1995年,第127页。
① 王兰,《葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响》,《南亚研究》,1987年第2期,第55页。
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658, American Ceylon Press,1920, P29.
② Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat, A History of Food, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.2009, P437.
① P E.Pieris,Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658,American Ceylon Press,1920,P29.
③ 一个巴哈尔重量单位相当于176公斤。
② P.E.Pieris,P34
⑤ P E.Pieris.P7
⑥ P.E.Pieris,P182
① 桑贾伊·苏拉马尼亚姆,《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲：1500-1700》,何吉贤译,朗文书屋,1993年,第122页。
② Donald Ferguson, The Earliest Dutch Visits to Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1998, P5.
① Robort Knox, An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon In The East Indies, Printed by Richard Chiswell, Royal Society, London,1681.
② P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P1
① 十七世纪中期斯里兰卡西南、西部和南部沿海大约35万人口,北部贾夫纳大约有12万人口。参见：P.E.Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P3.
① P. E. Pieris. Cevlon and the Hollanders, American Cevlon Mission Press.1918. P23.
② Philalethes, A.M. Oxon., The History of Ceylon, Printed by J.F. Dove, St. John's Square, London, P130.
③ P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P10.
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P11.
① 明·马欢,《瀛涯胜览》,冯承钧校注,商务印书馆,1935年,第56页。
① 袁坚,《斯里兰卡的郑和布施碑》,《南亚研究》,1981年第1期,第139页。
② Marco Ramerini, Remains of Dutch and Portuguese Buildings in Sri Lanka, Colonial Voyage Website, http://www.colonialvoyage.com/eng/asia/sri_lanka/remains.html
① John Duncan Martin Derrett, The Origins of the Laws of the Kandyans, Ceylon University Press,1956, P46.
② Marleen H.J. van den Horst, The Roman Dutch Law in Sri Lanka, Free University Press, Amsterdam,1985, P35.
① Cooray, Anton. "Oriental and Occidental Laws in Harmonious Co-existence:The Case of Trusts in Sri Lanka.' Electronic Journal of Comparative Law. v.12.1 (May 2008) P1-17.
① Aryadasa Ratnasinghe, Alien Words in Sinhala Vocabulary, Daily News, Dec 1st,2004.
① P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P3.
① P. Finkelman and J.C. Miller eds., MacMillan Encyclopedia of World Slavery, New York 1998, P851.
② Markus Vink, "The World's Oldest Trade":Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century, Journal of World History, June 2003, P142-145.
③ S. Arasaratnam, Dutch Power in Ceylon,1658-1687, Amsterdam,1958, P132-34.
① 斯里兰卡一般将殖民时期作为奴隶和劳工从南印度贩入的泰米尔人及其后裔称为“印度泰米尔人”。
② P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Hollanders, American Ceylon Mission Press,1918, P26.
③ Vijaya Samaraweera, The Cinnamon Trade of Ceylon, Indian Economic Social History Review,1971, P415.
① Memoir of Hendrick Zwaardecroon, Commander of Jaffnapatnam 1697, P52.
② R. Van. Goens, Memoir of R. Van. Goens 1663-1675, Colombo,1932, P 20.
① Mills, L.A. Ceylon under British Rule,1795-1932, Taylor & Francis,1964, P21.
① Mendis, V.L.B. The Advent of the British to Ceylon,1762-1803, Tisara Prakasakayo, Colombo,1971, P18.
① Douglas, edited by Father S. G. Perera, The Douglas Papers, Ceylon Observer Press, Colombo,1933, P27.
① History of Ceylon, Vol III, The Kandyan Kingdom and the British-The Last Phase, University of Peradeniya, P16.
① History of Ceylon, Vol III, The Development of the Administrative System from 1802-1832, University of Peradeniya, P34.
② Colvin R. De Silva, Ceylon Under the British Occupation,1795-1833, Colombo Apothecaries' Co.,1942, P223.
① Edward Ives,A Voyage from England to India, in the Year 1754, Admant Media Cooperation, London,2005, P56.
② History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, Economic and Social Developments under the British, by Vijaya Samaraweera, University of Peradeniya, P48.
① Mills,L.A.Ceylon under British Rule,1795-1932,Taylor & Francis,1964,P89.
① History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, The Development of the Administrative System, by K. M. De. Silva, University of Peradeniya,P219.
① John Richard Weinman, Our Legislature, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo,1974, P55.
① Donald R. Snodgrass, Ceylon:an Export Economy in Transition, R. D. Irwin, Illinois,1966, P22.
② Alastair MacKenzie Ferguson, Ferguson's Ceylon Directory, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited,1968, P369.
① Donald R. Snodgrass, Ceylon:an Export Economy in Transition, R. D. Irwin, Illinois,1966, P54.
① Michael W. Roberts, Grain Taxes in British Ceylon,1832-1878:Problems in the Fields, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No.4, Association of Asian Studies,1968, P812.
① Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford University Press,1992.
① Robert Percival, An Account of the Island of Ceylon, Printed by and for C. and R. Baldwin, London,1803, P297.
② Goonetilleke, D. C. R. A. "The Interface of Language, Literature and Politics in Sri Lanka:A Paradigm for Ex-Colonies of Britain." The Politics of English as a World Language:New Horizons in Postcolonial Cultural Studies. Ed. Christian Mair. New York:Rodopi,2003. P37-58.
① Wickramasinghe, Wimal. Sinenglish:A De-hegemonized Variety of English in Sri Lanka. Nugegoda,2000.
① 邵铁生,《斯里兰卡文学》,外语教学与研究出版社,北京,1999年,第43页。
① History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, Language and Literature in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, University of Peradeniya, P343.
① Sarachchandra, E. R. The Sinhalese Novel, Colombo, Gunasena,1956, P121.
② Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Christianity in Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, London,1950, P71.
③ Charles Edmund Godakumbura, Literature of Sri Lanka, Department of Cultural Affairs, Sri Lanka,1976, P143.
① 邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版,1991年,第63页。
① History of Ceylon, Vol Ⅲ, Religion and the State in the Early Nineteenth Century, University of Peradeniya, P67.
① History of Ceylon, Vol III, The Government and Religion:Problems and Policies c1832 to c1910, University of Peradeniya,P199.
② 邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版,1991年,第69页。
① Edited by K. M. De Silva, Letters on Ceylon,1846-50, the Administration of Viscount Totrington and the Rebellion of 1848, K. V. G. de Silva & Sons,1965, P3.
① 班达拉奈克家族在独立后的斯里兰卡执政将近30年,出过三位总理和一位总统。其中,班达拉奈克1956年到1959年任总理,共3年；班夫人1960到1965年、1970到1977年以及1994到2000年任总理,共18年；库马拉通加1994年到2005年任总统,在位11年。
Ceylon Blue Book for 1921, Ceylon Department of Census and Statistics, George J. A. Skeen, Colombo, P280.
Bryce F. Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon:the Sinhalese system in transition, Rutgers University Press,1953, P264.
① Edward W Said, Orientalism, London:Routledege,1978, P154.
② Edward W Said, Criticism Between Culture and System, The world, the Text, and the Critic, Harvard University Press, 1983, P180.
① K. N. Chaudhuri, Asia Before Europe:Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750, Cambridge University Press,1990, P246.
① Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient:Global Economy in the Asian Age, University of California Press,1998, P167-174.
① 季羡林、曹葆华译,《马克思论印度》,人民出版社,北京,1951年,第13页。
② 同上,第13页。
王兰：《斯里兰卡的民族宗教与文化》,昆仑出版社,2005年
林承节主编：《殖民主义史·南亚卷》,北京大学出版社,1999年
尼古拉斯、帕拉纳维达纳著,李荣熙译：《锡兰简明史》,商务印书馆,1972年
静海：《南传佛教史》,宗教文化出版社,2002年
玄奘,辩机,《大唐西域记》,季羡林等校注,中华书局,2000年
R.C.马宗达等,《高级印度史》,商务出版社,张澍霖等译,1986年
法显,《佛国记注释》,长春出版社,郭鹏注译,1995年
季羡林,《佛教十五题》,中华书局,2007年
雅依梅·柯尔特桑,《葡萄牙的发现》,邓兰珍译,中国对外翻译出版公司,北京,1996年
桑贾伊·苏拉马尼亚姆,《葡萄牙帝国在亚洲：1500-1700》,何吉贤译,朗文书屋,1993年
K.M.德席尔瓦,《斯里兰卡历史》,德里,1981年
明·马欢,《瀛涯胜览》,冯承钧校注,商务印书馆,1935年
邵铁生,《斯里兰卡文学》,外语教学与研究出版社,北京,1999年
邓殿臣,《南传佛教史简编》,中国佛教协会出版,1991年
季羡林、曹葆华译,《马克思论印度》,人民出版社,北京,1951年
爱德华·W·萨义德,王宇根译,《东方学》,生活·读书·新知三联书店,北京,2007年
贡德·弗兰克,刘北成译,《白银资本》,中央编译出版社,北京,2008年中文期刊
邓殿臣,斯里兰卡的新都：科特,《世界知识》,1982年第22期
王兰,葡萄牙人侵占斯里兰卡沿海地区对斯里兰卡的历史影响,《南亚研究》1987年第2期
张西平,东方的希望—泰戈尔访华与新时代预言,《中华读书报》,2012年03月07日
王兰,僧伽罗人的种姓制度,《南亚研究》,2004年第1期
袁坚,斯里兰卡的郑和布施碑,《南亚研究》,1981年第1期 英文专著
Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia-History, Culture, Political Economy, Routeledge, 2004
Edited by K. M. de Silva, History of Ceylon, University of Peradeniya,2009
Karl Marx, The British Rule in India, the New-York Daily Tribune, June 25,1853
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A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire,1415-1808, The Johns Hopkins University Press,1998
Paul Edward Pieris, Ceylon:The Portuguese era, being the history of the island for the period 1505-1658, The Colombo apothecaries co., ltd., printers,1914
Adwin Ranavaka, Layanal Lokuliyana, Buniya Seenanayaka, The Western Rule in Sri Lanka, M.D.Gunasena,1959
W.S. Karunatillake, Historical Phonology of Sinhala:From Old Indo-Aryan to the 14th Century AD. Colombo:S. Godage & Brothers,2001
P. E. Pieris, Ceylon and the Portuguese 1505-1658, American Ceylon Press,1920
Henry Marshall, Ceylon:A General Description of the Island and Its Inhabitants, The Ceylon Historical Journal Volume Fifteen, Tisara Prakasakayao,1969
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Ian R. Smith, Sri Lanka creole Portugese phonology, Dravidian Linguistics Association,1978
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Bryce Ryan, Caste in modern Ceylon:the Sinhalese system in transition, Rutgers University Press,1953
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Donald Ferguson, The Earliest Dutch Visits to Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,1998
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Philalethes, A.M. Oxon., The History of Ceylon, Printed by J.F. Dove, St. John's Square, London,1950
John Duncan Martin Derrett, The Origins of the Laws of the Kandyans, Ceylon University Press,1956
Marleen H. J. van den Horst, The Roman Dutch Law in Sri Lanka, Free University Press, Amsterdam, 1985
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H. A. J. Hulugalle, British governors of Ceylon, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon,1963
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Walter J. T. Small, A History of the Methodist Church in Ceylon,1814-1964,Wesley Press,1971
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Edward Ives, A Voyage from England to India, in the Year 1754, Admant Media Cooperation, London, 2005
John Richard Weinman, Our Legislature, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon, Colombo,1974
Donald R. Snodgrass, Ceylon:an Export Economy in Transition, R. D. Irwin, Illinois,1966
Alastair MacKenzie Ferguson, Ferguson's Ceylon Directory, Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited, 1968
Robert Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism, Oxford University Press,1992
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Wickramasinghe, Wimal. Sinenglish:A De-hegemonized Variety of English in Sri Lanka. Nugegoda, 2000.
Sarachchandra, E. R. The Sinhalese Novel, Colombo, Gunasena,1956
Tennent, Sir James Emerson, Christianity in Ceylon, Asian Educational Services, London,1950
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Rev. Walpola Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Gunasena & Co. Ltd. Colombo,1956
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Edward W Said, Orientalism, London:Routledege,1978
Edward W Said, Criticism Between Culture and System, The world, the Text, and the Critic, Harvard University Press,1983
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Cooray, Anton."Oriental and Occidental Laws in Harmonious Co-existence:The Case of Trusts in Sri Lanka."Electronic Journal of Comparative Law. v.12.1,2008
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Markus Vink, "The World's Oldest Trade ":Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century, Journal of World History, June 2003
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Michael W. Roberts, Grain Taxes in British Ceylon,1832-1878:Problems in the Fields, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.27, No.4, Association of Asian Studies,1968
2008