情绪影响反应抑制的发展研究
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摘要
情绪对行为调节影响的研究近年来已经成为认知发展心理学研究的热点。奖励和惩罚作为一种强化形式在教育教学和心理治疗中经常使用，而且奖励和惩罚具有调动情绪的作用已得到共识。已有研究多探讨由情绪性影片和图片引发情绪对行为的调控作用，而对由奖励和惩罚引发的情绪对行为调控作用的研究相对较少，同时缺乏从发展角度进行探讨。本论文以小学生为被试，将金钱激励延迟任务和停止信号任务相结合，运用16导生理记录仪记录被试的生理指标和行为指标，采用奖励和惩罚调动情绪的方法，从生理和行为两个层面考察情绪自主神经唤醒及其影响反应抑制能力的发展特点，并探讨情绪影响行为所蕴含的心理机制。
论文由两个研究共五个实验构成，研究一有三个实验，即实验1、实验2和实验3，研究二有两个实验，即实验4和实验5。
研究一从发展的角度考察了不同价值和不同反馈类型奖惩线索引发小学生自主神经唤醒的特点。被试采取随机整群抽样，在小学二年级、四年级和五年级的每个年级各抽取一个自然班。实验1、实验2的被试是相同的，共31人，实验3的被试和实验1、实验2同质，共30人。实验1采用价值相等的奖励和惩罚线索，即高奖励和高惩罚分数相等，均为5分，低奖励和低惩罚分数相等，均为1分，考察价值相等奖惩线索条件下小学生生理唤醒的特点。实验2采用高奖励绝对价值大于高惩罚绝对价值，低奖励绝对价值大于低惩罚绝对价值，即高奖励为5分，高惩罚为4分，低奖励为2分，低惩罚为1分，考察小学生在奖励的绝对价值大于惩罚绝对价值条件下自主神经唤醒的发展特点。实验3采用了高奖励绝对价值低于高惩罚绝对价值，低奖励绝对价值低于低惩罚绝对价值，即高奖励为4分，高惩罚为5分，低奖励为1分，低惩罚为2分，主要考察小学生在奖励绝对价值低于惩罚绝对价值条件下自主神经唤醒的发展特点。
研究二从发展角度考察情绪对反应抑制的影响特点。被试随机整群抽样，在小学二年级、四年级和五年级的每个年级各抽取一个自然班。实验4的被试为59人，实验5的被试和实验4是同质的，共61人。通过研究一确定了实验2中高奖励低惩罚的形式在小学生中能有效调动情绪，实验4和实验5均采用停止信号任务的变式从发展角度进一步考察情绪对反应抑制能力的影响模式。实验4中将不按键反应(停止信号反应)作为优势反应，而将按键反应(无停止信号反应)作为非优势反应，考察情绪对小学生在优势反应和非优势反应中的反应模式的影响特点。实验5采用了占有相同比例的停止信号反应和无停止信号反应，考察小学生在两个反应之间的反应模式变化。
研究结果发现：
(1)在奖励和惩罚价值相等的条件下，仅有惩罚刺激有效引发了四年级学生的皮肤电活动增高。
(2)高奖励和低惩罚条件下，奖励和惩罚性刺激引发了各年级学生的心率变化增高，奖励刺激引发了各年级学生皮肤电活动增高。
(3)低奖励和高惩罚条件下，奖励和惩罚线索仅引发了各年级学生的皮肤电活动增高。
(4)在停止信号反应为非优势反应，无停止信号反应为优势反应条件下，奖励线索对各年级学生的无停止信号反应均具有促进作用，但惩罚线索仅对二年级学生无停止信号反应具有促进作用。
(5)停止信号反应和无停止信号反应比例相等条件下，奖惩线索对各年级学生的停止信号反应无影响，但对无停止信号具有促进作用，这种促进作用在不同年龄之间略有差异，具体表现为对四年级和五年级学生促进作用优于二年级学生。
综上所述，小学生在高奖励凸显和高惩罚凸显条件下引发了较为显著的生理唤醒，而且情绪仅对反应阶段具有促进作用。情绪双加工理论和背景适宜性注意平衡假设可以很好地解释小学生情绪影响反应抑制的特点。
The study on the impact of emotion on response inhibition has been become an important field of psychological researches. Rewarding and punishing as reinforcement often be used in education and psychotherapy. Rewarding and punishing inducing emotion has been a consensus. The present study mostly examined the impact of emotion induced by emotional film clip or pictures on behaviors, few investigate the impact of emotion induced by rewarding and punishing on behavior from the point of development. In this study, participants involved students in primary school. This study synthetically used physiological monitoring, behavior recording. The developmental study focused on the emotional autonomic nerve arousal and the impact of emotion on response inhibition.
This research involved two studies. The first study included experiment 1, 2and 3. The second study was including the experiment 4 and 5.
The first study was conducted to explore the characteristic of autonomic nerve arousal under the different value and feedback styles of rewarding and punishing conditions. The participants were chosen from the 2~(nd) , 4~(th) and 5~(th) grade of primary school students. The participants involved 31 students in experiment 1, and the same in experiment 2. The participants involved 30 students in experiment 3, and the same in experiment 1and experiment2.
Using rewarding and punishing cues with differential value, including the same value in experiment 1, higher value rewarding cues and the lower value punishing cues in experiment 2, lower value rewarding cues and the higher value punishing cues in experiment 3, we examined the developmental characteristic of autonomic nerve arousal in primacy school students.
The second study investigated the effect of emotion on response inhibition from the developmental focus. The participants were chosen from the 2~(nd) , 4~(th) and 5~(th) grade of primary school students. The participants involved 59 students in experiment4. The participants involved 61 students in experiment 5, and the same in experiment 4. Using the variant of the stop signal task, we explored the effect of emotion on the primary response and the non-primary response in experiment 4, while explored the effect of emotion on the stop signal response and the no stop signal response.
The results showed that:
(1) the skin conduct response to the punishing cues were higher than other cues in grade 4 in condition with the equal value rewarding and punishing cues. (2) Both the heart rate and the skin conduct response to the rewarding cues were higher than other cues in three grade students in condition with the high value rewarding and the low value punishing. (3) The skin conduct response to the rewarding and punishing cues was higher than other cues in three grades in condition with the low value rewarding and the high punishing cues. (4) All students responded more quickly to rewarding cues than other cues, while only the students in grade 2 responded more quickly to punishing cues than other cues in non-primary response. (5) The rewarding and punishing cues accelerated response in no stop signal processing in all students, moreover, the response rate in grade 4 and grade 5 was quicker than in grade 2.
In summary, the primary student has higher sensitivity to high value rewarding. It is because of the differential type of processing that the individual differences exist in the effect of emotion on response inhibition. The context appropriate balanced attention theory can explain the developmental characteristics and the mechanism of the effect of emotion on response inhibition.
论文由两个研究共五个实验构成，研究一有三个实验，即实验1、实验2和实验3，研究二有两个实验，即实验4和实验5。
研究一从发展的角度考察了不同价值和不同反馈类型奖惩线索引发小学生自主神经唤醒的特点。被试采取随机整群抽样，在小学二年级、四年级和五年级的每个年级各抽取一个自然班。实验1、实验2的被试是相同的，共31人，实验3的被试和实验1、实验2同质，共30人。实验1采用价值相等的奖励和惩罚线索，即高奖励和高惩罚分数相等，均为5分，低奖励和低惩罚分数相等，均为1分，考察价值相等奖惩线索条件下小学生生理唤醒的特点。实验2采用高奖励绝对价值大于高惩罚绝对价值，低奖励绝对价值大于低惩罚绝对价值，即高奖励为5分，高惩罚为4分，低奖励为2分，低惩罚为1分，考察小学生在奖励的绝对价值大于惩罚绝对价值条件下自主神经唤醒的发展特点。实验3采用了高奖励绝对价值低于高惩罚绝对价值，低奖励绝对价值低于低惩罚绝对价值，即高奖励为4分，高惩罚为5分，低奖励为1分，低惩罚为2分，主要考察小学生在奖励绝对价值低于惩罚绝对价值条件下自主神经唤醒的发展特点。
研究二从发展角度考察情绪对反应抑制的影响特点。被试随机整群抽样，在小学二年级、四年级和五年级的每个年级各抽取一个自然班。实验4的被试为59人，实验5的被试和实验4是同质的，共61人。通过研究一确定了实验2中高奖励低惩罚的形式在小学生中能有效调动情绪，实验4和实验5均采用停止信号任务的变式从发展角度进一步考察情绪对反应抑制能力的影响模式。实验4中将不按键反应(停止信号反应)作为优势反应，而将按键反应(无停止信号反应)作为非优势反应，考察情绪对小学生在优势反应和非优势反应中的反应模式的影响特点。实验5采用了占有相同比例的停止信号反应和无停止信号反应，考察小学生在两个反应之间的反应模式变化。
研究结果发现：
(1)在奖励和惩罚价值相等的条件下，仅有惩罚刺激有效引发了四年级学生的皮肤电活动增高。
(2)高奖励和低惩罚条件下，奖励和惩罚性刺激引发了各年级学生的心率变化增高，奖励刺激引发了各年级学生皮肤电活动增高。
(3)低奖励和高惩罚条件下，奖励和惩罚线索仅引发了各年级学生的皮肤电活动增高。
(4)在停止信号反应为非优势反应，无停止信号反应为优势反应条件下，奖励线索对各年级学生的无停止信号反应均具有促进作用，但惩罚线索仅对二年级学生无停止信号反应具有促进作用。
(5)停止信号反应和无停止信号反应比例相等条件下，奖惩线索对各年级学生的停止信号反应无影响，但对无停止信号具有促进作用，这种促进作用在不同年龄之间略有差异，具体表现为对四年级和五年级学生促进作用优于二年级学生。
综上所述，小学生在高奖励凸显和高惩罚凸显条件下引发了较为显著的生理唤醒，而且情绪仅对反应阶段具有促进作用。情绪双加工理论和背景适宜性注意平衡假设可以很好地解释小学生情绪影响反应抑制的特点。
The study on the impact of emotion on response inhibition has been become an important field of psychological researches. Rewarding and punishing as reinforcement often be used in education and psychotherapy. Rewarding and punishing inducing emotion has been a consensus. The present study mostly examined the impact of emotion induced by emotional film clip or pictures on behaviors, few investigate the impact of emotion induced by rewarding and punishing on behavior from the point of development. In this study, participants involved students in primary school. This study synthetically used physiological monitoring, behavior recording. The developmental study focused on the emotional autonomic nerve arousal and the impact of emotion on response inhibition.
This research involved two studies. The first study included experiment 1, 2and 3. The second study was including the experiment 4 and 5.
The first study was conducted to explore the characteristic of autonomic nerve arousal under the different value and feedback styles of rewarding and punishing conditions. The participants were chosen from the 2~(nd) , 4~(th) and 5~(th) grade of primary school students. The participants involved 31 students in experiment 1, and the same in experiment 2. The participants involved 30 students in experiment 3, and the same in experiment 1and experiment2.
Using rewarding and punishing cues with differential value, including the same value in experiment 1, higher value rewarding cues and the lower value punishing cues in experiment 2, lower value rewarding cues and the higher value punishing cues in experiment 3, we examined the developmental characteristic of autonomic nerve arousal in primacy school students.
The second study investigated the effect of emotion on response inhibition from the developmental focus. The participants were chosen from the 2~(nd) , 4~(th) and 5~(th) grade of primary school students. The participants involved 59 students in experiment4. The participants involved 61 students in experiment 5, and the same in experiment 4. Using the variant of the stop signal task, we explored the effect of emotion on the primary response and the non-primary response in experiment 4, while explored the effect of emotion on the stop signal response and the no stop signal response.
The results showed that:
(1) the skin conduct response to the punishing cues were higher than other cues in grade 4 in condition with the equal value rewarding and punishing cues. (2) Both the heart rate and the skin conduct response to the rewarding cues were higher than other cues in three grade students in condition with the high value rewarding and the low value punishing. (3) The skin conduct response to the rewarding and punishing cues was higher than other cues in three grades in condition with the low value rewarding and the high punishing cues. (4) All students responded more quickly to rewarding cues than other cues, while only the students in grade 2 responded more quickly to punishing cues than other cues in non-primary response. (5) The rewarding and punishing cues accelerated response in no stop signal processing in all students, moreover, the response rate in grade 4 and grade 5 was quicker than in grade 2.
In summary, the primary student has higher sensitivity to high value rewarding. It is because of the differential type of processing that the individual differences exist in the effect of emotion on response inhibition. The context appropriate balanced attention theory can explain the developmental characteristics and the mechanism of the effect of emotion on response inhibition.
引文
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Knutson, B., Westdorp, A., Kaiser, E., et al. (2000). FMRI visualization of brain activity during a monetary incentive delay task. Neurolmage. 12, 20-27.
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Mellers, B., Schwartz, A., Ritov, I. (1999). Emotion-based choice. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(3), 332-345.
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Matsumoto, K., Suzuki, W., Tanaka, K. (2003). Neuronal correlates of goal-based motor selection in the prefrontal cortex. Science, 301, 229-232.
Maunsell, J.H.R. (2004). Neuronal representations of cognitive state: reward or attention? Trends in cognitive sciences, 8(6), 261-265.
McClure, S.M., Berns, G.S., Montague, P.R. (2003). Temporal prediction errors in a passive learning task activate human striatum. Neuron, 38, 339-346.
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Newman, J.P., Wallace, J.F., Strauman, T.J., et al. (1993). Effects of motivationally signifiant stimuli on the regulation of dominant responses. Journal of personality and social psychology, 65(1), 165-175.
Newman, J.P., & Lorenz, A.R. (2003). Response modulation and emotion processing: Implications for psychopathy and other dysregulatory psychopathology. In R. J. Davidson, K. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of Affective Sciences, Oxford University Press.
Newman, J.P., MacCoon, D.G., Buckholtz, J.W. et al. (2007). Deficient integration of top-down and bottom-up influences on attention in psychopaths: potential contribution of the septo-hippocampal system. In: D. Barch, (Ed.). Cognitive and affective neuroscience of psychopathology, Oxford University Press.
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Nigg, J.T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 220-246.
Oosterlaan, J., Sergeant, J.A. (1998). Effects of reward and response cost on response inhibition in ADHD, disruptive, anxious and normal children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(3), 161-174.
Patterson, C. M., & Newman, J. P. (1993). Reflectivity and learning from aversive events: Toward a psychological mechanism for the syndromes of disinhibition. Psychological Review, 100, 716-736.
Patterson, C.M., Kosson, D.S., & Newman, J.P. (1987). Reaction to punishment, reflectivity, and passive avoidance learning in extraverts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 565-575.
Pearce-McCall, D. & Newman, J.P. (1986). Expectation of success following noncontingent punishment in introverts and extraverts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(2), 439-446.
Pliszka, S.R., Hatch, J.P., Borcherding, S.H., Rogeness, G.A. (2003). Classical conditioning in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and anxiety disorders: A test of Quay's model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 411-423.
Quas, J.A. Hong, M. Alkon, A. et al. (2000). Dissociation between psychobiologic reactivity and emotional expression in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 37, 153-176.
Quas, J.A., Hong, M., Alkon, A., Boyce, W.T. (2000). Dissociation between psychobiologic reactivity and emotional expression in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 37,153-176.
Ramnani, N., Miall, R.C. (2003). Instructed delay activity in the human prefrontal cortex is modulated by monetary reward expectation. Cerebral Cortex, 13,318-327.
Revelle, W. (2008). The contribution of reinforcement sensitivity theory to personality theory In P.J. Corr, (Ed). The reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality, Cambridge University Press, 5.
Reynolds, G.D., Richards, J.E. (2007). Infant heart rate: a developmental psychophysiological perspective. In L.A. Schmidt, S.J. Segalowitz, (Eds). Autonomic and peripheral systems: theory, methods, and measures, Cambridge University Press.
Roesch, M.R., Olson, C.R. (2004). Neuronal activity related to reward value and motivation in primate frontal cortex. Science, 304, 307-310.
Scheres, A., Milham, M.P., Knutson, B., Castellanos, F.X. (2007). Ventral striatal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder. Society of Biology Psychiatry, 61, 720-724.
Scheres, A., Oosterlaan, J., Sergeant, J.A. (2001). Response inhibition in children with DSM-IV subtypes of AD/HD and related disruptive disorders: the role of reward. Child Neuropsycholog, 7(3), 172-189.
Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80,1-27.
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