超文本语境下的翻译形态变化研究
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摘要
超文本指包含两种以上的符号系统并由超链接连接各符号元素的多线性电子文本。对于翻译活动而言,一方面,由无数超文本(网页)构成的互联网构成了译者新的工作环境,另一方面,现阶段,以超文本作为工作对象的“本地化”已经成为全球语言服务的主流,人类的翻译活动已经发生了深刻的变化。本研究主要以传统翻译模式作为比照,探讨了超文本语境下翻译形态的变化,并分析了这种变化对翻译活动与翻译研究带来的深远影响,在此基础上,还尝试从信息视角透过“多维符号转换”现象去解析翻译的过程及其本质,并进一步分析了“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言符号转换”的可行性。本论文重点研究了以下内容：超文本的主要特点及其对现代翻译活动的影响、超文本语境下翻译伦理的变化、超文本语境下技术因素对翻译的影响、本地化中“多维符号转换”的特点及规律、符际翻译拓展到“非语言符号转换”的可行性等。研究结果表明,相对于传统纸质文本翻译,超文本语境下的翻译在文本形态、翻译伦理、翻译技术、翻译过程、翻译主体、翻译模式、译者认知等方面都发生了较大的变化。由于翻译工具(翻译记忆工具与机器翻译等)的广泛应用以及文本的多模态性质,译者的认知过程也已发生了改变。基于超文本语境下“多维符号转换”现象的分析以及信息视角下对“符际翻译”的研究表明,翻译的本质其实就是“信息跨越符号边界的流动”,信息是符号转换的“内核”,不仅自然语言符号之间可以相互转换,非自然语言符号之间也可以进行转换,不同的符号系统之间也可以实现“符际转换”。“翻译”与“语言”的概念原本就适用于非自然语言符号,将“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言符号转换”具有一定的可行性。
超文本的多线性、虚拟性、多模态、交互性等特征对翻译活动产生了重要影响。超文本的多线性特征使得需要翻译的内容被计算机代码分割,造成了翻译的“去语境化”,使翻译变得更为困难,容易造成误译。交互性特征则改变了传统翻译主体模式中“作者-译者-读者”之间的关系。译文的“虚拟出版”则使得超文本语境下的翻译必须考虑搜索引擎优化,而这又直接影响到译者对译文的选择。在“符号消费”的背景下,超文本语境下的翻译更加关注数字产品的“用户体验”,用户体验成为翻译的重要目标。译者的工作状态在超文本语境下也发生了较大的变化,译者工作日趋复杂化,对互联网的依赖日益加深。
在超文本语境下,翻译伦理也发生了改变。翻译伦理研究实际上经历了由“忠实伦理”、“差异伦理”到“翻译职业伦理”研究的转变。超文本语境下,作者与译者的集体化、“国际化”步骤对原文的“阉割”、本地化对目的语文化的“一味妥协”、众包翻译对翻译主体关系的颠覆等,都对翻译伦理构成了直接挑战。随着翻译职业化、产业化程度的加深,需要进一步加强对翻译职业伦理的探索。
超文本语境下,技术因素对翻译造成了极大的影响,甚至改变了翻译的本来面貌。翻译对象的数字化、复杂化是电子工具得以应用的前提,而翻译商业化、产业化则催生了电子工具的研发与使用。翻译记忆工具、机器翻译以及其他翻译辅助工具的大量使用在提高翻译效率的同时,也改变了翻译的认知模式,影响了译者主体性的发挥。翻译记忆对译文的“克隆”以及“机器翻译+人工编辑”模式使得超文本语境下的翻译表现为一种“去主体化”的倾向,已经很难辨别到底是“机助人译”还是“人助机译”。电子工具实际上是译者主体的异化,传统人类译者正经历着向“电子译者”(Cyborg translator)的转变。
以超文本为工作对象的本地化过程中出现的“多维符号转换”现象,表明自然语言符号翻译与非自然语言符号转换之间一定存在某种相通之处。符号是信息的抽象载体,而翻译是符号的本质属性,因为任何符号存在都依赖其它符号对其的阐释。信息是反映事物结构的时空秩序,具有客观性,是世界的本质属性之一,它并不依赖人的意识而存在,但是人却可以通过符号实现信息的感知、储存与传播。文字符号化其实是一个由高维符号向低维符号的“去图像化”过程,是信息表征的过程,而文字符号的解读则是一个逆向的“再图像化”过程,其实质是信息释放过程。从信息视角下对“符际翻译”的研究表明,翻译其实就是一个“信息跨越符号边界的流动”过程,不管是生物体内的DNA转录及蛋白质翻译、计算机高级语言与低级语言的“编译”,还是人类自然语言之间的翻译,都是如此。本地化中的“多维符号转换”现象以及现实生活中的“符际翻译”现象都表明,翻译其实都是“符号转换”,转换的“内核”是信息。在符号转换的“解码、去符号化、重新编码”过程中,“去符号化”是信息脱离原符号以生物电或化学信号在大脑中“短暂驻留”的过程,这是类似于低级动物以“信号”而非“符号”信息储存方式,尽管这种信息储存状态带有“短暂性、动态性、不稳定性”等特点,但这足以让译者完成信息的“重新编码”。对图像与文字符号共性的分析以及对图像符号“翻译”的可行性考察结果都表明,在符号学及信息视角下将“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言符号转换”具有一定的可行性,这有助于拓宽“翻译”概念的内涵与外延,同时也会给翻译研究带来一定的冲击。本文共分七章。
第一章绪论主要介绍了选题背景、研究意义、研究目标、研究思路及方法、超文本概念的起源及定义、国内外超文本翻译研究现状等。国内外与此相关翻译研究主要是有关超文本本地化的研究,因此笔者还对翻译与本地化的概念进行了辨析与比较。在超文本语境下,翻译活动在文本形式、翻译手段、翻译过程等方面均已发生了巨大的变化,至于这种变化对翻译实践和翻译研究会产生何等程度的影响,值得深入探讨。
第二章首先研究了超文本相对于传统文本的差异性特征,在此基础上,深入探讨了超文本的形态变化对当代翻译活动所造成的影响与变化。第一节主要比较了超文本与传统纸质文本的差异,归纳出超文本的新的特征；第二节主要研究超文本的新特点,包括多线性、虚拟性、交互性、多模态等特点对翻译活动的影响；第三节尝试分析超文本语境下译者工作状态的变化。
第三章探索了超文本语境下翻译活动的变化对翻译伦理产生的影响及变化。第一节首先简单回顾了翻译伦理由“忠实伦理”到“差异伦理”的转变历程,然后分析了数字化翻译对上述伦理概念形成的挑战。第二节分析了相关的翻译职业伦理研究,并尝试探讨了超文本语境下翻译职业伦理的构建。第三节主要分析了众包翻译带来的新的翻译伦理问题。
第四章主要研究超文本语境下技术对翻译活动所产生的影响与变化。第一节首先对超文本语境下使用的各种电子工具进行功能性分析及分类,接下来分析超文本语境下电子工具被普遍应用的深层次原因,具体主要从翻译对象、翻译环境变化等方面进行分析。第二节研究翻译记忆工具(TM)对现代翻译的影响,尤其是对译者认知过程的影响,并讨论翻译记忆工具带来的新问题。第三节探讨机器翻译工具对翻译的影响,首先分析超文本语境下,机器翻译获得更多应用的原因,然后再探讨自动翻译对翻译模式和译者主体性的影响。
第五章重点分析超文本语境下“多维符号翻译”中符号转换的特点及规律,并将其与传统文学翻译进行对比,探讨其与文学翻译的差异与共性。第一节研究超文本翻译中自然语言符号转换的特点,并分析其类似于文学翻译中的创造性翻译特征。第二节探讨超文本语境下“多维符号转换”的特点及规律。第三节研究超文本中文字与图像符号的关系及其对翻译的影响。第四节尝试分析多模态语境下译者认知过程的变化。
第六章探讨“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言符号转换”的可行性。第一节分析了信息、符号、翻译、语言、文字、图像等概念之间的相互关系,为进一步讨论做准备。第二节首先分析了“翻译”概念拓展到“非语言符号”的可行性,然后考察了DNA转录与蛋白质翻译现象以及计算机高级语言与机器语言之间的“编译”现象,并进一步分析了图像符号“翻译”的可行性和可译度。第三节主要考察了现实生活中的符际翻译现象,并尝试从符号学及信息视角对符际翻译进行解释。此外,还分析了“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言转换”对翻译研究的影响。
最后一章总结了本研究的主要发现,并指出了本研究在研究内容与方法方面存在的局限性,并为后续研究做了进一步展望。
Hypertexts are a kind of multi-linear electronic texts, which contain at least two different types of sign elements connected by hyperlinks. On one side, numerous hypertexts have formed the Internet, which has become the translator's new working environment in the digital age. On the other side, Localization, with hypertexts as its working content, has become the bulk of translation practice in the global language service market. Taking traditional translation as a comparison, this research explores the changes of translation in the context of hypertexts, and analyzes the impact that the changes have brought to translation as well as translation studies. Besides, it attempts to reveal the process and nature of translation by analyzing the phenomena of "multi-dimensional transformation of signs" in localization from an informational perspective. The discussions mainly focus on the following topics, namely, the characteristics of hypertexts and their corresponding impact on translation practice, translation ethics in the hypertext context, the impact caused by translation technology, the characteristics and potential rules of "multi-dimensional transformation of signs", the feasibility of "Intersemiotic Translation" of nonverbal signs. The research results suggest that, in hypertext context, translation has taken great changes in terms of text form, translation ethics, translation technology, translation process, translation subject, translation model and the translator's cognition. Due to the utilization of Translation Memory and Machine Translation and the multimodal texts as his working objects, the translator's cognitive process has also changed. The analysis of "multi-dimensional transformation of signs" suggests that translation by nature is an information flow crossing the border of two different sign systems. The process of sign transformation with information as its invariant core, can occur not only between verbal signs, but also between non-verbal signs. Translation has long been considered as a kind of transformation between languages. Since the concepts of translation and language indeed involve non-verbal signs, it is possible to include the transformation of nonverbal signs in the concept of intersemiotic translation.
The new characteristics of hypertexts, such as multi-linearity, virtuality, multi-modality and interactivity, have led to great changes of translation. As a result of multi-linearity, the texts to be translated are often separated by computer language codes, and these are called "fragmented texts". Translating such fragmented texts usually lead to decontextualized translation, which makes the translator's work more difficult than before. Interactivity of hypertexts offers readers or users opportunities to submit their own translation through the Internet. In the context of hypertext, a large translation project can be completed by the collaboration of a crow of volunteer translators, and this is called "crowdsourcing translation" or "fans translation". It is a kind of user-generated translation and has subverted the traditional relations among the writer, the translator and the reader. The online publishing and marketing of translation products has a lot to do with searching engines, such as Google, Badu, etc., and the translator must take into consideration of searching engine optimization, which is closely related to the translator's choice of key words. Consumption of digital products is somewhat a kind of "sign consumption", and the digital translation shows much more concern for the target user's experience. The working conditions of the translator also change significantly. His work is more complicated than before, and he is more dependent to the Internet.
Translation ethics have long been an important topic in translation studies. In the hypertext context, the collective author and translator, the transitional step of internationalization, the adaptation to target culture in localization, crowdsourcing translation, have all brought new challenges to translation ethics. With the professionalization and commercialization of translation practice, more research is needed on the translator's ethics.
In the context of hypertext, translation technology has changed the traditional model. The texts to be translated are digital and very complicated, and translation practice is commercialized and industrialized, which promoted the development and application of translation tools. The utilization of Translation Memory and Machine Translation has improved the efficiency of translation. However, they also changed the translator's subjectivity and creativity in his work and made him more dependent to them. The reuse of former translation by Translation Memory and the popularity of "Machine Translation+human post-edition" lead to desubjectivized translation. So far it is difficult to tell whether a translation is computer-aided human translation or human-aided computer translation. It seems that electronic tools are part of the translator's body, and in some sense the translator has become a cyborg translator.
The transformation of multi-dimensional signs in localization suggests that both verbal signs and non-verbal signs might have something in common. The existence of a sign depends on the interpretation of it with other signs, so translation is an essential property of signs. In this sense, any sign can be interpreted and translated. Information is reflection of object's structure order in dimensions of time and space. Its existence is objective and is not dependent on human's mind. A sign is the vehicle of information, and a human being receives information with the help of signs. The process of semiosis of verbal-signs is depicturization of signs from a high dimension to a low dimension, which actually is a process of information representation. The interpretation of a sign is a reverse process, that is, repicturization of signs, from a low dimension to a higher dimension, which in essence is the release of information. The research results suggest that, the nature of translation is the information flow crossing the border between two signs systems. The analysis of DNA transcription and protein translation in biology, and the compiling between advanced computer language and binary language also support this hypothesis. Translation contains three steps, namely, decoding, deverbalization and recoding. After the information is deverbalized, it might be stored in the translator's mind in the pattern of bioelectrical or chemical signals instead of signs, which makes it possible for the translator to recode it in another sign system. The common characteristics of verbal signs and pictural signs are also studied. Under the framework of semiotics, it is possible to include non-verbal sign transformation in the scope of intersemiotic translation. This thesis contains seven chapters. The following shows more details for each chapter.
Chapter One begins with the rationality and offers a brief introduction to the present situation of related research. Since most of the research with hypertext translation is published in terms of "localization", the common features and differences between the two concepts of "translation" and "localization" are also discussed. In the context of hypertext, great changes have taken place in many aspects of translation, including text form, translation ethics, translation tools, and translation process, etc. What impact the changes might bring to translation and translation studies is worth studying.
Chapter Two first analyzes the differences between hypertext and printed texts, then it discusses the impact on translation practice due to the new characteristics of hypertexts. Taking printed texts as a comparison, the first section analyzes the new features of hypertext. The second section studies the changes of translation partially caused by the features of hypertexts, including multi-linearity, virtuality and interactivity. The third section discusses the changes in the translator's working conditions in the context of hypertext.
Chapter Three explores the challenges and impact that digital translation might bring to translation ethics. The first section analyzes the previous studies of translation ethics, and then it goes on to discuss the challenges digital translation brings to translation ethics. The second section discusses the translator's ethics in the context of industrialized translation practice. The third section tries to discuss the new ethic problems in crowdsourcing translation.
Chapter Four is concerned with the impact caused by the utilization of translation tools. The first section categorizes the electronic tools according to their different functions, and analyzes the reasons why so many electronic tools are used. The second section studies the impact on the translator's cognitive process due to the use of Translation Memory tools. The third section first analyzes the reasons for the wide use of Machine Translation and then discusses its impact on translation model and the translator's subjectivity.
Chapter Five tries to conclude the characteristics and rules of multi-dimensional signs transformation in localization. The first section, with traditional literary translation as a comparison, analyzes the transformation of nonverbal signs in hypertexts translation. The second section tries to conclude the characteristics and rules of multi-dimensional transformation of signs. The third section analyzes the relations between verbal signs and pictural signs in hypertexts. The fourth section explores the changes in the translator's cognitive process while translating hypertexts.
Chapter Six explores the feasibility of including nonverbal-sign transformation in the scope of intersemiotic translation. The first section focuses on the relations among the concepts of information, sign, translation and language. The second section discusses the feasibility of nonverbal translation in the scope of intersemiotic translation. It first discusses whether the concept of translation could include the transformation of nonverbal signs. For more evidence, it also explores DNA transcription and protein translation in biology, and the compiling between advanced computer language and binary machine language. It also discusses the feasibility of translating pictural signs as well as their different degrees of translatability. Finally it analyzes some phenomena of intersemiotic translation in our daily life, and tries to interpret it in an informational perspective.
Chapter Seven summarizes the main discoveries of the research, and points out its limitations. Some suggestions for further research are also offered.
超文本的多线性、虚拟性、多模态、交互性等特征对翻译活动产生了重要影响。超文本的多线性特征使得需要翻译的内容被计算机代码分割,造成了翻译的“去语境化”,使翻译变得更为困难,容易造成误译。交互性特征则改变了传统翻译主体模式中“作者-译者-读者”之间的关系。译文的“虚拟出版”则使得超文本语境下的翻译必须考虑搜索引擎优化,而这又直接影响到译者对译文的选择。在“符号消费”的背景下,超文本语境下的翻译更加关注数字产品的“用户体验”,用户体验成为翻译的重要目标。译者的工作状态在超文本语境下也发生了较大的变化,译者工作日趋复杂化,对互联网的依赖日益加深。
在超文本语境下,翻译伦理也发生了改变。翻译伦理研究实际上经历了由“忠实伦理”、“差异伦理”到“翻译职业伦理”研究的转变。超文本语境下,作者与译者的集体化、“国际化”步骤对原文的“阉割”、本地化对目的语文化的“一味妥协”、众包翻译对翻译主体关系的颠覆等,都对翻译伦理构成了直接挑战。随着翻译职业化、产业化程度的加深,需要进一步加强对翻译职业伦理的探索。
超文本语境下,技术因素对翻译造成了极大的影响,甚至改变了翻译的本来面貌。翻译对象的数字化、复杂化是电子工具得以应用的前提,而翻译商业化、产业化则催生了电子工具的研发与使用。翻译记忆工具、机器翻译以及其他翻译辅助工具的大量使用在提高翻译效率的同时,也改变了翻译的认知模式,影响了译者主体性的发挥。翻译记忆对译文的“克隆”以及“机器翻译+人工编辑”模式使得超文本语境下的翻译表现为一种“去主体化”的倾向,已经很难辨别到底是“机助人译”还是“人助机译”。电子工具实际上是译者主体的异化,传统人类译者正经历着向“电子译者”(Cyborg translator)的转变。
以超文本为工作对象的本地化过程中出现的“多维符号转换”现象,表明自然语言符号翻译与非自然语言符号转换之间一定存在某种相通之处。符号是信息的抽象载体,而翻译是符号的本质属性,因为任何符号存在都依赖其它符号对其的阐释。信息是反映事物结构的时空秩序,具有客观性,是世界的本质属性之一,它并不依赖人的意识而存在,但是人却可以通过符号实现信息的感知、储存与传播。文字符号化其实是一个由高维符号向低维符号的“去图像化”过程,是信息表征的过程,而文字符号的解读则是一个逆向的“再图像化”过程,其实质是信息释放过程。从信息视角下对“符际翻译”的研究表明,翻译其实就是一个“信息跨越符号边界的流动”过程,不管是生物体内的DNA转录及蛋白质翻译、计算机高级语言与低级语言的“编译”,还是人类自然语言之间的翻译,都是如此。本地化中的“多维符号转换”现象以及现实生活中的“符际翻译”现象都表明,翻译其实都是“符号转换”,转换的“内核”是信息。在符号转换的“解码、去符号化、重新编码”过程中,“去符号化”是信息脱离原符号以生物电或化学信号在大脑中“短暂驻留”的过程,这是类似于低级动物以“信号”而非“符号”信息储存方式,尽管这种信息储存状态带有“短暂性、动态性、不稳定性”等特点,但这足以让译者完成信息的“重新编码”。对图像与文字符号共性的分析以及对图像符号“翻译”的可行性考察结果都表明,在符号学及信息视角下将“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言符号转换”具有一定的可行性,这有助于拓宽“翻译”概念的内涵与外延,同时也会给翻译研究带来一定的冲击。本文共分七章。
第一章绪论主要介绍了选题背景、研究意义、研究目标、研究思路及方法、超文本概念的起源及定义、国内外超文本翻译研究现状等。国内外与此相关翻译研究主要是有关超文本本地化的研究,因此笔者还对翻译与本地化的概念进行了辨析与比较。在超文本语境下,翻译活动在文本形式、翻译手段、翻译过程等方面均已发生了巨大的变化,至于这种变化对翻译实践和翻译研究会产生何等程度的影响,值得深入探讨。
第二章首先研究了超文本相对于传统文本的差异性特征,在此基础上,深入探讨了超文本的形态变化对当代翻译活动所造成的影响与变化。第一节主要比较了超文本与传统纸质文本的差异,归纳出超文本的新的特征；第二节主要研究超文本的新特点,包括多线性、虚拟性、交互性、多模态等特点对翻译活动的影响；第三节尝试分析超文本语境下译者工作状态的变化。
第三章探索了超文本语境下翻译活动的变化对翻译伦理产生的影响及变化。第一节首先简单回顾了翻译伦理由“忠实伦理”到“差异伦理”的转变历程,然后分析了数字化翻译对上述伦理概念形成的挑战。第二节分析了相关的翻译职业伦理研究,并尝试探讨了超文本语境下翻译职业伦理的构建。第三节主要分析了众包翻译带来的新的翻译伦理问题。
第四章主要研究超文本语境下技术对翻译活动所产生的影响与变化。第一节首先对超文本语境下使用的各种电子工具进行功能性分析及分类,接下来分析超文本语境下电子工具被普遍应用的深层次原因,具体主要从翻译对象、翻译环境变化等方面进行分析。第二节研究翻译记忆工具(TM)对现代翻译的影响,尤其是对译者认知过程的影响,并讨论翻译记忆工具带来的新问题。第三节探讨机器翻译工具对翻译的影响,首先分析超文本语境下,机器翻译获得更多应用的原因,然后再探讨自动翻译对翻译模式和译者主体性的影响。
第五章重点分析超文本语境下“多维符号翻译”中符号转换的特点及规律,并将其与传统文学翻译进行对比,探讨其与文学翻译的差异与共性。第一节研究超文本翻译中自然语言符号转换的特点,并分析其类似于文学翻译中的创造性翻译特征。第二节探讨超文本语境下“多维符号转换”的特点及规律。第三节研究超文本中文字与图像符号的关系及其对翻译的影响。第四节尝试分析多模态语境下译者认知过程的变化。
第六章探讨“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言符号转换”的可行性。第一节分析了信息、符号、翻译、语言、文字、图像等概念之间的相互关系,为进一步讨论做准备。第二节首先分析了“翻译”概念拓展到“非语言符号”的可行性,然后考察了DNA转录与蛋白质翻译现象以及计算机高级语言与机器语言之间的“编译”现象,并进一步分析了图像符号“翻译”的可行性和可译度。第三节主要考察了现实生活中的符际翻译现象,并尝试从符号学及信息视角对符际翻译进行解释。此外,还分析了“符际翻译”拓展到“非语言转换”对翻译研究的影响。
最后一章总结了本研究的主要发现,并指出了本研究在研究内容与方法方面存在的局限性,并为后续研究做了进一步展望。
Hypertexts are a kind of multi-linear electronic texts, which contain at least two different types of sign elements connected by hyperlinks. On one side, numerous hypertexts have formed the Internet, which has become the translator's new working environment in the digital age. On the other side, Localization, with hypertexts as its working content, has become the bulk of translation practice in the global language service market. Taking traditional translation as a comparison, this research explores the changes of translation in the context of hypertexts, and analyzes the impact that the changes have brought to translation as well as translation studies. Besides, it attempts to reveal the process and nature of translation by analyzing the phenomena of "multi-dimensional transformation of signs" in localization from an informational perspective. The discussions mainly focus on the following topics, namely, the characteristics of hypertexts and their corresponding impact on translation practice, translation ethics in the hypertext context, the impact caused by translation technology, the characteristics and potential rules of "multi-dimensional transformation of signs", the feasibility of "Intersemiotic Translation" of nonverbal signs. The research results suggest that, in hypertext context, translation has taken great changes in terms of text form, translation ethics, translation technology, translation process, translation subject, translation model and the translator's cognition. Due to the utilization of Translation Memory and Machine Translation and the multimodal texts as his working objects, the translator's cognitive process has also changed. The analysis of "multi-dimensional transformation of signs" suggests that translation by nature is an information flow crossing the border of two different sign systems. The process of sign transformation with information as its invariant core, can occur not only between verbal signs, but also between non-verbal signs. Translation has long been considered as a kind of transformation between languages. Since the concepts of translation and language indeed involve non-verbal signs, it is possible to include the transformation of nonverbal signs in the concept of intersemiotic translation.
The new characteristics of hypertexts, such as multi-linearity, virtuality, multi-modality and interactivity, have led to great changes of translation. As a result of multi-linearity, the texts to be translated are often separated by computer language codes, and these are called "fragmented texts". Translating such fragmented texts usually lead to decontextualized translation, which makes the translator's work more difficult than before. Interactivity of hypertexts offers readers or users opportunities to submit their own translation through the Internet. In the context of hypertext, a large translation project can be completed by the collaboration of a crow of volunteer translators, and this is called "crowdsourcing translation" or "fans translation". It is a kind of user-generated translation and has subverted the traditional relations among the writer, the translator and the reader. The online publishing and marketing of translation products has a lot to do with searching engines, such as Google, Badu, etc., and the translator must take into consideration of searching engine optimization, which is closely related to the translator's choice of key words. Consumption of digital products is somewhat a kind of "sign consumption", and the digital translation shows much more concern for the target user's experience. The working conditions of the translator also change significantly. His work is more complicated than before, and he is more dependent to the Internet.
Translation ethics have long been an important topic in translation studies. In the hypertext context, the collective author and translator, the transitional step of internationalization, the adaptation to target culture in localization, crowdsourcing translation, have all brought new challenges to translation ethics. With the professionalization and commercialization of translation practice, more research is needed on the translator's ethics.
In the context of hypertext, translation technology has changed the traditional model. The texts to be translated are digital and very complicated, and translation practice is commercialized and industrialized, which promoted the development and application of translation tools. The utilization of Translation Memory and Machine Translation has improved the efficiency of translation. However, they also changed the translator's subjectivity and creativity in his work and made him more dependent to them. The reuse of former translation by Translation Memory and the popularity of "Machine Translation+human post-edition" lead to desubjectivized translation. So far it is difficult to tell whether a translation is computer-aided human translation or human-aided computer translation. It seems that electronic tools are part of the translator's body, and in some sense the translator has become a cyborg translator.
The transformation of multi-dimensional signs in localization suggests that both verbal signs and non-verbal signs might have something in common. The existence of a sign depends on the interpretation of it with other signs, so translation is an essential property of signs. In this sense, any sign can be interpreted and translated. Information is reflection of object's structure order in dimensions of time and space. Its existence is objective and is not dependent on human's mind. A sign is the vehicle of information, and a human being receives information with the help of signs. The process of semiosis of verbal-signs is depicturization of signs from a high dimension to a low dimension, which actually is a process of information representation. The interpretation of a sign is a reverse process, that is, repicturization of signs, from a low dimension to a higher dimension, which in essence is the release of information. The research results suggest that, the nature of translation is the information flow crossing the border between two signs systems. The analysis of DNA transcription and protein translation in biology, and the compiling between advanced computer language and binary language also support this hypothesis. Translation contains three steps, namely, decoding, deverbalization and recoding. After the information is deverbalized, it might be stored in the translator's mind in the pattern of bioelectrical or chemical signals instead of signs, which makes it possible for the translator to recode it in another sign system. The common characteristics of verbal signs and pictural signs are also studied. Under the framework of semiotics, it is possible to include non-verbal sign transformation in the scope of intersemiotic translation. This thesis contains seven chapters. The following shows more details for each chapter.
Chapter One begins with the rationality and offers a brief introduction to the present situation of related research. Since most of the research with hypertext translation is published in terms of "localization", the common features and differences between the two concepts of "translation" and "localization" are also discussed. In the context of hypertext, great changes have taken place in many aspects of translation, including text form, translation ethics, translation tools, and translation process, etc. What impact the changes might bring to translation and translation studies is worth studying.
Chapter Two first analyzes the differences between hypertext and printed texts, then it discusses the impact on translation practice due to the new characteristics of hypertexts. Taking printed texts as a comparison, the first section analyzes the new features of hypertext. The second section studies the changes of translation partially caused by the features of hypertexts, including multi-linearity, virtuality and interactivity. The third section discusses the changes in the translator's working conditions in the context of hypertext.
Chapter Three explores the challenges and impact that digital translation might bring to translation ethics. The first section analyzes the previous studies of translation ethics, and then it goes on to discuss the challenges digital translation brings to translation ethics. The second section discusses the translator's ethics in the context of industrialized translation practice. The third section tries to discuss the new ethic problems in crowdsourcing translation.
Chapter Four is concerned with the impact caused by the utilization of translation tools. The first section categorizes the electronic tools according to their different functions, and analyzes the reasons why so many electronic tools are used. The second section studies the impact on the translator's cognitive process due to the use of Translation Memory tools. The third section first analyzes the reasons for the wide use of Machine Translation and then discusses its impact on translation model and the translator's subjectivity.
Chapter Five tries to conclude the characteristics and rules of multi-dimensional signs transformation in localization. The first section, with traditional literary translation as a comparison, analyzes the transformation of nonverbal signs in hypertexts translation. The second section tries to conclude the characteristics and rules of multi-dimensional transformation of signs. The third section analyzes the relations between verbal signs and pictural signs in hypertexts. The fourth section explores the changes in the translator's cognitive process while translating hypertexts.
Chapter Six explores the feasibility of including nonverbal-sign transformation in the scope of intersemiotic translation. The first section focuses on the relations among the concepts of information, sign, translation and language. The second section discusses the feasibility of nonverbal translation in the scope of intersemiotic translation. It first discusses whether the concept of translation could include the transformation of nonverbal signs. For more evidence, it also explores DNA transcription and protein translation in biology, and the compiling between advanced computer language and binary machine language. It also discusses the feasibility of translating pictural signs as well as their different degrees of translatability. Finally it analyzes some phenomena of intersemiotic translation in our daily life, and tries to interpret it in an informational perspective.
Chapter Seven summarizes the main discoveries of the research, and points out its limitations. Some suggestions for further research are also offered.
引文
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2 值得一提的是,1987年,法国学者简奈特(Gerard Genette)也提出了一个概念“Paratext”,国内也翻译成“超文本"。 Genette, Gerard. Paratexts: Thresholds of interpretation [M]. (Trans, by Jane E. Lewin; forwarded by Richard Macksey).Cambridge University Press, 1997.实际上Genette的"Paratext"的概念最初主要指图书内外的装饰性要素(例如图书封面的设计、颜色等),后来其概念扩展到文学作品产生的文化环境、经济条件、政治体制及审查制度等等大环境因素,所以Paratext实际上相当于“言外要素”(Extralinguistic elements)。2010年6月在西班牙巴塞罗那还召开了“翻译中的超文本成分国际翻译研讨会”,Mona Baker、张美芳等学者均在会上宣读和发表了与'Paratext"旧关的论文。参见Baker, Mona. Paratexts as Sites for Renarration in Written and Web-based Translation[A]. presented at the Ⅶ International Conference on Translation: the Paratextual Elements in Translation, Barcelona, 06/2010;张美芳.翻译中的超文本成分：以新闻翻译为例[J1.中国翻译,2011,(1).但"Paratext"与本文欲重点分析的的超文本(Hypertext)是两个完全不同的概念。
1 严格来说,虽然内部由超链接联系但仅仅包含一种符号形式的电子文本不能算超文本,例如通过启用宏功能制作的Word文档,文本内部也可以形成跳转,因为它缺少作为超文本重要特征的多模态性,事实上这种文本形式很罕见。
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4 《易.系辞下》：“上古结绳而治,后世圣人易之以书契,百官以治,万民以察”。又《周易正义》引郑玄注云：“事大,大结其绳：事小,小结其绳。《老子》第八十章：“使民复结绳而用之。”《庄子·胠箧》：“昔者容成氏、大庭氏、伯皇氏、中央氏、栗陆氏、骊畜氏、轩辕氏、赫胥氏、尊卢氏、祝融氏、伏羲氏、神农氏,当是时也,民结绳而用之”。
5 《后汉书·乌恒传》曰：“大人有所召呼,则刻木为信,虽无文字,而部众不敢违犯。”《魏书·帝纪序》：“不为文字,刻木记契而己。”《周书·突厥传》：“其征发兵马,科税杂畜,辄刻木为数。”《唐会要》卷97吐蕃条说：吐蕃“无文字,刻木结绳为约。”
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2 学界的主流观点认为,相对传统纸质文本来说,超文本是一种非线性(non-Sequential/non-linear)的文本,但笔者认为用多线性(multi-sequential/multi-linear)来形容超文本的网状立体结构似乎更为准确。
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1 参见美国弗里斯特研究公司(Forrester Research Inc.)公司网址：http://www.forrester.com/.
2 “网络爬虫”也称“网络机器人”(Searching engine robot),它是一个自动提取网页的程序,不定期地从互联网的不同节点爬行,记录不同URL网页的内容并对数据进行分析和过滤,并将数据存入搜素引擎的数据库,并建立相应的索引,供用户检索使用。网站管理员可以通过网站日志(Log)查看爬虫是否光顾自己网站,及时了解搜索引擎对网站的收录情况。
3 “百度指数”以及"Google关键字规划师”分别是百度和Google供市场分析人员使用的关键词分析工具。百度指数入口：http://index.baidu.com/;Google关键词规划师入口：https://adwords.google.com/
1 搜索引擎的数据是动态变化的,上述数据的具体检索日期为2014.1.15
1 此数据是笔者分别在百度指数与Google关键词规划师中输入“板式家具”与"panel furniture"获得的关键词热度排名,均剔除了不含“家具”或‘'furniture'2 的结果。
2 Intitle是用于搜索引擎的一个指令,可以查看搜索引擎收录的标题包含该关键词的文章总数,例如,在百度中输入命令"Intitle智能手机原理”即得到标题包含“智能手机原理”的文章总数。
1 该数据的具体检索日期：2014.1.15
2 长尾关键词指网站上非目标关键词但可带来搜索流量的关键词,长尾关键词的特征是比较长,通常由2-3个词以上构成,也可以是短语。长尾关键词搜索量非常少,而且不稳定,但由于针对性强,其带来的用户转化为网站产品客户的概率比目标关键词高很多。
1 “关键词堆砌”指为了提高网页目标关键词密度,故意在网页上以各种形式堆砌关键词.例如采用超小号字体或与网页背景同样颜色的字,这样用户看不见,但是搜索引擎却能够抓取。
2 通过在搜索引擎中使用“Site：+域名”命令即可获得某网站被该引擎收录的网页数量,从而能实时了解搜索引擎对网站收录情况的变化,例如,在百度中输入'Site: sina.com"可以了解“新浪网”被百度收录的情况。
3 停用词(Stop words)4 指在信息检索时没有具体含义的功能词,例如英语中的which, that, over, above" "at、on、a、the、as、to、等,搜索引擎在索引页面或处理搜索请求时,通常会忽略这样一些词。停用词的概念最先由美国信息学家、情报学家Hans Luhn(1896-1964)提出。
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1 “语料库语言学”网站列出了部分在线语料库资源,详见列表网址：http://www.corpus4u.org/corpora/
2 植物拉丁名称数据库：http://www.zhiwutong.com/ku.asp;国际通信联盟ITU术语库查询人口：http://www.itu.int;欧盟翻译服务部术语库：http://europa.eu.int/eurodicautom/.
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2 目前麦当劳网站已经做了大的改版,此图笔者转引自崔启亮2012年本地化大学巡讲的PPT—《本地化与语言服务》。崔启亮现担任中国翻译协会下属分支机构本地化服务委员会秘书长。
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5 周宪.反思视觉文化[J].江苏社会科学,2001,(5)
6 伽达默尔.真理与方法(修订译本)[M].洪汉鼎译.北京：商务艺术馆,2007.P594.
7 马丁·海德格尔.林中路[M].孙周兴译.上海：上海译文出版社,1997.P78.
1 阿莱斯·艾尔雅维茨.图像时代[M].胡菊云、张云鹏泽.长春：吉林人民出版社,2003.P5.
2 安东尼·卡斯卡蒂.柏拉图之后的文本与图像[J].学术月刊,2007,(2).
1 Gambier. Yves. & Henrik GOTTLIEB (eds.) (Multi)Media Translation: concepts, practices, and research[M]. Yves and Philadelphia/Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2001. P45.
1 笔者注：当然,文字对于个体的心理感受和体验也无法充分地描写,例如,《五灯会元·七佛·释迦牟尼佛》记载释迦牟尼在灵山上“拈花示众,众皆默然,唯迦叶尊者破颜微笑”,世尊深感欣慰,说：“吾有正法眼藏,涅槃妙心,实相无相,微妙法门,不立文字,教外别传,付嘱摩诃迦叶。”其中“不立文字”说明内心深刻而独特的体验往往非语言文字所能描述,其后各代的禅宗大德对于开悟以后的境界皆称“不可说,不可说”亦属此类,因为“说是一物即不是”、“一入文字,即落窠臼”,即佛教所谓之“着相”,与佛理“实相无相”相悖离。
2 Ernst, Kris. Psychoanalytic Explorations in Art[M]. New York: International University Press, 1952. P200.
1 马歇尔.麦克卢汉.理解媒介—论人的延伸[M].何道宽译.北京：商务印书馆,2000.P119.
2 转引自张彦远.历代名画记[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1964.P2.中国哲学书电子化计划.杨子法言[EB/OL]. http://ctext.org/yangzi-fayan/zh
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3 顾曰国.多媒体、多模态学习剖析[J].外语电化教学,2007,(2).
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3 该游戏由网易公司(NetEase)负责组织本地化及国内推广,同名游戏在中国台湾被译为《潘多利亚之谜》。
4 诺曼·庸纳德A.未来产品的设计[M].刘松涛译.北京：电子工业出版社,2009.
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2 笔者注：英语中“符际翻译”的定义是指‘'Verbal signs"与"non-verbal signs";之间的翻译,但是如果将“Verbal signs"翻译成“语言符号”显然不妥,因为汉语中“语言”一词的意义比英语中的'Verbal sign"词义更宽泛的多,例如,“自然语言”、“视觉语言”、“手语”、“计算机语言”等,译成“言语”也不妥,因为该词多指“口语”,笔者曾见国外有学者使用‘'historical-natural language"(意为“历史积淀形成的自然语言”)的说法,似乎较贴切,故将该词译为“自然语言”,以示区别。
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4 在线四库全书.周易乾酢度[EB/OL]..http://4.supfree.net/balass.asp?id=20666 (Accessed March 10,2014)
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1 笔者注：值得一提的是,“人脸”符号中为什么“鼻子”可以省略,但“眼睛”与“嘴”却不能,是否因为“眼睛”是最主要的信息输入器官,而“嘴”确实最重要的信息输出器官?难道符号在简化过程中,符号中的元素的“去除”及“保留”与元素的“信息量”有关?
2 李彬.传播学引论[M].北京：新华出版社,2003.
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1 笔者注：Wordweb是一款免费的网络英语词典(http://www.wordweb.info/),其词库使用的是著名的基于语义网络模式的“词网”(Wordnet)数据库,该词库最先由美国普林斯顿大学“认知科学实验室”的著名心理学教授George A. Miller主持创立,版权归该实验室所有,Miller教授已于2012年7月去世。
1 汪堂家.记号、符号及其效力—从哲学与符号学的观点看[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),2004,(3).
2 该图转引自施效人.文字的产生及其一般规律(下)[J].文字改革,1965,(2).
1 这是在河南舞阳贾湖新时期时代遗址龟甲上发现的契刻符号,参见：河南省文物考古研究所.舞阳贾湖[M].上册.北京：科学出版社,1999.P446.
1 为了避免侵犯肖像权等麻烦,此图片笔者用Photoshop软件做了细微的处理,人物的“鼻子”“眼睛”等都来自其他图片,实际上这是一张用数字技术拼凑起来的图片。
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1 文中的东巴文字引自赵净修.东巴象形文常用字词译注[M].昆明：云南人民出版社,2001.
2 水书是少数民族水族的文字,水族主要分布在贵州省和广西省的部分县市,人口约36万,水书又称“泐睢”,由水书先生世代相传,水书文字包含许多象形文字,其历史悠久,可以追溯到夏朝以前,并发现有用水书撰写的珍贵文献—夏代的《连山易》,它与商朝的《归藏》、周朝的《周易》,并称“三易”。
3 文中的水书文字引自韦世方.水书常用字典[Z].贵阳：贵州民族出版社,2007.
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1 参见许钧.翻译研究之用及其可能的出路[M].中国翻译,2012,(1)；穆雷.也谈翻译研究之用[M].中国翻译,2012,(2).
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3 王大伟.关于推进译论发展的探索[J].上海翻译,2007,(1).
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4 黄友义.在第四届全国应用翻译研讨会上的讲话[J].上海翻译,2011,(3).
1 谢天振.从翻译服务到语言服务—翻译的职业化时代的理念与行为[J].东方翻译,2013,(3).
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2 阿莱斯·艾尔雅维茨.胡菊豆,张云鹏译.图像时代[M].长春：吉林人民出版社,2003.P55-68.
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1 转引自Ramarapu, N. K., M. N. Frolick, R. B. Wilkes & J.C. Wetherbe.1999. The emergence of hypertext and problem solving: An experimental investigation of accessing and using information from linear versus nonlinear systems [A]. In K. E. Kendall (ed.). Emerging Information Technologies:Improving Decisions, Cooperation, and Infrastructure [C].Thousand Oaks: SAGE. P77.
2 值得一提的是,1987年,法国学者简奈特(Gerard Genette)也提出了一个概念“Paratext”,国内也翻译成“超文本"。 Genette, Gerard. Paratexts: Thresholds of interpretation [M]. (Trans, by Jane E. Lewin; forwarded by Richard Macksey).Cambridge University Press, 1997.实际上Genette的"Paratext"的概念最初主要指图书内外的装饰性要素(例如图书封面的设计、颜色等),后来其概念扩展到文学作品产生的文化环境、经济条件、政治体制及审查制度等等大环境因素,所以Paratext实际上相当于“言外要素”(Extralinguistic elements)。2010年6月在西班牙巴塞罗那还召开了“翻译中的超文本成分国际翻译研讨会”,Mona Baker、张美芳等学者均在会上宣读和发表了与'Paratext"旧关的论文。参见Baker, Mona. Paratexts as Sites for Renarration in Written and Web-based Translation[A]. presented at the Ⅶ International Conference on Translation: the Paratextual Elements in Translation, Barcelona, 06/2010;张美芳.翻译中的超文本成分：以新闻翻译为例[J1.中国翻译,2011,(1).但"Paratext"与本文欲重点分析的的超文本(Hypertext)是两个完全不同的概念。
1 严格来说,虽然内部由超链接联系但仅仅包含一种符号形式的电子文本不能算超文本,例如通过启用宏功能制作的Word文档,文本内部也可以形成跳转,因为它缺少作为超文本重要特征的多模态性,事实上这种文本形式很罕见。
2 Coover, Robert. The End of Books[N]. New York Times Book Review, June 21, 1992,1.
3 实际上,游戏也是一种以娱乐为目的的软件,只是由于其相对于计算机系统软件及应用软件而言,在设计、开发及运营都有很大的区别,故这里我们专门将它分为一类来讨论,称之为娱乐软件似乎更为合适。
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2 杨颖波、王华伟与崔启亮.本地化与翻译导论[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2011；崔启亮,胡一鸣.翻译化翻译[J].东北师大学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,(4).
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1 游戏产业网.2012年中国游戏产业海外市场报告[EB/OL]. http://www.cgigc.com.cn/201301/15166165242_9.html. (Accessed Februry,12,2014)
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3 于鸣摘.读者与文本[J].图书情报工作,2002,(4).
4 《易.系辞下》：“上古结绳而治,后世圣人易之以书契,百官以治,万民以察”。又《周易正义》引郑玄注云：“事大,大结其绳：事小,小结其绳。《老子》第八十章：“使民复结绳而用之。”《庄子·胠箧》：“昔者容成氏、大庭氏、伯皇氏、中央氏、栗陆氏、骊畜氏、轩辕氏、赫胥氏、尊卢氏、祝融氏、伏羲氏、神农氏,当是时也,民结绳而用之”。
5 《后汉书·乌恒传》曰：“大人有所召呼,则刻木为信,虽无文字,而部众不敢违犯。”《魏书·帝纪序》：“不为文字,刻木记契而己。”《周书·突厥传》：“其征发兵马,科税杂畜,辄刻木为数。”《唐会要》卷97吐蕃条说：吐蕃“无文字,刻木结绳为约。”
1 McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man[M]. London: Routledge, 2001.
2 学界的主流观点认为,相对传统纸质文本来说,超文本是一种非线性(non-Sequential/non-linear)的文本,但笔者认为用多线性(multi-sequential/multi-linear)来形容超文本的网状立体结构似乎更为准确。
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1 参见美国弗里斯特研究公司(Forrester Research Inc.)公司网址：http://www.forrester.com/.
2 “网络爬虫”也称“网络机器人”(Searching engine robot),它是一个自动提取网页的程序,不定期地从互联网的不同节点爬行,记录不同URL网页的内容并对数据进行分析和过滤,并将数据存入搜素引擎的数据库,并建立相应的索引,供用户检索使用。网站管理员可以通过网站日志(Log)查看爬虫是否光顾自己网站,及时了解搜索引擎对网站的收录情况。
3 “百度指数”以及"Google关键字规划师”分别是百度和Google供市场分析人员使用的关键词分析工具。百度指数入口：http://index.baidu.com/;Google关键词规划师入口：https://adwords.google.com/
1 搜索引擎的数据是动态变化的,上述数据的具体检索日期为2014.1.15
1 此数据是笔者分别在百度指数与Google关键词规划师中输入“板式家具”与"panel furniture"获得的关键词热度排名,均剔除了不含“家具”或‘'furniture'2 的结果。
2 Intitle是用于搜索引擎的一个指令,可以查看搜索引擎收录的标题包含该关键词的文章总数,例如,在百度中输入命令"Intitle智能手机原理”即得到标题包含“智能手机原理”的文章总数。
1 该数据的具体检索日期：2014.1.15
2 长尾关键词指网站上非目标关键词但可带来搜索流量的关键词,长尾关键词的特征是比较长,通常由2-3个词以上构成,也可以是短语。长尾关键词搜索量非常少,而且不稳定,但由于针对性强,其带来的用户转化为网站产品客户的概率比目标关键词高很多。
1 “关键词堆砌”指为了提高网页目标关键词密度,故意在网页上以各种形式堆砌关键词.例如采用超小号字体或与网页背景同样颜色的字,这样用户看不见,但是搜索引擎却能够抓取。
2 通过在搜索引擎中使用“Site：+域名”命令即可获得某网站被该引擎收录的网页数量,从而能实时了解搜索引擎对网站收录情况的变化,例如,在百度中输入'Site: sina.com"可以了解“新浪网”被百度收录的情况。
3 停用词(Stop words)4 指在信息检索时没有具体含义的功能词,例如英语中的which, that, over, above" "at、on、a、the、as、to、等,搜索引擎在索引页面或处理搜索请求时,通常会忽略这样一些词。停用词的概念最先由美国信息学家、情报学家Hans Luhn(1896-1964)提出。
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1 1 EB(艾字节)约等于1,000,000,000 GB,而1ZB(泽字节)约等于1,000EB。
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2 新浪网.《时空裂痕》汉化截图首曝,已进入精校阶段[EB/OL]. http://games.sina.com.cn/o/n/2012-04-17/2114605839.shtml. (11-8-2013).
1 “语料库语言学”网站列出了部分在线语料库资源,详见列表网址：http://www.corpus4u.org/corpora/
2 植物拉丁名称数据库：http://www.zhiwutong.com/ku.asp;国际通信联盟ITU术语库查询人口：http://www.itu.int;欧盟翻译服务部术语库：http://europa.eu.int/eurodicautom/.
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3 Tymoczko, Maria. Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators[M]. Manchester: St Jerome, 2007.
1 王华伟,崔启亮等.软件本地化—本地化行业实务与指南[M].电子工业出版社,2005.P26.
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1 Howe, J. The rise of crowdsourcing. Wired, 2006,4 (6).
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1 Berman, Antoine. Pour une Critique des Traductions: John Donne[M]. Editions de Gallimard, Paris, 1995. P48.
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3 基于语言规则或基于实例的机器翻译系统(MT)实际上都是对人类翻译经验的模仿,尤其是基于实例(语料库)的机译系统,是计算待译原文与平行语料库中的已有内容的相似度,进而产生相应的译文,更是某于译者的经验。
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4 Common Sense Advisory. Market for Outsourced Translation and Interpreting Services and Technology to Surpass US$34.7 Billion in 2013[EB/OL]. http://www.commonsenseadyisory.com/Default.aspx?Contenttype=ArticleDet&tabID=64&moduleId=392&Aid=5 504&PR=PR. (Accessed September 10,2013).
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2 目前麦当劳网站已经做了大的改版,此图笔者转引自崔启亮2012年本地化大学巡讲的PPT—《本地化与语言服务》。崔启亮现担任中国翻译协会下属分支机构本地化服务委员会秘书长。
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1 笔者注：当然,文字对于个体的心理感受和体验也无法充分地描写,例如,《五灯会元·七佛·释迦牟尼佛》记载释迦牟尼在灵山上“拈花示众,众皆默然,唯迦叶尊者破颜微笑”,世尊深感欣慰,说：“吾有正法眼藏,涅槃妙心,实相无相,微妙法门,不立文字,教外别传,付嘱摩诃迦叶。”其中“不立文字”说明内心深刻而独特的体验往往非语言文字所能描述,其后各代的禅宗大德对于开悟以后的境界皆称“不可说,不可说”亦属此类,因为“说是一物即不是”、“一入文字,即落窠臼”,即佛教所谓之“着相”,与佛理“实相无相”相悖离。
2 Ernst, Kris. Psychoanalytic Explorations in Art[M]. New York: International University Press, 1952. P200.
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3 该游戏由网易公司(NetEase)负责组织本地化及国内推广,同名游戏在中国台湾被译为《潘多利亚之谜》。
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2 笔者注：英语中“符际翻译”的定义是指‘'Verbal signs"与"non-verbal signs";之间的翻译,但是如果将“Verbal signs"翻译成“语言符号”显然不妥,因为汉语中“语言”一词的意义比英语中的'Verbal sign"词义更宽泛的多,例如,“自然语言”、“视觉语言”、“手语”、“计算机语言”等,译成“言语”也不妥,因为该词多指“口语”,笔者曾见国外有学者使用‘'historical-natural language"(意为“历史积淀形成的自然语言”)的说法,似乎较贴切,故将该词译为“自然语言”,以示区别。
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1 笔者注：值得一提的是,“人脸”符号中为什么“鼻子”可以省略,但“眼睛”与“嘴”却不能,是否因为“眼睛”是最主要的信息输入器官,而“嘴”确实最重要的信息输出器官?难道符号在简化过程中,符号中的元素的“去除”及“保留”与元素的“信息量”有关?
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1 笔者注：Wordweb是一款免费的网络英语词典(http://www.wordweb.info/),其词库使用的是著名的基于语义网络模式的“词网”(Wordnet)数据库,该词库最先由美国普林斯顿大学“认知科学实验室”的著名心理学教授George A. Miller主持创立,版权归该实验室所有,Miller教授已于2012年7月去世。
1 汪堂家.记号、符号及其效力—从哲学与符号学的观点看[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),2004,(3).
2 该图转引自施效人.文字的产生及其一般规律(下)[J].文字改革,1965,(2).
1 这是在河南舞阳贾湖新时期时代遗址龟甲上发现的契刻符号,参见：河南省文物考古研究所.舞阳贾湖[M].上册.北京：科学出版社,1999.P446.
1 为了避免侵犯肖像权等麻烦,此图片笔者用Photoshop软件做了细微的处理,人物的“鼻子”“眼睛”等都来自其他图片,实际上这是一张用数字技术拼凑起来的图片。
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