地方因素对美国外交的影响
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摘要
美国特殊的历史经历、地理条件和政治制度,使地方因素成为影响本国外交的重要因素。具体说来,地方政府是美国外交中的重要行为体,地方性的政治派别、利益集团和政治倾向影响着美国外交政策的制定。
地方政府是美国外交的重要参与者。美国特殊的历史经历使地方政府具有参与外交事务的传统,宪法中的相关条款和美国的政治制度保障了地方政府对外交事务的参与。地方政府参与到了美国外交中的各个领域,对美国外交产生了不可忽视的影响。具体到中美关系,美国地方政府不但在经济和文化领域与中国交往密切,也介入到了台湾问题、人权问题等敏感的政治领域之中。一般说来,经济和文化领域的参与有助于稳定中美关系的大局,会对中美关系产生积极的影响;而政治领域的参与会对中美关系产生消极的影响,使本已复杂的中美关系更加复杂化。
对于地方性的政治派别、利益集团和政治倾向,本文统称为地方势力。地方势力的产生是经济、政治和社会等因素共同作用的结果。在美国外交中,地方势力通过各种渠道,影响国家的外交政策,使之更好地服务于自己代表的地方利益。地方势力间的同盟是美国外交政策演进的基本动力。具体到中美关系,地方势力同样影响着美国对华政策的制定。当地方势力代表的地方利益与中国的国家利益有一致性时,地方势力对中美关系的影响是积极的;相反,当地方势力代表的地方利益与中国的国家利益相冲突时,地方势力往往会对中美关系产生消极的影响。在第二种情况下,如果某个地方势力足够强大,美国的决策者们往往会以牺牲中国的利益和整个中美关系为代价,来满足地方势力的要求。在某种程度上,美国对华政策的出台是国内各地方势力之间斗争与妥协的结果。
鉴于美国地方因素对中美关系的重要影响,中国应充分重视美国政治中的地方因素。在此基础上,还应采取更加有效的措施,利用美国的地方因素,来稳定中美关系的大局,维护中国的国家利益。
Based on the unique historical experiences, geographic conditions and political system of the United States, localities are playing an important role in U.S. foreign affairs. To be more specific, state and local governments are important actors in foreign affairs; local political factions, interest groups and ideologies are influencing American foreign policy.
State and local governments are participating in U.S. foreign affairs, which is not only a historical heritage, but guaranteed by the political institution and to some degree, allowed by the constitution. State and local governments’participation covers many fields and influences the whole foreign affairs of the United States. In U.S.-China relations, U.S. state and local governments not only have close economic and cultural connections with China, but intervene in some sensitive political issues, such as Taiwan issue and human rights issue. Generally speaking, Economic and cultural participation can have a positive effect on the bilateral relations, which helps to stabilize the overall relationship; while the intervention in political issues will have a negative effect, which complicates the already complicated bilateral relations.
Local factions, interest groups and ideologies are collectively called local forces in this dissertation. Local forces are the combined effect of economic, political and social factors. In foreign affairs, driven by the local interest, local forces try to affect U.S. foreign policy by every possible means. This is true in U.S.-China relations. By affecting America’s China policy, local forces have a doubled-edged effect on the bilateral relations: on a certain issue, when a local force and China have the same demands, the local force’s influence is positive; however, when local force’s demands conflict with that of China, its influence is negative. In the latter situation, if a local force is powerful enough, policy makers of the federal government will usually sacrifice China’s interest and the overall relationship to satisfy the local force. To some degree, America’s China policy is the outcome of the conflict and compromise of different local forces.
In view of the localities’important effect on U.S.-China relations, full attention should be paid to the localities in American politics. Further, more effective measures should be taken to make use of the localities’role in stabilizing the bilateral relationship, and to safeguard China’s national interest.
地方政府是美国外交的重要参与者。美国特殊的历史经历使地方政府具有参与外交事务的传统,宪法中的相关条款和美国的政治制度保障了地方政府对外交事务的参与。地方政府参与到了美国外交中的各个领域,对美国外交产生了不可忽视的影响。具体到中美关系,美国地方政府不但在经济和文化领域与中国交往密切,也介入到了台湾问题、人权问题等敏感的政治领域之中。一般说来,经济和文化领域的参与有助于稳定中美关系的大局,会对中美关系产生积极的影响;而政治领域的参与会对中美关系产生消极的影响,使本已复杂的中美关系更加复杂化。
对于地方性的政治派别、利益集团和政治倾向,本文统称为地方势力。地方势力的产生是经济、政治和社会等因素共同作用的结果。在美国外交中,地方势力通过各种渠道,影响国家的外交政策,使之更好地服务于自己代表的地方利益。地方势力间的同盟是美国外交政策演进的基本动力。具体到中美关系,地方势力同样影响着美国对华政策的制定。当地方势力代表的地方利益与中国的国家利益有一致性时,地方势力对中美关系的影响是积极的;相反,当地方势力代表的地方利益与中国的国家利益相冲突时,地方势力往往会对中美关系产生消极的影响。在第二种情况下,如果某个地方势力足够强大,美国的决策者们往往会以牺牲中国的利益和整个中美关系为代价,来满足地方势力的要求。在某种程度上,美国对华政策的出台是国内各地方势力之间斗争与妥协的结果。
鉴于美国地方因素对中美关系的重要影响,中国应充分重视美国政治中的地方因素。在此基础上,还应采取更加有效的措施,利用美国的地方因素,来稳定中美关系的大局,维护中国的国家利益。
Based on the unique historical experiences, geographic conditions and political system of the United States, localities are playing an important role in U.S. foreign affairs. To be more specific, state and local governments are important actors in foreign affairs; local political factions, interest groups and ideologies are influencing American foreign policy.
State and local governments are participating in U.S. foreign affairs, which is not only a historical heritage, but guaranteed by the political institution and to some degree, allowed by the constitution. State and local governments’participation covers many fields and influences the whole foreign affairs of the United States. In U.S.-China relations, U.S. state and local governments not only have close economic and cultural connections with China, but intervene in some sensitive political issues, such as Taiwan issue and human rights issue. Generally speaking, Economic and cultural participation can have a positive effect on the bilateral relations, which helps to stabilize the overall relationship; while the intervention in political issues will have a negative effect, which complicates the already complicated bilateral relations.
Local factions, interest groups and ideologies are collectively called local forces in this dissertation. Local forces are the combined effect of economic, political and social factors. In foreign affairs, driven by the local interest, local forces try to affect U.S. foreign policy by every possible means. This is true in U.S.-China relations. By affecting America’s China policy, local forces have a doubled-edged effect on the bilateral relations: on a certain issue, when a local force and China have the same demands, the local force’s influence is positive; however, when local force’s demands conflict with that of China, its influence is negative. In the latter situation, if a local force is powerful enough, policy makers of the federal government will usually sacrifice China’s interest and the overall relationship to satisfy the local force. To some degree, America’s China policy is the outcome of the conflict and compromise of different local forces.
In view of the localities’important effect on U.S.-China relations, full attention should be paid to the localities in American politics. Further, more effective measures should be taken to make use of the localities’role in stabilizing the bilateral relationship, and to safeguard China’s national interest.
引文
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②美国实行联邦制,联邦和州分权。本文把州政府和州级以下的各级政府统称为“地方政府”。
③“县”在阿拉斯加称为伯勒(Borough),在路易斯安那称为帕里什(Parish)。
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①U.S. Census Bureau, 2002 Census of Governments, Vol.1, No. 1, Government Organization, p.5.
②Jerel A. Rosati, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004, p.343.
③该图仅为简略图,美国地方政府的构成远比该图复杂。
①裴孝贤:《美国历史文献选集》,北京:美国驻华大使馆文化教育处,1985年版,第68页。
②同上书,第69页。
③邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
④托克维尔:《论美国的民主》(上卷),北京:商务印书馆,1988年版,第433页。
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②Richard F. Bensel Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987, p. xix.
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④“The Nine States of Oregon”, www.oregonlive.com/special/ninestates/, 2008-11-15.
①采访卜睿哲(Richard Bush),美国布鲁金斯学会,2008年7月8日。
①Neil King Jr.,“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005;另见宋义达:《周文重就任美国大使后的十个月》,载《朝鲜日报》(中文网络版),http:// www.chinese.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2006/02/07/20060207000001.html, 2008-06-22.
②《王岐山在美中贸易全国委员会、美国商会和中美关系全国委员会上的脱稿演说》,http://www.21cbh.com/HTML/2008/6/19/HTML_XRSJG9.html, 2008-6-20.
①采访唐耐心(Nancy Tucker),乔治敦大学,2008年6月12日。
②David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, pp.295-298.
①熊志勇主编:《美国政治与外交决策》,北京大学出版社,2007年版。
②拙作:《地方因素对中美关系的影响》,载《外交评论》,2006年第4期;《地方势力与冷战后的美国对华政策》,载《中国图书评论》,2007年第7期。
③孙哲、刘建华:《产业地理与结盟游说——考察美国对华贸易政策的新视角》,载《世界经济与政治》,2007年第7期。
①Jerel A. Rosati, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004。中译本见:杰里尔·罗赛蒂:《美国对外政策的政治学》(周启朋、付耀祖等译),北京:世界知识出版社,2005年版,第326-328页。
②James Dull, The Politics of American Foreign Policy, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1985, pp.114-117.
③Brian Hocking, Localizing Foreign Policy: Non-Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.
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⑧Earl H. Fry, The Expanding Role of State and Local Governments In U.S. Foreign Affairs, New York: Council onForeign Relations Press, 1998.
①John M. Kline, State Government Influence in U.S. International Economic Policy, Lexington: Lexington Books, 1983.
②采访克兰教授,乔治城大学国际文化中心517房间(ICC517) ,2008年7月24日。
③John M. Kline,“Continuing Controversies Over State and Local Foreign Policy Sanctions in the United States”, Publius, Spring 1999, 29, 2.
④Michael Shuman & Hal Harvey, Security without War: A Post-Cold War Foreign Policy, Boulder: Westview Press, Inc.1993, pp.219-233.
⑤Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.65 (Winter 1986-1987), pp.154-174; Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Courts V. Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.86 (Spring 1992), pp.158-177.
①Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy away from the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, Winter 1988; Peter J. Spiro,“Get States and Cities off Foreign-Policy Stage”, Wall Street Journal, Sep 24, 1986 p.32.
②Michael Lind,”Civil War by Other Means”, Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 1999, Vol.78, No.5, pp.123-142.
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975.
④Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
⑤Peter Trubowitz,“Sectionalism and American Foreign Policy: The Political Geography of Consensus and Conflict”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.36, No.2 (Jun., 1992) pp.173-190; Peter Trubowitz,“Political Conflict andForeign Policy in the United States: A geographical Interpretation”,Political Geography, Vol.12, No.2, March 1993, pp.121-135.
①Charles O. Lerche, The Uncertain South: Its Changing Patterns of Politics in Foreign Policy, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1964.
②Alfred O. Hero, Jr. The Southerner and World Affairs, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965.
③Tennant S. McWilliams, The New South Faces the World: Foreign Affairs and the Southern Sense of Self, 1877-1950, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
④Marian D. Irish,“Foreign Policy and the South”, The Journal of Politics, Vol.10, No.2, (May, 1948), pp.306-326.
⑤Selig Adler, The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth-Century Reaction, New York: Abelard-Schuman Limited, 1957.
⑥Justus D. Doenecke, Not to the Swift: The Old Isolationists in the Cold War Era, NJ: Associated University Press, 1979, p.13.
①Ray Allen Billington,“The Origin of Middle Western Isolationism”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol.60, No.1 (March, 1945).
②Charle M. Hardin,“Congressional Farm Politics and Economic Foreign Policy”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.331 September,1960, pp.98-102.
③Lauren K. Soth,“Farm Policy, Foreign Policy and Farm Opinion”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.331, (September 1960), pp.103-109.
④陈志敏:《次国家政府与对外事务》,北京:长征出版社,2001年版。
⑤邱伟:《美国地域主义与对外政策》,中国现代国际关系研究院博士论文,2007年7月。
①Frederick Jackson Turner,“The Significance of the Section in American History”, Wisconsin Magazine of History, March 1925; also see: Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.22-51.
②Frederick Jackson Turner,“Geographical Influence in American Political History”, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol.XLVI, No.8,1914, also see Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.183-192.
③Frederick Jackson Turner,“Geographical Sectionalism in American History”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Jun.1926; also see Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.193-206.
④Richard Franklin Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.
①Richard Franklin Bensel,Sectionalism and American Political Development:1880-1980, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987, p.xix.
②Ibid, p.4
③Kenneth C. Martis,“Sectionalism and the United States Congress”, Political Geography Quarterly, Vol.7, No.2,(April 1988), pp.99-109.
④任军锋:《地域本位与国族认同:美国政治发展中的区域性结构分析》,天津人民出版社,2004年版,第3页。
①刘绪贻、李世洞主编:《美国研究词典》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2002年版,第151页。
②杨生茂、张友伦主编:《美国历史百科辞典》,上海辞书出版社,2004年版,第111页。
③张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2003年版,第19页,第146页,第275页。
①第一手材料是形成于与研究对象相同或近乎相同时代的研究成果,二手资料指的是形成于研究对象所处时代之后的成果(见Norman F. Cantor and Richard I. Schneider, How to Study History, NY: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967, pp. 22-23)。一手材料与二手材料的区别在于第一手资料要么是向我们展示亲历者的所说的话,要么是有关该事件的第一个记录(见Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985, p. 124.)。
①李道揆:《美国政府和美国政治》(下册),北京:商务印书馆,2004年版,第780页。
②“Soviet Delegation Flies To U.N. From Brussels”,The New York Times, September 20, 1983. A9;“Soviet Diplomats Take A Commercial Flight To Attend U.N. Session”,The Washington Post, September 20, 1983. A11.
③Linda Greenhouse,“Justices to Decide Foreign Policy Question in Massachusetts Boycott of Myanmar”, The New York Times, Nov.30, 1999, A20.
①Linda Greenhouse,“Justices to Decide Foreign Policy Question in Massachusetts Boycott of Myanmar”, The New York Times, Nov.30, 1999, A20.
②John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, (Autumn, 1984), pp.95-114.
③Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1969), p. 476. See Patrick Lloyd Hatcher,“How Local Issues Drive Foreign Policy”, Orbis, Winter, 1996,
①此句在议案中的英文原文是“Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States”。“State”一词原本就是“国家”的意思,这里还采用了复数的形式。这说明当时每块殖民地的目标都是成为独立的国家。
②这一意思完整的英文表述是:“That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/index.htm, 2006-2-23。
③Hans J. Michelmann & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations: the Role of Subnational Units, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990, p.276.
④塞缪尔·莫里森等著:《美利坚合众国的成长》(南开大学历史系美国研究室译)(上),天津人民出版社, 1991年版,第308页。
①Hans J. Michelmann, & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations, p.277.
②邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
③汉密尔顿等:《联邦党人文集》,北京:商务印书馆,1980年版,第71页。
④http://www.conservapedia.com/American_History_Lecture_Three, 2009-2-24.
①Hans J. Michelmann & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations, p.277.
②R. A. Divine, ed. American Foreign Policy: A Documentary History, (Cleveland, 1960), p.50.
③刘卫政:《略论美国国家主义和州权主义的产生及其对联邦制形成的影响》,载《史学集刊》,1986年第4期。
①卡尔金斯主编:《美国史话》,纽约1975年版,第59页。转引自邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
②汉密尔顿等:《联邦党人文集》,第238页。
③张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2003年版,第109页。
①邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
②张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,第424页。
①邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
①裴孝贤:《美国历史文献选集》,北京:美国大使馆新闻文化处,1985年版,第37页。
②同上书,第47页。
③Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and American Constitution, Oxford University Press, 1996, p.150.
①Alexander Hamilton, et al.“The Federalist”(No.42), in Robert M. Hutchins, ed. Great Books of the Western World, (Vol.43), Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1987, p.136.
②霍姆斯(George Holms)是加拿大魁北克人,因触犯加拿大法律,逃往美国佛蒙特州。佛蒙特州州长则詹尼森(Silas H. Jennison)下令逮捕赫尔姆斯,并将其遣返回加拿大,佛蒙特州最高法院拒绝给霍姆斯颁发人身保护状。当时,美国和加拿大之间并没有相互引渡条约,美国联邦最高法院大法官们在判决中,重申了联邦政府在外交事务中的绝对权力,州长没有遣返逃犯的权力。
③Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away from the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, (Winter, 1988), p.191.
①裴孝贤:《美国历史文献选集》,第47页。
②Green H. Hackworth, Digest of International Law, Vol.5 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940-1944), p. 25. See John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, (Autumn 1984), pp.95-114.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.65, (Winter, 1986-1987).
②Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Courts V. Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.86, Spring, 1992.
③直到1913年,美国才通过第17条宪法修正案,规定参议员由各州人民直选。之前,州参议员则是由州议会选举产生。
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Courts V. Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.86, Spring, 1992.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.65 (Winter 1986-1987).
②Hans J. Michelmann, & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations, p.279.
①John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4 (Autumn1984), pp.95-114.
①史蒂文森曾经在美国国务院任职,这种工作经历使他对国际事务比较熟悉,也给了他很多的国际眼光和国际思维。
②John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4 (Autumn 1984), p.100.
③ibid.
④ibid, p.103.
⑤Michael Clough,“Grass-Roots Policymaking”, Foreign Affairs, (January/February 1994), p.4.
①John Rose,“Foreign Relations at the State Level”, The Journal of State Government, Vol.64, No.4, The Council of State Governments, October-December 1991, pp.110-111.
②The Stanley Foundation,“The Changing Face of American Foreign Policy: The New Role of State and Local Actors”, The Stanley Foundation Report, 1994, pp.4-5.
③National Governors' Association Task Force,“America in Transition: The International Frontier”, 1989.
④高国荣:《州在美国联邦体系中的地位和作用》,载《世界历史》,1999年第6期。
①Committee on International Trade and Foreign Relations,“Export Development and Foreign Investment: The Role of the States and Its Linkage to Federal Action”, (Part 1) (Washington D.C.: National Governors’Association, 1981), pp.17-19. See John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, p.102.
②Paul E.Frank, Global Governors: the Foregin Affairs Activities among the 50 American States, PhD Dissertation, Boston University, 1998, p.106.
③Ben Nelson,“Passage to India”, State Government News, February 1996, p.6
④Samuel Lucas McMillan,“Subnational Foreign Policy Actors: How and Why Governors Participate in U.S. Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy Analysis (2008) 4, pp.227–253.
①关于该组织的详细情况,见http://www.sister-cities.org/。
②http://www.sen.ca.gov/soir/sister.HTP, 2009-3-26.
③Paul E.Frank, Global Governors, p.132.
①“California Senate Sets Diplomatic Example for Other States”, Clearinghouse on State International Policies, December, 1995, p.5.
①John Larkin,“States Spark Foreign Relations of Their Own”, PA Times, June 1992, p.1&20.
②Brian Hocking, Localizing Foreign Policy: Non-Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993, p.75.
③Elaine Stuart,“A Better World: Editor’s Comments”, State Government News, February 1996(a), p.5.
④Samuel L. McMillan,“FDI Attraction in the States: An Analysis of Governors’Power, Trade Missions, and States’International Offices”, http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/5/3/3/1/pages153313/ p153313-11.php, 2009-2-13
⑤Samuel Lucas McMillan,“Subnational Foreign Policy Actors: How and Why Governors Participate in U.S. Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy Analysis (2008) 4, pp.227–253.
①The Stanley Foundation,“The Changing Face of American Foreign Policy”, pp.9-10.
②Brian Hocking, ed. Foreign Relations and Federal States, London: Leicester University Press, 1993, p.153.
①Executive Department Press Release,”Weld, Cellucci Sign Burma Bill”, 1996, p.1.
②英文为“Prop.187”,又称“Save Our State Initiative”,1994年通过,内容是限制非法移民使用加利福尼亚州的社会服务、公共医疗和公共教育。
③Kentucky Global Connections, May/June1996, pp.1-2. See Paul E.Frank, Global Governors, 1998, p.165.
①Ron Scherer,“New York World Order”, The Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1996, p.3.
②Charles Lockwood,“Los Angeles Comes of Age”, Atlantic Monthly, January 1988, p.41.
③John Kincaid,“Rain Clouds over Municipal Diplomacy: Dimensions and Possible Sources of Negative Public Opinion”, Earl H. Fry, et al. Eds., The New International Cities Era, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1989, pp.223-224.
④Sam Roberts,“Looking Back; Foreign Policy, New York Style”, The New York Times, October 26,1995
⑤Ibid.
⑥“Enter the King”, The Times, Feb.11, 1957, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809020,00.html, 2009-2-16.
⑦Richard Levine,“La Guardia to Koch; Why New York’s Mayors Pursue a Foreign Policy”, The New York Times, July 31, 1988.
①Ron Scherer,“New York World Order”, The Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1996, p.3.
②The Los Angeles Times, Feb.18, 2007, p.M4.
③Michael Shuman, Building Municipal Foreign Policies, Irvine, CA: Center for Innovative Diplomacy, 1987, p.4.
①William B. Graves, American Intergovernmental Relations: Their Origins, Historical Development, and Current Status, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1964, p.368.
②Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away From the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, Winter 1988.
①S. Rand Berner, Diplomacy Begins at home: San Francisco, Theodore Roosevelt, and Japan, PhD Dissertation, San Jose State University, 2007.
②Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away From the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, Winter 1988.
③Michael H. Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No. 65 (Winter 1986-87), p. 156.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main street: Local Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy, No.65. Winter, 1986-1987.
②Jerel A. Rosti, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004, p.353.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main street: Local Foreign Policy”, in Herbert M. Levine, Jean E. Smith, The Conduct of American Foreign Policy Debated, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990, pp.290-301.
②Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away From the Feds”, in Herbert M. Levine, Jean E. Smith, The Conduct of American Foreign Policy Debated, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990, p.303.
③Ibid.
④Richard B. Bilder,“The Role of States and Cities in Foreign Relations”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.83, p.831.
①Michael Lind,“Civil War by Other Means”, Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 1999, Vol.78, No.5, pp.123-142.
②Richard Leopold,“The Mississippi Valley and American Foreign Policy, 1890-1941: An Assessment and an Appeal”, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XXXVII, March 1951, pp.625-642.
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.ⅲ&p.ⅵ.
②Richard F. Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, Madison: The University ofWisconsin Press, 1987, p.4
①Howard Cincotta, An Outline of American History, Washington D.C.: United States Information Agency, 1994, p.22.
②李剑铭著:《美国通史》(第1卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2000年版,第226页。
③同上书,第36页。
④Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998, p.14.
②Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.276.
③ibid.
①美国西部一直都有兼并阿拉斯加的野心。20世纪初,由于加拿大和阿拉斯加的边界冲突,西海岸诸州的航海和贸易受到威胁。为此,这一地区要求联邦政府兼并阿拉斯加。
②委内瑞拉和英属圭亚那之间的边界争端由来已久。1841年,英国擅自划定了与委内瑞拉的分界线,同时,在有争议的地区发现了金矿,使矛盾迅速加剧。1887年,委内瑞拉断绝了与英国的关系,并向美国寻求帮助。美国根据“门罗主义”,要求英国接受国际仲裁,但遭到英国的拒绝。1895年,克利夫兰总统公开指责英国,并表示要坚决反击英国的侵略行为。委内瑞拉争端标志着美国称霸美洲的时代已经到来。见李庆余,《美国外交史:独立战争到2004年》,济南:山东画报出版社,2008年版,第48页。
①高国荣:《州在美国联邦体系中的作用》,载《世界历史》,1999年第6期。
②Scott G. Borgerson, Of Sea and Shore: The American Global Port City’s Internationalist Approach to U.S.Foreign Policy, PhD Dissertation, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, 2006, p.6.
③David W. Brady, Critical Elections and Congressional Policy Making, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988, pp.1-19.
①Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.20.
②Burdett A. Loomis,“Congressional Caucuses and the Politics of Representation”, in Congress Reconsidered, 2d ed., edited by Lawrence C. Dodd and Bruce I. Oppenheimer, Washington D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1981, pp. 204-220.
③James Patterson, Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933-1939, Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967.
①“Jay Treaty”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Treaty, 2008-10-11.
②1800年大选后,民主共和党人赢得了参议院三分之二的多数,1802年的中期选举之后,民主共和党人又赢得了众议院三分之二多数。
③“The United States and the French Revolution, 1789-1799”, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/nr/88108.htm, 2009-3-20.
①例如,与英国签订的《根特条约》、《拉什-巴格特协定》、《东北部渔业协定》,与西班牙签订的《亚当斯-奥尼斯条约》(西班牙割让佛罗里达给美国,解决了美西间的边界争端),均以全票获得通过。1824年,美俄间解决俄勒冈问题的条约也基本上是全票通过(只有一名来自罗德岛州的参议员投了反对票)。
②http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ja6.html,2008-11-24
③http://www.presidentprofiles.com/Washington-Johnson/John-Quincy-Adams-The-panama-congress.html,2009-2-24.
④Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.37.
⑤张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2003年版,第293页。
⑥张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,第287-288页。
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.111.
② ibid, p.187.
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.192.
②顽固的孤立主义分子,如,蒙大拿州参议员惠勒(Burton Wheeler),加利福尼亚参议员约翰逊(Hiram Johnson),北达科塔州参议员兰格(William Langer),明尼苏达州参议员希普斯特德(Henrik Shipstead)。
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.193
④ibid, p. 234.
⑤另外一张反对票来自明尼苏达州共和党参议员希普斯特德(Henrik Shipstead)。
①Frederick Jackson Turner,“Geographical Sectionalism in American History”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Jun.1926; also see Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.193-206.
①简称U.A.R.,是埃及和叙利亚之间的联盟,成立于1958年。1961年,叙利亚退出联盟,埃及继续沿用“阿拉伯共和国联盟”的称号,直至1971年。
②熊志勇:《美国宗教势力对外交政策的干预》,载《美国对华政策与美国国内政治研讨会论文集》,2007年3月,杭州,第301页。
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.284.
①查尔斯·库普乾:《美国时代的终结:美国外交政策与21世纪的地缘政治》(潘忠岐译),上海人民出版社,2002年版,第201页。
②国际联盟的构想形成于美国东北部的纽约,东北部地区也是最支持国际联盟的地区。详见本节第三部分。
③托克维尔:《论美国的民主》(董果良译),北京:商务印书馆,1988年版,第437页。
④任军锋:《地域本位与国族认同》,天津人民出版社,2004年版,第157页。
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.284.
①Michael Lind,“Civil War by Other Means”, Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 1999.
②Michal Lind,“The New Continental Divide”, The Atlantic Monthly, Jan/Feb 2003.
③. ibid.
①Michal Lind,“The New Continental Divide”, The Atlantic Monthly, Jan/Feb 2003
②Edward R. Ellis, The Epic of New York City, New York: Coward-McCann, 1966, p.507.
①爱尔兰裔的美国人不支持国联,他们认为国际联盟是英国统治爱尔兰人的工具。
②"Heckle Poindexter Here," The New York Times, May 8, 1919, p.1.
③"Wilson Gains League Support in California," The New York Times, September 19, 1919, p.1.
④在国际联盟问题上,美国参议院分为了五派,分别为:强烈的国际主义者、有限的国际主义者、适度保留的主义者、强烈的保留主义者和不可调和者。“强烈的保留主义者”和“不可调和者”基本上都来自美国的西部内陆地区。
⑤Selig Adler, The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth-Century Reaction, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1974, p.45.
⑥查尔斯·库普乾:《美国时代的终结:美国外交政策与21世纪的地缘政治》,第218页。
⑦August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson, New York: Scribner, 1991, p.595-610.
①Scott G. Borgerson, Of Sea and Shore, p.235.
①Scott G. Borgerson, Of Sea and Shore, p.282.
①这里的东北部指的是广义上的东北部,包括图2-1中的新英格兰、大西洋中部各州和中部东北各州。
②何顺果,《美国史通论》,上海:学林出版社,2001年版,第171-172页。
③南部包括图2-1中的大西洋南部各州、中部东南各州和中部西南各州。
④丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第107页。
⑤西部包括的是中部西北各州、落基山区各州和太平洋沿岸各州。
⑥何顺果:《美国史通论》,上海:学林出版社,2001年版,第174页。
⑦见论文第二节。
①Akiko Yanai, Reciprocity in Trade Liberalization, IDE APEC Study Center Working Paper, Series 00/01-No.2.
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.276
②ibid, pp.111-112.
③Ivan Musicant, Empire by Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1998, p.10.
④丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),第340页。
⑤何顺果:《美国史通论》,上海:学林出版社,2001年版,第261页。
①Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.108.
②ibid, p.111.
③任军锋:《地域本位与国族认同》,第84页。.
①Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, pp.159-160.
②ibid, p.157.
③罗斯福总统早期曾做过纽约州参议员和纽约州州长。
④具体参见:Alfred O. Hero, Jr. The Southerner and World Affairs, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965; Tennant S. McWilliams, The New South Faces the World: Foreign Affairs and the Southern Sense of Self, 1877-1950, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988; Marian D. Irish,“Foreign Policy and the South”, The Journal of Politics, Vol.10, No.2, May, 1948,pp.306-326.
①http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act, 2009-3-2.
②Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.124.
③从1933到1969年,民主党执政28年,共和党执政8年。
④刘绪贻主编:《美国通史》(第6卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第486页。
①John Agnew, The United States in the World Economy: A Regional Geography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp.161-185. See Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.197.
②Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, pp.226-227.
①刘绪贻主编:《美国通史》(第6卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),第517-519页。
②从托克维尔到利普曼,再到乔治·凯南,很多观察家都认为美国的决策过程已经不适应一个超级大国的需要。见Peter Trubowitz,“Geography and Strategy: the Politics of American Naval Expansion”, in Peter Trubowitz,et al.eds. The Politics of Strategic Adjustment: Ideas, Institutions, and Interests, New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, p.105.
①Richard F. Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, 1987, p.4.
②根据美国人口普查局的数据,2007年,怀俄明州的人口数约为52万,加利福尼亚州的人口约为3650万。密苏里州的人口为587万。见美国人口普查局官方网站:http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html.
①US Exports to China by State, 2000-07, Released by the US-China Business Council, 2008.
①US Exports to China by State, 2000-07, Released by the US-China Business Council, 2008.
②Ibid.
①US Exports to China by State, 2000-07, Released by the US-China Business Council, 2008
①美国之音中文网站,2008年7月30日。
②Robert E. Scott,“The China Trade Toll”, EPI Briefing Paper, Economic Policy Institute, July 30, 2008, No.219.
③ibid.
①http://www.uscc.gov/about/overview.php, 2009-3-15.
①“Hearing on China’s Impact on the U.S. Manufacturing Base”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (108th Congress, 2nd Session), Jan.30, 2004.
②“ibid”.
①“U.S.-China Trade and Investment: Impact on Key Manufacturing and Industrial Sectors: Field Hearing in Akron, Ohio”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 108th Congress, 2nd Session, Sep.23, 2004
②“U.S.-China Trade and Investment: Impact on Pacific Northwest Industries, Field Hearing in Seattle, Washington”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 109th Congress, 1st Session, Jan.13, 2005.
③“China’s Impact on the U.S. Auto and Auto Parts Industries”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 109th Congress, 2nd Session, July 17, 2006.
④“China’s Impact on the North Carolina Economy: Winners and Losers, Field Hearing in Chapel Hill, North Carolina”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 110th Congress, 1st Session,Sep. 6, 2007.
①“Chinese Seafood: Safety and Trade Issues”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 110th Congress, 2nd Session, April 24-25, 2008.
②Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy Toward China:an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, (Lanham: Roman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1998), p.19
①John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, Autumn, 1984.
②Hobby,“Oilmen Join in China Trade Talks”, Dallas Times Herald, Sep.20, 1979.
③John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, Autumn, 1984.
④Mark Warner,“A Governor Looks at Asia”, http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/warner05.html, 2009-1-9.
⑤http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices-government/5958921-1.html 2009-1-9.
①http://www.chinaconsulatesf.org/chn/xw/t83984.htm, 2009-1-27.
②http://gov.ca.gov/index.php?/press-release/1215/, 2009-1-10.
③“Ignoring China not in state's interest”, http://www.dra.gov/media/article_detail.aspx? articleID=1707,2009-2-4.
①Paul E. Schroeder,“The Ohio-Hubei Agreement: Clues to Chinese Negotiating Practice”, China Quarterly, No.91, (September 1982), p.486. See David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002,p.296
②中国国际友好城市联合会官方网站, http://www.cifca.org.cn/web/index.aspx, 2008-12-13.
③David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002, p.296.
④Zhou Wenzhong,“The Future of U.S.-China Relations”, http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/wenzhong05.html, 2006-2-22.
⑤中国国际友好城市联合会官方网站, http://www.cifca.org.cn/web/index.aspx, 2008-12-13.
①这些机构的名称各不相同,有的州政府也将本州负责对外事务的机构称为“国务院”,将机构的负责人称为“州务卿(Secretaty of State)”。
②Joseph J. Borich,“Hu Jintao Comes to Town”, Chinese American Forum, Volume XXII, No.1, July 2006, p.7.
③例如,早在19世纪80年代,约15000名华工漂洋过海,加入美国北方太平洋铁路公司,为西部各州修建铁路,还有1400名华工参与修建西雅图至瓦拉瓦拉之间的铁路,华人为西部地区的铁路建设做出了巨大的贡献。见陆阳:《美丽城市西雅图发展移民功不可没》,美国之音中文网,2008-2-22。
④Joseph J. Borich,“Hu Jintao Comes to Town”, Chinese American Forum, Volume XXII, No.1, July 2006, p.7.
①刘雯:《连接华州与中国》,北京:世界知识出版社,2008年版,第58页。
②同上书,第195-197页。
①Samuel L. McMillan,“FDI Attraction in the States: An Analysis of Governors’Power, Trade Missions, and States’International Offices”, http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/5/3/3/1/pages153313/ p153313-11.php, 2009-2-13.
②http://www.mccusa.org, 2009-1-27
③陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第439页。
①Lynette Holloway,“Vallone Seeks Sanctions on Nations Persecuting Christians”, The New York Times, Jun.15, 1997.p.25.
②David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.297.
③David Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.297; The New York Times, Jun.15, 1996, p.25.
④The Washington Times, Jan.17, 1990, final edition.
①Quincy Wright, The Control of American Foreign Relations, Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970, p. 154.
②1870年的民权法案颁布后,联邦法院才宣布此法案违宪,但到那时,加州已经从华工身上征收了500万美元。见李小兵等:《美国华人:从历史到现实》,成都:四川人民出版社,2003年版,第59-60页。
③California's Anti-Coolie Act of 1862, http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/History/1870/anticoolieact.htm, 2009-3-10.从事某种生意、获得许可证的矿工以及从事糖、大米、咖啡和茶叶生产的中国人可以免交此项税收。
①张庆松:《美国百年排华内幕》,上海人民出版社,1998年版,第27页。
②李小兵:《美国华人:从历史到现实》,成都:四川人民出版社,2003年版,第60-61页。
①丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第174页。
②陶文钊:《中美关系史》(上),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第12页。
③丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷),第179页。
④李小兵:《美国华人:从历史到现实》,第69-71页;丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),第178-179页;陶文钊:《中美关系史》(上),2004年版;William H. Taft, The United States and Peace, New York: Charles Scrinber’s Sons, pp.60-61.
①“Chen Lan Pin to Mr. Evarts”, Washington, January 21, 1881. United States Department of State, Index to the Executive Documents of the House of Representatives for the First Session of the 47th Congress,1881-1882, Vol.1,China, pp.321-322.
②Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U.S. 275 (1875), US Supreme Court Center, http://supreme.justia.com/us/92/275/ case.html, 2009-3-11.
③Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, Apr. 9, 1996, p.A12.
④http://www.taiwanusalliance.com/membership.htm,2009-2-4.
⑤Dr. Wen-hui Tsai,“People to People Contacts as a Bridge between U.S.-Taiwan Relations: A quantitative presentation”, Presented at the 50th Annual Conference of American Association for Chinese Studies at theCalifornia State University–Fullerton, October 17-19, 2008.
①Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, April 9, 1996, A12.
①http://www.taiwanembassy.org/US/MKC/ct.asp?xItem=11308&CtNode=2727&mp=46&xp1=, 2009-2-4.
②《人民日报》,1982年10月23日,第6版。
①美国的巡回法院共有14个,除了11个地区巡回法院外,还包括哥伦比亚特区巡回法院、联邦巡回法院和军事法院组成。美国的每个地区巡回法院都有固定的辖区。
②陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第142页。
③“The President of the United States to Prince Chun, Regent of the Chinese Empire”, The White House, Washington, July 15, 1909. U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1909, p.178.
①“The Secretary of State to Charge Fletcher”, Washington, July 15, 1909, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1909, p.179.
②美国的银行团由摩根(Messrs. J. P. Morgan and Co.)、坤洛(Kuhn, Loeb and Co.)、第一国家银行(the First National Bank)、花旗银行(The National City Bank)等垄断巨头组成。该银行团的总部设在纽约,在中国的代表是美国国务院远东司代司长司戴德(Willard D. Straight)。详见T. W. Overlach, Foreign Financial Control in China, Toronto: The McMillan Co.of Canada, Ltd., 1919, p.228。李约翰在《清帝逊位与列强》一书中,这样描述这一财团:“6月初国务院借助铁路大王哈里曼,成功地组织了一个办理中国借款的美国银行团,以司戴德为它的驻北京代表。这个银行团是匆忙组织起来的,并不代表所有的美国银行”。见昕雯:《湖广铁路借款是帝国主义列强侵略中国的恶债——介绍美国学者李约翰所著<清帝逊位与列强>一书有关内容》,载《人民日报》,1983年11月22日,第7版。
③关于该合同的恶债性质,见刘大群:《湖广铁路借款的恶债性质》,载《人民日报》,1983年9月13日。
①该案又被称为杰克逊诉中华人民共和国案(Jackson V. People’s Republic of China)。
②“中国外交部就湖广铁路债券案致美国国务卿舒尔茨的备忘录”,《人民日报》,1983年2月10日,第4版;关于此备忘录的英文版本见“People’s Republic of China: Aide Memoire of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs”, U.S. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, China Daily Report, Vol.1, No.028 (Feb. 9, 1983), p.B-1.
③“United States: District Court for the Northern District of Alabam Decision in Jackson V. People’s Republic of China”, 550 Federal Supplement 869-877 (1983). HeinOnline——22 International Legal Materials, 75, 1983.
④“Ibid”.
⑤Hsu Tien-Shi,“China Bonds”, American Bar Association Journal, Nov.1983, Vol.69, p.1601.
①《人民日报》,1983年2月10日,第4版。
②中共中央文献研究室编:《邓小平思想年谱》(1975-1997),北京:中央文献出版社,1998年版,第248页。
①傅铸:“美国法院对“湖广铁路债券案”的审判严重违反国际法”,《人民日报》,1983年2月25日,第7版;金士宣、徐文进:“一九一一年湖广铁路借款和中国人民拒债保路的斗争”,《人民日报》,1983年3月12日,第7版;刘大群:“湖广铁路借款的恶债性质”,《人民日报》,1983年9月13日,第7版;昕雯:《湖广铁路借款是帝国主义列强侵略中国的恶债——介绍美国学者李约翰所著<清帝逊位与列强>一书》,载《人民日报》,1983年11月22日,第7版。
②《人民日报》,1983年3月8日,第7版。
③Eugene Theroux, and B.T. Peele,“China and Sovereign Immunity: The Huguang Railway Bonds Case”, HeinOnline—2 China L. Rep. 129, 1982-1983.
④《人民日报》,1983年2月13日,第3版。
⑤Robert Metz,“Chinese Bonds: Is Payoff Near?”The New York Times, Oct. 30, 1981, D8.“To Cash in on a Spark of China’s 1911 Upheaval”, The New York Times, Nov.14, 1981, A30. Robert Metz,”Getting China to Pay Debts”, The New York Times, Sep.9, 1982, D.10. Christopher S. Wren,“Separation of Powers? You Must be Kidding, Says China”, The New York Times, Mar. 20, 1983. A5.
⑥Christopher S. Wren,“Separation of Powers? You Must be Kidding, Says China”, The New York Times, Mar. 20, 1983. A5.
①1952年5月,美国国务院代理法律顾问泰特(J.B. Tate)致函司法部,信函中指出:由于公有制国家坚持“绝对主权豁免”原则,美国必须改变政策,今后,如果遇到外国政府要求豁免,国务院将向司法部提交意见,告之是否应给予豁免,这就是所谓的“泰特公函(Tate Letter)”。根据该公函,国务院拥有决定是否给予外国政府豁免的权力。公函的目的是避免美国与公有制国家产生过多的纠纷,更好地维护美国的利益。但是,“泰特公函”的内容过于简单,法院在执行中,有很大的自由发挥余地。
②1976年,美国进一步通过了《外国主权豁免法》(Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976),新法律对主权豁免做出详细规定,主要内容是:外国政府“商业活动”不享受豁免;在执行判决时,可以扣押外国政府的“商业财产”;把是否给予外国政府豁免的权力由国务院转交给法院;某项行为是否属于商业活动,应根据活动的性质来判断,而不管活动的目的如何;对于外国政府因在美国法院提起或参与诉讼而引起的反诉,不享受豁免;除非有特殊安排或协定,可用邮递方法由法院把传票寄给相关国家的外交部长或经国务院通过外交途径送达外国政府。阿拉巴马州北部地区法院的做法正是建立在该法基础上的。
③Tamar Lewin,“U.S. Dismisses China Bondholder Suit”, The New York Times, Oct.27, 1984, p.38.
④《人民日报》,1984年11月1日,第4版。
①Theodore J. Kreps,“The Price of Silver and Chinese Purchasing Power”, Q.J.E. 48 (Feb 1934):p.246, See Milton Friedman,“Franklin D. Roosevelt, Silver, and China”, The Journal of Political Economy, Vol.100, No.1, (Feb., 1992), pp.62-83.
②法案开始实施时,世界市场上的白银价格是80美分,财政部的收购价格大大高出了市场价;1921年,世界市场上的白银价格是每盎司不超过71美分,而美国财政部的收购价格为1美元。见:Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, New York: Da Capo Press, 1973, p.6.
③Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, New York: Da Capo Press, 1973, p.6.
④Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1972, p.7.
⑤Arthur W. Crawford, Monetary Management under the New Deal, Washington, D.C.: American Council on Public Affairs, 1940, p.50. See Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, pp.7-8.
①Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, p.3.
②John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press,1969, p.3.
③ibid, p.4.
④汪熙:“丛书主编前言”,见迈克尔·罗素:《院外集团与美国东亚政策》(郑会欣译),上海:复旦大学出版社,1992年版,第Ⅳ页。
⑤John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal , p.164.
①John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, p.162
②The New York Times, September 20, 1932, p.1.
③Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, p.20.
④ibid, p.21.
①“Synopsis of Address to be delivered by Senator Key Pittman at the Chamber of Commerce Luncheon”, Oct. 8, 1930, Key Pittman Papers, Box 141, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., see Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.11.
②U.S. Congress, House Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures, Hearings, Silver Currency, 72d Congress, 2d Session, 1933, pp.67-68.See Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.13.
①“The Consul General at Shanghai (Cunningham) to the Secretaty of State”, Shanghai, February 17, 1934. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934, The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.423-424.
②“The Chinese Bankers Association to the Chinese Minister”, Shanghai, February 20, 1934. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934,The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.424-425.
③“The Counselor of Legation in China (Peck) to the Secretaty of State”, Nanking, February 21, 1934. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934, The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.425-426.
④“The Consul General at Shanghai (Cunningham) to the Secretary of State”, Shnahghai, February 23, 1934. See U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934, The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.427-428.
⑤Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Age of Roosevelt: The Coming of the New Deal, Boston; Houghton Mifflin Co., 1958, p.249. See Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.39.
①John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, p.84.
②Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, pp.30-31.
③Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.43.
④Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945, Oxford University Press, 1995, p.93.
⑤Ibid.
①Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.54.
②John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, p.131.
③汪熙,前引书,第Ⅳ页;任东来:《1934-1936年间中美关系中的白银外交》,《历史研究》,2000年第3期。
④Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1975, p.278.
①李子旸:《美国参议员和中国银元危机》,载《新世纪周刊》,2007年第17期。
②Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, pp.73-74.
③John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, pp.162-163.
④“Consecration At a Profit”, Wall Street Journal, December 11, 1934, p.4.
⑤Howard W. Starr.“The Silver Purchase Act”, The New York Times, Nov.14, 1935, p.20.
①http://baucus.senate.gov/about/values.cfm, 2009-1-29.
②ibid.
③Guy Gugliotta,“Baucus Pitted in Fight over China’s MFN Status”, The Washington Post, Jul 14, 1991, A6.
④Ann Devroy,“White House Targets Senate on China Bill”, The Washington Post, Jun.23, 1991, A.5.
①Susan B. Epstein,“China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status: U.S. Wheat Export”, CRS Report for Congress, 92-567 ENR, July 17, 1992, pp. 1-2.
②“Wheat Farmers Fearful on China Trade”, Los Angeles Times, Jun 22, 1990, p.5.
③ibid.
④Susan B. Epstein,“China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status: U.S. Wheat Export”, CRS Report for Congress, 92-567 ENR, July 17, 1992, p.5.
⑤Guy Gugliotta,“Baucus Pitted in Fight over China’s MFN Status”, The Washington Post, Jul 14, 1991, A6.
⑥Ibid.
⑦Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998,p.42; Also see Guy Gugliotta,“Baucus Pitted in Fight Over China’s MFN Status”, The Washington Post, Jul 14,1991, A6
⑧Ramon H. Myers, Michel Oksenberg, David Shambaugh, Making China policy: lessons from the Bush and Clintonadministrations, Lanham, MD:Rowman & Littlefield, 2001,p.95;Also see Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, pp. 42-43.
①“China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status”, Hearings before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, 102nd Congress, 1st Session, June 19 and 20, 1991.
②“Extending China’s MFN Status”, Hearing before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, July 30, 1992.
③Don Oberdorfer,“China Trip Sways Few in Congress”, The Washington Post, Nov.23, 1991, A.19.
①“U.S.-China Trade Relations and Renewal of China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status”, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade of the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, 104th Congress, 1st Session, May 23, 1995.
②Thomas L. Friedman,“Senator Asks End to Threats against China”, The New York Times, Jan.1994, A11.
③Public Papers of the President of the United States: William J. Clinton, 1995, pp.783-784.
④International Trade Report, Vol.15, No.26, July 1, 1998, Asia/ Pacific Rim.
①http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas#Politics, 2009年4月8日。
②目前,该州拥有34张选举人票,总数位居全国第二,在某种程度上左右着总统选举的结果,成为历次总统候选人的必争之地。
③Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998, pp.225-226.
④加利福尼亚州的合同总价值为167亿美元,占总量的19%。见William G. Smith,“A Good Offense for the Economy Lies in Having Good Defense Industry”, The Christian Science Monitor, October 5, 1982, Midwestern Edition, p.B3.
⑤该州的沃斯堡地区原本是一个牧区,由于美国军工企业在第二次世界大战前夕设在此处,随即迅速成为一个军工城市。
⑥William G. Smith,“A Good Offense for the Economy Lies in Having Good Defense Industry”, The Christian Science Monitor, October 5, 1982, (Midwestern Edition), p.B3.
①张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究:决策的视角》,北京:世界知识出版社,2006年版,第212页。
②John D. Morrocco,“Fighter Makers Struggle as World Markets Shrink”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Vol.137, No.10, September 7, 1992, p.97.
③张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究》,第207-208页。
④陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第229页。
⑤张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究》,第208页。
⑥John D. Morrocco,“Fighter Makers Struggle as World Markets Shrink”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Vol.137, No.10, September 7, 1992.
①陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第229页。
②Don Oberdorfer,“1982 Arms Policy with China Victim of Bush Campain, Texas Lobbying”, The Washington Post, September 4, 1992, p.A31.
③Ibid.
④Bill Wang,“How Bush Decides on Sale of F-16s to Taiwan”, Central News Agency-Taiwan, September 3, 1992; Also see“Falcon Politics”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 3, 1992,p.19.
⑤Robert Ross,“The Bush Administration: The Origin of Engagement”, in Ramon H. Myers, et al.eds. Making China Policy: lessons from the Bush and Clinton administrations, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001, p.33.
①R.W. Apple Jr.,“The 1992 Campaign: Political Pulse-Texas”, The New York Times, October, 1992, p.26.
②“Texas: On a Knife-Edge”, The Economist, Oct.17, 1992.
③ibid.
④R.W. Apple Jr.,“The 1992 Campaign: Political Pulse-Texas”, The New York Times, October, 1992, p.26.
⑤ibid.
①Bill Wang,“How Bush Decides on Sale of F-16s to Taiwan”, Central News Agency-Taiwan, September 3, 1992.
②ibid.
③ibid.
④张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究》,第214-215页。
⑤Jonathan Mirsky,“Jet Votes: China Cries Foul as Bush Buys Votes in Texas with Jet Fighters for Taiwan”, The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec), September 8, 1992, p.B3.
①“Bentson Urges OK of F-16 Jet Fighter Sales to Taiwan”Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1992, p.16.
②Micheal Wines,“The 1992 Campaign: The Republicans”, The New York Times, Sep 3, 1992. p.A1
③陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第231-232页。
④Jonathan Mirsky,“Jet Votes: China Cries Foul as Bush Buys Votes in Texas with Jet Fighters for Taiwan”The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec),September 8, 1992,p.B3
⑤James Mann, About Face, p.268,转引自陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第231页。
⑥熊志勇:《百年中美关系》,北京:世界知识出版社,2006年版,第357页。
①《人民日报》,1992年9月4日,第1版。
②熊志勇:《百年中美关系》,第358页。
③当今,加利福尼亚州的选举人票为55张。
④ http://hi.baidu.com/jhlb/blog/item/80fb312a4b5660385343c1d2.html, 2009-3-25.
①根据美国媒体的报道,为了报复美国向台湾出售F-16战斗机的做法,中国开始向巴基斯坦出售M-11导弹,并与伊朗达成了正式的核能源合作协定。
②阿姆斯特朗是美国商界的重要人物,担任休斯公司总裁前,在IBM公司任职30多年,后成为IBM世界贸易部的主席(Chairman of IBM World Trade Corporation),1992到1997年,阿姆斯特朗任休斯公司的总裁离开休斯公司后,他还曾担任过美国电话电报公司(AT&T)的总裁,美国最大的互联网公司Comcast的总裁。
③John Mintz,“White House Papers Trace Hughes Executive's Pressure for China Deals”, The Washington Post, Jul.27, 1998, p.A4.
④John Mintz,“How Hughes Got What It Wanted on China”, The Washington Post, Jun.25, 1998, p.A1.
①Jim Mann,“Executives Press Clinton to Smooth U.S.-China Ties, The Los Angeles Times, Nov.19, 1993, p.1.
②Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, pp.49-50.
③Eric Schmitt,”Lawmakers Shift View on Satellites for China”, The New York Times, May 24, 1998, p.22.
④Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy Towards China, pp.49-50.
⑤John Mintz,“White House Papers Trace Hughes Executive's Pressure for China Deals”, The Washington Post, Jul.27, 1998, p.A4.
①徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》(王邦宪译,梅缵月校),载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,上海:复旦大学出版社,1985年版,第260-261页。
②梁碧莹:《艰难的外交:晚清驻美公使研究》,天津古籍出版社,2004年版,第92页。
③《美国历史统计,殖民地时代至1970年》,华盛顿1975年,第一部分,第108页。转引自丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第169页。
①张庆松:《美国百年排华内幕》,上海人民出版社,1998年版,第48页。
②Ng Yen Tak,“On the Social and Political Environment Leading to the Restriction of Chinese Immigrants into the United States in 1882”, http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/6/600211.pdf, 2009-3-11.
③Ted C. Hinckley,“The Politics of Sinophobia: Garfield, the Morey Letter and the Presidential Election of 1880”, Ohio History, Vol.89.
④该法案在众议院以155对72票通过。在表决中,党派色彩比较明显:在投赞成票的议员中,有104位民主党人,51位共和党人;在投反对票的议员中,有16位民主党人,56位共和党人。参议院的投票结果同样是如此,在共和党内部,赞成的议员和反对的议员大约各占一半。在民主党内,25人赞成,8人反对。Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.112.
①“Their Excellencies Pao and Li to the Commissioners”, Peking, October 7, 1880, United States Department of State, Index to the Executive Documents of the House of Representatives for the First Session of the 47th Congress, 1880-1881, Vol.1, 1881-1882, China, p.174.
②丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第177页。
①陶文钊:《中美关系史》(上),第12页。
②Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.110.
①顾盛出生于马萨诸塞州的索尔兹伯里,曾长期在马萨诸塞州政界任职。1835年当选国会议员,之后担任众议院外交事务委员会主席,1843年到1845年,他担任美国驻中国专员和大使。
②《筹办洋务始末》,同治期,第69卷,第20页。转引自丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷),第168页。
③张庆松:《美国百年排华内幕》,第45页。
④《筹办洋务始末》,同治期,第69卷,第20页。转引自丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷),第168页。
①徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》(王邦宪译,梅缵月校),载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,上海:复旦大学出版社,1985年版,第267页。
②James Palumbo, The States and American Foreign Relations, PhD Dissertation, The University of Chicago, 1960, p.154.
③徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》,载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,第275页。
①徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》,载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,第269页。
②同上,第271页。
③同上,第274页。
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.281.
②张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2004年版,第300页。
③Patrick Lloyd Hatcher,“How Local Issues Drive Foreign Policy”, Orbis, Winter, 1996,
①May R. Coolidge, Chinese Immigration, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1909, p.233. See James Palumbo, The States and American Foreign Relations, p.161.
②The New York Times, May 29, 1943.
①James Palumbo, The States and American Foreign Relations, p.189.
②Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945, p.94.
③陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第231页。
①David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, p.296.
②陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第439页。
①David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.296.
②Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, Apr.9, 1996, p.A12.
③Elaine Sciolino,“China, Vying with Taiwan, Explores Public Relations”, The New York Times, Feb.2, 1996, p.A1.
④David Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.296.
⑤http://www.taiwanembassy.org/ct.asp?xItem=31264&ctNode=2237,2009-2-5
⑥Ibid.
①Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, Apr.9, 1996, p.A12.
②Pat Choate, Agents of Influence: How Japan’s Lobbyists in the United States Manipulate America’s Political and Economic System, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990, p.133.
③星岛环球网, www.singtaonet.com, 2007年5月6日。
④http://info.china.alibaba.com/news/detail/v2-d1002224672.html,2008-7-26.
⑤http://www.sdxm.gov.cn/art/2008/6/18/art_162_95194.html,2008-7-26.
⑥Joseph Kahn,“China Trade Mission Seeks to Ease Tensions: U.S. Buying Trip Paves Way for Hu Visit”, The International Herald Tribune, April 6, 2006.
⑦Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China, p.62.
①Neil King,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html,2007-4-2.
②Neil King, Jr.“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005.
③宋义达:《周文重就任美国大使后的10个月》,载《朝鲜日报》(中文网络版),http:// www.chinese.chosun. com/ site/data/html_dir/2006/02/07/20060207000001.html, 2009-2-6.
④Neil King,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html, 2007-4-2.
⑤Bara Vaida,“Red Star Rising on K Street”, The National Journal, July 23, 2005.
⑥Neil King, Jr.“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005.
①Neil King, Jr.“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005.
②Ibid.
③Ibid.
④Neil King Jr,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html,2007-4-2.
⑤《环球时报》2007-01-24,第1版。
⑥Bara Vaida,“Red Star Rising on K Street”, The National Journal, July 23, 2005.
⑦Ibid.
⑧Bara Vaida,”Red Star Rising on K Street”, The National Journal, July 23, 2005.
①Neil King,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html, 2007-4-2.
②Pat Choate, Agents of Influence, 1990, p.134.
③Ibid, pp.133-134.
①Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, p.76.
②Pat Choate, Agents of Influence,p.134.
①Terrence Guay,“The Influence of Local Government on Transatlantic Relations”, Paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, March 20, 2004, Montreal, Quebec.
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.231.
②查尔斯·库普乾:《美国时代的终结:美国外交政策与21世纪的地缘政治》(潘忠岐译),上海人民出版社,2002年版,第290页。
③Edward Iwata,“States Roll out Red Carpet for Defense Dollars”, USA Today, Nov 23, 2001, p.B7.
④而东北部传统工业区的选举人票数在下降,例如纽约,从上世纪80年代的36张减少到现在的31张。http://www.fec.gov/pages/elecvote.htm , 2009-4-10.
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②美国实行联邦制,联邦和州分权。本文把州政府和州级以下的各级政府统称为“地方政府”。
③“县”在阿拉斯加称为伯勒(Borough),在路易斯安那称为帕里什(Parish)。
④刘绪贻、李世洞:《美国研究词典》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2003年版,第150-151页。
①U.S. Census Bureau, 2002 Census of Governments, Vol.1, No. 1, Government Organization, p.5.
②Jerel A. Rosati, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004, p.343.
③该图仅为简略图,美国地方政府的构成远比该图复杂。
①裴孝贤:《美国历史文献选集》,北京:美国驻华大使馆文化教育处,1985年版,第68页。
②同上书,第69页。
③邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
④托克维尔:《论美国的民主》(上卷),北京:商务印书馆,1988年版,第433页。
①Peter Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986, p.239.
②Richard F. Bensel Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987, p. xix.
③“United States: You Take the Dry Side; Splitting up Washington State”, The Economist (London), Feb 26, 2005, Vol.374, Iss.8415, p.55.
④“The Nine States of Oregon”, www.oregonlive.com/special/ninestates/, 2008-11-15.
①采访卜睿哲(Richard Bush),美国布鲁金斯学会,2008年7月8日。
①Neil King Jr.,“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005;另见宋义达:《周文重就任美国大使后的十个月》,载《朝鲜日报》(中文网络版),http:// www.chinese.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2006/02/07/20060207000001.html, 2008-06-22.
②《王岐山在美中贸易全国委员会、美国商会和中美关系全国委员会上的脱稿演说》,http://www.21cbh.com/HTML/2008/6/19/HTML_XRSJG9.html, 2008-6-20.
①采访唐耐心(Nancy Tucker),乔治敦大学,2008年6月12日。
②David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, pp.295-298.
①熊志勇主编:《美国政治与外交决策》,北京大学出版社,2007年版。
②拙作:《地方因素对中美关系的影响》,载《外交评论》,2006年第4期;《地方势力与冷战后的美国对华政策》,载《中国图书评论》,2007年第7期。
③孙哲、刘建华:《产业地理与结盟游说——考察美国对华贸易政策的新视角》,载《世界经济与政治》,2007年第7期。
①Jerel A. Rosati, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004。中译本见:杰里尔·罗赛蒂:《美国对外政策的政治学》(周启朋、付耀祖等译),北京:世界知识出版社,2005年版,第326-328页。
②James Dull, The Politics of American Foreign Policy, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1985, pp.114-117.
③Brian Hocking, Localizing Foreign Policy: Non-Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.
④Brian Hocking, ed. Foreign Relations and Federal States, London: Leicester University Press, 1993.
⑤Francisco Aldecoa, and Michael Keating, Paradiplomacy in Action: The Foreign Relations of Subnational Governments, London: Routledge, 1999.
⑥Paul Martin,Federalism and International Relations, Queen’s Printer, 1968.
⑦Harold W. Stoke, The Foreign Relations of the Federal State, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1931.
⑧Earl H. Fry, The Expanding Role of State and Local Governments In U.S. Foreign Affairs, New York: Council onForeign Relations Press, 1998.
①John M. Kline, State Government Influence in U.S. International Economic Policy, Lexington: Lexington Books, 1983.
②采访克兰教授,乔治城大学国际文化中心517房间(ICC517) ,2008年7月24日。
③John M. Kline,“Continuing Controversies Over State and Local Foreign Policy Sanctions in the United States”, Publius, Spring 1999, 29, 2.
④Michael Shuman & Hal Harvey, Security without War: A Post-Cold War Foreign Policy, Boulder: Westview Press, Inc.1993, pp.219-233.
⑤Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.65 (Winter 1986-1987), pp.154-174; Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Courts V. Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.86 (Spring 1992), pp.158-177.
①Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy away from the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, Winter 1988; Peter J. Spiro,“Get States and Cities off Foreign-Policy Stage”, Wall Street Journal, Sep 24, 1986 p.32.
②Michael Lind,”Civil War by Other Means”, Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 1999, Vol.78, No.5, pp.123-142.
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975.
④Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
⑤Peter Trubowitz,“Sectionalism and American Foreign Policy: The Political Geography of Consensus and Conflict”, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.36, No.2 (Jun., 1992) pp.173-190; Peter Trubowitz,“Political Conflict andForeign Policy in the United States: A geographical Interpretation”,Political Geography, Vol.12, No.2, March 1993, pp.121-135.
①Charles O. Lerche, The Uncertain South: Its Changing Patterns of Politics in Foreign Policy, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1964.
②Alfred O. Hero, Jr. The Southerner and World Affairs, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965.
③Tennant S. McWilliams, The New South Faces the World: Foreign Affairs and the Southern Sense of Self, 1877-1950, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
④Marian D. Irish,“Foreign Policy and the South”, The Journal of Politics, Vol.10, No.2, (May, 1948), pp.306-326.
⑤Selig Adler, The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth-Century Reaction, New York: Abelard-Schuman Limited, 1957.
⑥Justus D. Doenecke, Not to the Swift: The Old Isolationists in the Cold War Era, NJ: Associated University Press, 1979, p.13.
①Ray Allen Billington,“The Origin of Middle Western Isolationism”, Political Science Quarterly, Vol.60, No.1 (March, 1945).
②Charle M. Hardin,“Congressional Farm Politics and Economic Foreign Policy”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.331 September,1960, pp.98-102.
③Lauren K. Soth,“Farm Policy, Foreign Policy and Farm Opinion”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.331, (September 1960), pp.103-109.
④陈志敏:《次国家政府与对外事务》,北京:长征出版社,2001年版。
⑤邱伟:《美国地域主义与对外政策》,中国现代国际关系研究院博士论文,2007年7月。
①Frederick Jackson Turner,“The Significance of the Section in American History”, Wisconsin Magazine of History, March 1925; also see: Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.22-51.
②Frederick Jackson Turner,“Geographical Influence in American Political History”, Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol.XLVI, No.8,1914, also see Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.183-192.
③Frederick Jackson Turner,“Geographical Sectionalism in American History”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Jun.1926; also see Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.193-206.
④Richard Franklin Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.
①Richard Franklin Bensel,Sectionalism and American Political Development:1880-1980, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987, p.xix.
②Ibid, p.4
③Kenneth C. Martis,“Sectionalism and the United States Congress”, Political Geography Quarterly, Vol.7, No.2,(April 1988), pp.99-109.
④任军锋:《地域本位与国族认同:美国政治发展中的区域性结构分析》,天津人民出版社,2004年版,第3页。
①刘绪贻、李世洞主编:《美国研究词典》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2002年版,第151页。
②杨生茂、张友伦主编:《美国历史百科辞典》,上海辞书出版社,2004年版,第111页。
③张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2003年版,第19页,第146页,第275页。
①第一手材料是形成于与研究对象相同或近乎相同时代的研究成果,二手资料指的是形成于研究对象所处时代之后的成果(见Norman F. Cantor and Richard I. Schneider, How to Study History, NY: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967, pp. 22-23)。一手材料与二手材料的区别在于第一手资料要么是向我们展示亲历者的所说的话,要么是有关该事件的第一个记录(见Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff, The Modern Researcher, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985, p. 124.)。
①李道揆:《美国政府和美国政治》(下册),北京:商务印书馆,2004年版,第780页。
②“Soviet Delegation Flies To U.N. From Brussels”,The New York Times, September 20, 1983. A9;“Soviet Diplomats Take A Commercial Flight To Attend U.N. Session”,The Washington Post, September 20, 1983. A11.
③Linda Greenhouse,“Justices to Decide Foreign Policy Question in Massachusetts Boycott of Myanmar”, The New York Times, Nov.30, 1999, A20.
①Linda Greenhouse,“Justices to Decide Foreign Policy Question in Massachusetts Boycott of Myanmar”, The New York Times, Nov.30, 1999, A20.
②John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, (Autumn, 1984), pp.95-114.
③Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1969), p. 476. See Patrick Lloyd Hatcher,“How Local Issues Drive Foreign Policy”, Orbis, Winter, 1996,
①此句在议案中的英文原文是“Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States”。“State”一词原本就是“国家”的意思,这里还采用了复数的形式。这说明当时每块殖民地的目标都是成为独立的国家。
②这一意思完整的英文表述是:“That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/index.htm, 2006-2-23。
③Hans J. Michelmann & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations: the Role of Subnational Units, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990, p.276.
④塞缪尔·莫里森等著:《美利坚合众国的成长》(南开大学历史系美国研究室译)(上),天津人民出版社, 1991年版,第308页。
①Hans J. Michelmann, & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations, p.277.
②邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
③汉密尔顿等:《联邦党人文集》,北京:商务印书馆,1980年版,第71页。
④http://www.conservapedia.com/American_History_Lecture_Three, 2009-2-24.
①Hans J. Michelmann & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations, p.277.
②R. A. Divine, ed. American Foreign Policy: A Documentary History, (Cleveland, 1960), p.50.
③刘卫政:《略论美国国家主义和州权主义的产生及其对联邦制形成的影响》,载《史学集刊》,1986年第4期。
①卡尔金斯主编:《美国史话》,纽约1975年版,第59页。转引自邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
②汉密尔顿等:《联邦党人文集》,第238页。
③张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2003年版,第109页。
①邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
②张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,第424页。
①邓蜀生:《美国历史上的州权》,载《世界历史》,1982年第5期。
①裴孝贤:《美国历史文献选集》,北京:美国大使馆新闻文化处,1985年版,第37页。
②同上书,第47页。
③Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and American Constitution, Oxford University Press, 1996, p.150.
①Alexander Hamilton, et al.“The Federalist”(No.42), in Robert M. Hutchins, ed. Great Books of the Western World, (Vol.43), Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1987, p.136.
②霍姆斯(George Holms)是加拿大魁北克人,因触犯加拿大法律,逃往美国佛蒙特州。佛蒙特州州长则詹尼森(Silas H. Jennison)下令逮捕赫尔姆斯,并将其遣返回加拿大,佛蒙特州最高法院拒绝给霍姆斯颁发人身保护状。当时,美国和加拿大之间并没有相互引渡条约,美国联邦最高法院大法官们在判决中,重申了联邦政府在外交事务中的绝对权力,州长没有遣返逃犯的权力。
③Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away from the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, (Winter, 1988), p.191.
①裴孝贤:《美国历史文献选集》,第47页。
②Green H. Hackworth, Digest of International Law, Vol.5 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940-1944), p. 25. See John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, (Autumn 1984), pp.95-114.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.65, (Winter, 1986-1987).
②Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Courts V. Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.86, Spring, 1992.
③直到1913年,美国才通过第17条宪法修正案,规定参议员由各州人民直选。之前,州参议员则是由州议会选举产生。
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Courts V. Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.86, Spring, 1992.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No.65 (Winter 1986-1987).
②Hans J. Michelmann, & Panayotis Soldatos, Federalism and Foreign Relations, p.279.
①John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4 (Autumn1984), pp.95-114.
①史蒂文森曾经在美国国务院任职,这种工作经历使他对国际事务比较熟悉,也给了他很多的国际眼光和国际思维。
②John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4 (Autumn 1984), p.100.
③ibid.
④ibid, p.103.
⑤Michael Clough,“Grass-Roots Policymaking”, Foreign Affairs, (January/February 1994), p.4.
①John Rose,“Foreign Relations at the State Level”, The Journal of State Government, Vol.64, No.4, The Council of State Governments, October-December 1991, pp.110-111.
②The Stanley Foundation,“The Changing Face of American Foreign Policy: The New Role of State and Local Actors”, The Stanley Foundation Report, 1994, pp.4-5.
③National Governors' Association Task Force,“America in Transition: The International Frontier”, 1989.
④高国荣:《州在美国联邦体系中的地位和作用》,载《世界历史》,1999年第6期。
①Committee on International Trade and Foreign Relations,“Export Development and Foreign Investment: The Role of the States and Its Linkage to Federal Action”, (Part 1) (Washington D.C.: National Governors’Association, 1981), pp.17-19. See John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, p.102.
②Paul E.Frank, Global Governors: the Foregin Affairs Activities among the 50 American States, PhD Dissertation, Boston University, 1998, p.106.
③Ben Nelson,“Passage to India”, State Government News, February 1996, p.6
④Samuel Lucas McMillan,“Subnational Foreign Policy Actors: How and Why Governors Participate in U.S. Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy Analysis (2008) 4, pp.227–253.
①关于该组织的详细情况,见http://www.sister-cities.org/。
②http://www.sen.ca.gov/soir/sister.HTP, 2009-3-26.
③Paul E.Frank, Global Governors, p.132.
①“California Senate Sets Diplomatic Example for Other States”, Clearinghouse on State International Policies, December, 1995, p.5.
①John Larkin,“States Spark Foreign Relations of Their Own”, PA Times, June 1992, p.1&20.
②Brian Hocking, Localizing Foreign Policy: Non-Central Governments and Multilayered Diplomacy, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993, p.75.
③Elaine Stuart,“A Better World: Editor’s Comments”, State Government News, February 1996(a), p.5.
④Samuel L. McMillan,“FDI Attraction in the States: An Analysis of Governors’Power, Trade Missions, and States’International Offices”, http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/5/3/3/1/pages153313/ p153313-11.php, 2009-2-13
⑤Samuel Lucas McMillan,“Subnational Foreign Policy Actors: How and Why Governors Participate in U.S. Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy Analysis (2008) 4, pp.227–253.
①The Stanley Foundation,“The Changing Face of American Foreign Policy”, pp.9-10.
②Brian Hocking, ed. Foreign Relations and Federal States, London: Leicester University Press, 1993, p.153.
①Executive Department Press Release,”Weld, Cellucci Sign Burma Bill”, 1996, p.1.
②英文为“Prop.187”,又称“Save Our State Initiative”,1994年通过,内容是限制非法移民使用加利福尼亚州的社会服务、公共医疗和公共教育。
③Kentucky Global Connections, May/June1996, pp.1-2. See Paul E.Frank, Global Governors, 1998, p.165.
①Ron Scherer,“New York World Order”, The Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1996, p.3.
②Charles Lockwood,“Los Angeles Comes of Age”, Atlantic Monthly, January 1988, p.41.
③John Kincaid,“Rain Clouds over Municipal Diplomacy: Dimensions and Possible Sources of Negative Public Opinion”, Earl H. Fry, et al. Eds., The New International Cities Era, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1989, pp.223-224.
④Sam Roberts,“Looking Back; Foreign Policy, New York Style”, The New York Times, October 26,1995
⑤Ibid.
⑥“Enter the King”, The Times, Feb.11, 1957, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,809020,00.html, 2009-2-16.
⑦Richard Levine,“La Guardia to Koch; Why New York’s Mayors Pursue a Foreign Policy”, The New York Times, July 31, 1988.
①Ron Scherer,“New York World Order”, The Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1996, p.3.
②The Los Angeles Times, Feb.18, 2007, p.M4.
③Michael Shuman, Building Municipal Foreign Policies, Irvine, CA: Center for Innovative Diplomacy, 1987, p.4.
①William B. Graves, American Intergovernmental Relations: Their Origins, Historical Development, and Current Status, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1964, p.368.
②Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away From the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, Winter 1988.
①S. Rand Berner, Diplomacy Begins at home: San Francisco, Theodore Roosevelt, and Japan, PhD Dissertation, San Jose State University, 2007.
②Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away From the Feds”, The Washington Quarterly, Vol.11, No.1, Winter 1988.
③Michael H. Shuman,“Dateline Main Street: Local Foreign Policies”, Foreign Policy, No. 65 (Winter 1986-87), p. 156.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main street: Local Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy, No.65. Winter, 1986-1987.
②Jerel A. Rosti, The Politics of United States Foreign Policy, Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2004, p.353.
①Michael Shuman,“Dateline Main street: Local Foreign Policy”, in Herbert M. Levine, Jean E. Smith, The Conduct of American Foreign Policy Debated, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990, pp.290-301.
②Peter J. Spiro,“Taking Foreign Policy Away From the Feds”, in Herbert M. Levine, Jean E. Smith, The Conduct of American Foreign Policy Debated, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990, p.303.
③Ibid.
④Richard B. Bilder,“The Role of States and Cities in Foreign Relations”, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.83, p.831.
①Michael Lind,“Civil War by Other Means”, Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 1999, Vol.78, No.5, pp.123-142.
②Richard Leopold,“The Mississippi Valley and American Foreign Policy, 1890-1941: An Assessment and an Appeal”, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XXXVII, March 1951, pp.625-642.
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.ⅲ&p.ⅵ.
②Richard F. Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, Madison: The University ofWisconsin Press, 1987, p.4
①Howard Cincotta, An Outline of American History, Washington D.C.: United States Information Agency, 1994, p.22.
②李剑铭著:《美国通史》(第1卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2000年版,第226页。
③同上书,第36页。
④Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998, p.14.
②Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.276.
③ibid.
①美国西部一直都有兼并阿拉斯加的野心。20世纪初,由于加拿大和阿拉斯加的边界冲突,西海岸诸州的航海和贸易受到威胁。为此,这一地区要求联邦政府兼并阿拉斯加。
②委内瑞拉和英属圭亚那之间的边界争端由来已久。1841年,英国擅自划定了与委内瑞拉的分界线,同时,在有争议的地区发现了金矿,使矛盾迅速加剧。1887年,委内瑞拉断绝了与英国的关系,并向美国寻求帮助。美国根据“门罗主义”,要求英国接受国际仲裁,但遭到英国的拒绝。1895年,克利夫兰总统公开指责英国,并表示要坚决反击英国的侵略行为。委内瑞拉争端标志着美国称霸美洲的时代已经到来。见李庆余,《美国外交史:独立战争到2004年》,济南:山东画报出版社,2008年版,第48页。
①高国荣:《州在美国联邦体系中的作用》,载《世界历史》,1999年第6期。
②Scott G. Borgerson, Of Sea and Shore: The American Global Port City’s Internationalist Approach to U.S.Foreign Policy, PhD Dissertation, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, 2006, p.6.
③David W. Brady, Critical Elections and Congressional Policy Making, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988, pp.1-19.
①Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.20.
②Burdett A. Loomis,“Congressional Caucuses and the Politics of Representation”, in Congress Reconsidered, 2d ed., edited by Lawrence C. Dodd and Bruce I. Oppenheimer, Washington D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1981, pp. 204-220.
③James Patterson, Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933-1939, Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967.
①“Jay Treaty”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Treaty, 2008-10-11.
②1800年大选后,民主共和党人赢得了参议院三分之二的多数,1802年的中期选举之后,民主共和党人又赢得了众议院三分之二多数。
③“The United States and the French Revolution, 1789-1799”, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/nr/88108.htm, 2009-3-20.
①例如,与英国签订的《根特条约》、《拉什-巴格特协定》、《东北部渔业协定》,与西班牙签订的《亚当斯-奥尼斯条约》(西班牙割让佛罗里达给美国,解决了美西间的边界争端),均以全票获得通过。1824年,美俄间解决俄勒冈问题的条约也基本上是全票通过(只有一名来自罗德岛州的参议员投了反对票)。
②http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ja6.html,2008-11-24
③http://www.presidentprofiles.com/Washington-Johnson/John-Quincy-Adams-The-panama-congress.html,2009-2-24.
④Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.37.
⑤张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2003年版,第293页。
⑥张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,第287-288页。
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.111.
② ibid, p.187.
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.192.
②顽固的孤立主义分子,如,蒙大拿州参议员惠勒(Burton Wheeler),加利福尼亚参议员约翰逊(Hiram Johnson),北达科塔州参议员兰格(William Langer),明尼苏达州参议员希普斯特德(Henrik Shipstead)。
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.193
④ibid, p. 234.
⑤另外一张反对票来自明尼苏达州共和党参议员希普斯特德(Henrik Shipstead)。
①Frederick Jackson Turner,“Geographical Sectionalism in American History”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Jun.1926; also see Frederick Jackson Turner, Sections in American History, Gloucester: Peter Smith, 1959, pp.193-206.
①简称U.A.R.,是埃及和叙利亚之间的联盟,成立于1958年。1961年,叙利亚退出联盟,埃及继续沿用“阿拉伯共和国联盟”的称号,直至1971年。
②熊志勇:《美国宗教势力对外交政策的干预》,载《美国对华政策与美国国内政治研讨会论文集》,2007年3月,杭州,第301页。
③Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.284.
①查尔斯·库普乾:《美国时代的终结:美国外交政策与21世纪的地缘政治》(潘忠岐译),上海人民出版社,2002年版,第201页。
②国际联盟的构想形成于美国东北部的纽约,东北部地区也是最支持国际联盟的地区。详见本节第三部分。
③托克维尔:《论美国的民主》(董果良译),北京:商务印书馆,1988年版,第437页。
④任军锋:《地域本位与国族认同》,天津人民出版社,2004年版,第157页。
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.284.
①Michael Lind,“Civil War by Other Means”, Foreign Affairs, Sep/Oct 1999.
②Michal Lind,“The New Continental Divide”, The Atlantic Monthly, Jan/Feb 2003.
③. ibid.
①Michal Lind,“The New Continental Divide”, The Atlantic Monthly, Jan/Feb 2003
②Edward R. Ellis, The Epic of New York City, New York: Coward-McCann, 1966, p.507.
①爱尔兰裔的美国人不支持国联,他们认为国际联盟是英国统治爱尔兰人的工具。
②"Heckle Poindexter Here," The New York Times, May 8, 1919, p.1.
③"Wilson Gains League Support in California," The New York Times, September 19, 1919, p.1.
④在国际联盟问题上,美国参议院分为了五派,分别为:强烈的国际主义者、有限的国际主义者、适度保留的主义者、强烈的保留主义者和不可调和者。“强烈的保留主义者”和“不可调和者”基本上都来自美国的西部内陆地区。
⑤Selig Adler, The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth-Century Reaction, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1974, p.45.
⑥查尔斯·库普乾:《美国时代的终结:美国外交政策与21世纪的地缘政治》,第218页。
⑦August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson, New York: Scribner, 1991, p.595-610.
①Scott G. Borgerson, Of Sea and Shore, p.235.
①Scott G. Borgerson, Of Sea and Shore, p.282.
①这里的东北部指的是广义上的东北部,包括图2-1中的新英格兰、大西洋中部各州和中部东北各州。
②何顺果,《美国史通论》,上海:学林出版社,2001年版,第171-172页。
③南部包括图2-1中的大西洋南部各州、中部东南各州和中部西南各州。
④丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第107页。
⑤西部包括的是中部西北各州、落基山区各州和太平洋沿岸各州。
⑥何顺果:《美国史通论》,上海:学林出版社,2001年版,第174页。
⑦见论文第二节。
①Akiko Yanai, Reciprocity in Trade Liberalization, IDE APEC Study Center Working Paper, Series 00/01-No.2.
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.276
②ibid, pp.111-112.
③Ivan Musicant, Empire by Default: The Spanish-American War and the Dawn of the American Century, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1998, p.10.
④丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),第340页。
⑤何顺果:《美国史通论》,上海:学林出版社,2001年版,第261页。
①Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.108.
②ibid, p.111.
③任军锋:《地域本位与国族认同》,第84页。.
①Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, pp.159-160.
②ibid, p.157.
③罗斯福总统早期曾做过纽约州参议员和纽约州州长。
④具体参见:Alfred O. Hero, Jr. The Southerner and World Affairs, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1965; Tennant S. McWilliams, The New South Faces the World: Foreign Affairs and the Southern Sense of Self, 1877-1950, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988; Marian D. Irish,“Foreign Policy and the South”, The Journal of Politics, Vol.10, No.2, May, 1948,pp.306-326.
①http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_Tariff_Act, 2009-3-2.
②Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.124.
③从1933到1969年,民主党执政28年,共和党执政8年。
④刘绪贻主编:《美国通史》(第6卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第486页。
①John Agnew, The United States in the World Economy: A Regional Geography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp.161-185. See Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, p.197.
②Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, pp.226-227.
①刘绪贻主编:《美国通史》(第6卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),第517-519页。
②从托克维尔到利普曼,再到乔治·凯南,很多观察家都认为美国的决策过程已经不适应一个超级大国的需要。见Peter Trubowitz,“Geography and Strategy: the Politics of American Naval Expansion”, in Peter Trubowitz,et al.eds. The Politics of Strategic Adjustment: Ideas, Institutions, and Interests, New York: Columbia University Press, 1999, p.105.
①Richard F. Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development: 1880-1980, 1987, p.4.
②根据美国人口普查局的数据,2007年,怀俄明州的人口数约为52万,加利福尼亚州的人口约为3650万。密苏里州的人口为587万。见美国人口普查局官方网站:http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html.
①US Exports to China by State, 2000-07, Released by the US-China Business Council, 2008.
①US Exports to China by State, 2000-07, Released by the US-China Business Council, 2008.
②Ibid.
①US Exports to China by State, 2000-07, Released by the US-China Business Council, 2008
①美国之音中文网站,2008年7月30日。
②Robert E. Scott,“The China Trade Toll”, EPI Briefing Paper, Economic Policy Institute, July 30, 2008, No.219.
③ibid.
①http://www.uscc.gov/about/overview.php, 2009-3-15.
①“Hearing on China’s Impact on the U.S. Manufacturing Base”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (108th Congress, 2nd Session), Jan.30, 2004.
②“ibid”.
①“U.S.-China Trade and Investment: Impact on Key Manufacturing and Industrial Sectors: Field Hearing in Akron, Ohio”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 108th Congress, 2nd Session, Sep.23, 2004
②“U.S.-China Trade and Investment: Impact on Pacific Northwest Industries, Field Hearing in Seattle, Washington”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 109th Congress, 1st Session, Jan.13, 2005.
③“China’s Impact on the U.S. Auto and Auto Parts Industries”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 109th Congress, 2nd Session, July 17, 2006.
④“China’s Impact on the North Carolina Economy: Winners and Losers, Field Hearing in Chapel Hill, North Carolina”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 110th Congress, 1st Session,Sep. 6, 2007.
①“Chinese Seafood: Safety and Trade Issues”, Hearing before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 110th Congress, 2nd Session, April 24-25, 2008.
②Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy Toward China:an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, (Lanham: Roman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1998), p.19
①John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, Autumn, 1984.
②Hobby,“Oilmen Join in China Trade Talks”, Dallas Times Herald, Sep.20, 1979.
③John Kincaid,“The American Governors in International Affairs”, Publius, Vol.14, No.4, Autumn, 1984.
④Mark Warner,“A Governor Looks at Asia”, http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/warner05.html, 2009-1-9.
⑤http://www.allbusiness.com/government/government-bodies-offices-government/5958921-1.html 2009-1-9.
①http://www.chinaconsulatesf.org/chn/xw/t83984.htm, 2009-1-27.
②http://gov.ca.gov/index.php?/press-release/1215/, 2009-1-10.
③“Ignoring China not in state's interest”, http://www.dra.gov/media/article_detail.aspx? articleID=1707,2009-2-4.
①Paul E. Schroeder,“The Ohio-Hubei Agreement: Clues to Chinese Negotiating Practice”, China Quarterly, No.91, (September 1982), p.486. See David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002,p.296
②中国国际友好城市联合会官方网站, http://www.cifca.org.cn/web/index.aspx, 2008-12-13.
③David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002, p.296.
④Zhou Wenzhong,“The Future of U.S.-China Relations”, http://www.asiasociety.org/speeches/wenzhong05.html, 2006-2-22.
⑤中国国际友好城市联合会官方网站, http://www.cifca.org.cn/web/index.aspx, 2008-12-13.
①这些机构的名称各不相同,有的州政府也将本州负责对外事务的机构称为“国务院”,将机构的负责人称为“州务卿(Secretaty of State)”。
②Joseph J. Borich,“Hu Jintao Comes to Town”, Chinese American Forum, Volume XXII, No.1, July 2006, p.7.
③例如,早在19世纪80年代,约15000名华工漂洋过海,加入美国北方太平洋铁路公司,为西部各州修建铁路,还有1400名华工参与修建西雅图至瓦拉瓦拉之间的铁路,华人为西部地区的铁路建设做出了巨大的贡献。见陆阳:《美丽城市西雅图发展移民功不可没》,美国之音中文网,2008-2-22。
④Joseph J. Borich,“Hu Jintao Comes to Town”, Chinese American Forum, Volume XXII, No.1, July 2006, p.7.
①刘雯:《连接华州与中国》,北京:世界知识出版社,2008年版,第58页。
②同上书,第195-197页。
①Samuel L. McMillan,“FDI Attraction in the States: An Analysis of Governors’Power, Trade Missions, and States’International Offices”, http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/5/3/3/1/pages153313/ p153313-11.php, 2009-2-13.
②http://www.mccusa.org, 2009-1-27
③陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第439页。
①Lynette Holloway,“Vallone Seeks Sanctions on Nations Persecuting Christians”, The New York Times, Jun.15, 1997.p.25.
②David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.297.
③David Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.297; The New York Times, Jun.15, 1996, p.25.
④The Washington Times, Jan.17, 1990, final edition.
①Quincy Wright, The Control of American Foreign Relations, Johnson Reprint Corp., 1970, p. 154.
②1870年的民权法案颁布后,联邦法院才宣布此法案违宪,但到那时,加州已经从华工身上征收了500万美元。见李小兵等:《美国华人:从历史到现实》,成都:四川人民出版社,2003年版,第59-60页。
③California's Anti-Coolie Act of 1862, http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/History/1870/anticoolieact.htm, 2009-3-10.从事某种生意、获得许可证的矿工以及从事糖、大米、咖啡和茶叶生产的中国人可以免交此项税收。
①张庆松:《美国百年排华内幕》,上海人民出版社,1998年版,第27页。
②李小兵:《美国华人:从历史到现实》,成都:四川人民出版社,2003年版,第60-61页。
①丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第174页。
②陶文钊:《中美关系史》(上),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第12页。
③丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷),第179页。
④李小兵:《美国华人:从历史到现实》,第69-71页;丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),第178-179页;陶文钊:《中美关系史》(上),2004年版;William H. Taft, The United States and Peace, New York: Charles Scrinber’s Sons, pp.60-61.
①“Chen Lan Pin to Mr. Evarts”, Washington, January 21, 1881. United States Department of State, Index to the Executive Documents of the House of Representatives for the First Session of the 47th Congress,1881-1882, Vol.1,China, pp.321-322.
②Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U.S. 275 (1875), US Supreme Court Center, http://supreme.justia.com/us/92/275/ case.html, 2009-3-11.
③Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, Apr. 9, 1996, p.A12.
④http://www.taiwanusalliance.com/membership.htm,2009-2-4.
⑤Dr. Wen-hui Tsai,“People to People Contacts as a Bridge between U.S.-Taiwan Relations: A quantitative presentation”, Presented at the 50th Annual Conference of American Association for Chinese Studies at theCalifornia State University–Fullerton, October 17-19, 2008.
①Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, April 9, 1996, A12.
①http://www.taiwanembassy.org/US/MKC/ct.asp?xItem=11308&CtNode=2727&mp=46&xp1=, 2009-2-4.
②《人民日报》,1982年10月23日,第6版。
①美国的巡回法院共有14个,除了11个地区巡回法院外,还包括哥伦比亚特区巡回法院、联邦巡回法院和军事法院组成。美国的每个地区巡回法院都有固定的辖区。
②陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第142页。
③“The President of the United States to Prince Chun, Regent of the Chinese Empire”, The White House, Washington, July 15, 1909. U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1909, p.178.
①“The Secretary of State to Charge Fletcher”, Washington, July 15, 1909, U.S. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1909, p.179.
②美国的银行团由摩根(Messrs. J. P. Morgan and Co.)、坤洛(Kuhn, Loeb and Co.)、第一国家银行(the First National Bank)、花旗银行(The National City Bank)等垄断巨头组成。该银行团的总部设在纽约,在中国的代表是美国国务院远东司代司长司戴德(Willard D. Straight)。详见T. W. Overlach, Foreign Financial Control in China, Toronto: The McMillan Co.of Canada, Ltd., 1919, p.228。李约翰在《清帝逊位与列强》一书中,这样描述这一财团:“6月初国务院借助铁路大王哈里曼,成功地组织了一个办理中国借款的美国银行团,以司戴德为它的驻北京代表。这个银行团是匆忙组织起来的,并不代表所有的美国银行”。见昕雯:《湖广铁路借款是帝国主义列强侵略中国的恶债——介绍美国学者李约翰所著<清帝逊位与列强>一书有关内容》,载《人民日报》,1983年11月22日,第7版。
③关于该合同的恶债性质,见刘大群:《湖广铁路借款的恶债性质》,载《人民日报》,1983年9月13日。
①该案又被称为杰克逊诉中华人民共和国案(Jackson V. People’s Republic of China)。
②“中国外交部就湖广铁路债券案致美国国务卿舒尔茨的备忘录”,《人民日报》,1983年2月10日,第4版;关于此备忘录的英文版本见“People’s Republic of China: Aide Memoire of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs”, U.S. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, China Daily Report, Vol.1, No.028 (Feb. 9, 1983), p.B-1.
③“United States: District Court for the Northern District of Alabam Decision in Jackson V. People’s Republic of China”, 550 Federal Supplement 869-877 (1983). HeinOnline——22 International Legal Materials, 75, 1983.
④“Ibid”.
⑤Hsu Tien-Shi,“China Bonds”, American Bar Association Journal, Nov.1983, Vol.69, p.1601.
①《人民日报》,1983年2月10日,第4版。
②中共中央文献研究室编:《邓小平思想年谱》(1975-1997),北京:中央文献出版社,1998年版,第248页。
①傅铸:“美国法院对“湖广铁路债券案”的审判严重违反国际法”,《人民日报》,1983年2月25日,第7版;金士宣、徐文进:“一九一一年湖广铁路借款和中国人民拒债保路的斗争”,《人民日报》,1983年3月12日,第7版;刘大群:“湖广铁路借款的恶债性质”,《人民日报》,1983年9月13日,第7版;昕雯:《湖广铁路借款是帝国主义列强侵略中国的恶债——介绍美国学者李约翰所著<清帝逊位与列强>一书》,载《人民日报》,1983年11月22日,第7版。
②《人民日报》,1983年3月8日,第7版。
③Eugene Theroux, and B.T. Peele,“China and Sovereign Immunity: The Huguang Railway Bonds Case”, HeinOnline—2 China L. Rep. 129, 1982-1983.
④《人民日报》,1983年2月13日,第3版。
⑤Robert Metz,“Chinese Bonds: Is Payoff Near?”The New York Times, Oct. 30, 1981, D8.“To Cash in on a Spark of China’s 1911 Upheaval”, The New York Times, Nov.14, 1981, A30. Robert Metz,”Getting China to Pay Debts”, The New York Times, Sep.9, 1982, D.10. Christopher S. Wren,“Separation of Powers? You Must be Kidding, Says China”, The New York Times, Mar. 20, 1983. A5.
⑥Christopher S. Wren,“Separation of Powers? You Must be Kidding, Says China”, The New York Times, Mar. 20, 1983. A5.
①1952年5月,美国国务院代理法律顾问泰特(J.B. Tate)致函司法部,信函中指出:由于公有制国家坚持“绝对主权豁免”原则,美国必须改变政策,今后,如果遇到外国政府要求豁免,国务院将向司法部提交意见,告之是否应给予豁免,这就是所谓的“泰特公函(Tate Letter)”。根据该公函,国务院拥有决定是否给予外国政府豁免的权力。公函的目的是避免美国与公有制国家产生过多的纠纷,更好地维护美国的利益。但是,“泰特公函”的内容过于简单,法院在执行中,有很大的自由发挥余地。
②1976年,美国进一步通过了《外国主权豁免法》(Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976),新法律对主权豁免做出详细规定,主要内容是:外国政府“商业活动”不享受豁免;在执行判决时,可以扣押外国政府的“商业财产”;把是否给予外国政府豁免的权力由国务院转交给法院;某项行为是否属于商业活动,应根据活动的性质来判断,而不管活动的目的如何;对于外国政府因在美国法院提起或参与诉讼而引起的反诉,不享受豁免;除非有特殊安排或协定,可用邮递方法由法院把传票寄给相关国家的外交部长或经国务院通过外交途径送达外国政府。阿拉巴马州北部地区法院的做法正是建立在该法基础上的。
③Tamar Lewin,“U.S. Dismisses China Bondholder Suit”, The New York Times, Oct.27, 1984, p.38.
④《人民日报》,1984年11月1日,第4版。
①Theodore J. Kreps,“The Price of Silver and Chinese Purchasing Power”, Q.J.E. 48 (Feb 1934):p.246, See Milton Friedman,“Franklin D. Roosevelt, Silver, and China”, The Journal of Political Economy, Vol.100, No.1, (Feb., 1992), pp.62-83.
②法案开始实施时,世界市场上的白银价格是80美分,财政部的收购价格大大高出了市场价;1921年,世界市场上的白银价格是每盎司不超过71美分,而美国财政部的收购价格为1美元。见:Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, New York: Da Capo Press, 1973, p.6.
③Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, New York: Da Capo Press, 1973, p.6.
④Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1972, p.7.
⑤Arthur W. Crawford, Monetary Management under the New Deal, Washington, D.C.: American Council on Public Affairs, 1940, p.50. See Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, pp.7-8.
①Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, p.3.
②John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press,1969, p.3.
③ibid, p.4.
④汪熙:“丛书主编前言”,见迈克尔·罗素:《院外集团与美国东亚政策》(郑会欣译),上海:复旦大学出版社,1992年版,第Ⅳ页。
⑤John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal , p.164.
①John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, p.162
②The New York Times, September 20, 1932, p.1.
③Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, p.20.
④ibid, p.21.
①“Synopsis of Address to be delivered by Senator Key Pittman at the Chamber of Commerce Luncheon”, Oct. 8, 1930, Key Pittman Papers, Box 141, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., see Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.11.
②U.S. Congress, House Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures, Hearings, Silver Currency, 72d Congress, 2d Session, 1933, pp.67-68.See Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.13.
①“The Consul General at Shanghai (Cunningham) to the Secretaty of State”, Shanghai, February 17, 1934. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934, The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.423-424.
②“The Chinese Bankers Association to the Chinese Minister”, Shanghai, February 20, 1934. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934,The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.424-425.
③“The Counselor of Legation in China (Peck) to the Secretaty of State”, Nanking, February 21, 1934. U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934, The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.425-426.
④“The Consul General at Shanghai (Cunningham) to the Secretary of State”, Shnahghai, February 23, 1934. See U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1934, The Far East, VolumeⅢ, 1934, pp.427-428.
⑤Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Age of Roosevelt: The Coming of the New Deal, Boston; Houghton Mifflin Co., 1958, p.249. See Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.39.
①John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, p.84.
②Allan S. Everest, Morgenthau, the New Deal and Silver: a Story of Pressure Politics, pp.30-31.
③Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.43.
④Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945, Oxford University Press, 1995, p.93.
⑤Ibid.
①Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, p.54.
②John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, p.131.
③汪熙,前引书,第Ⅳ页;任东来:《1934-1936年间中美关系中的白银外交》,《历史研究》,2000年第3期。
④Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1975, p.278.
①李子旸:《美国参议员和中国银元危机》,载《新世纪周刊》,2007年第17期。
②Michael Blaine Russell, American Silver Policy and China, pp.73-74.
③John A. Brennan, Silver and the First New Deal, pp.162-163.
④“Consecration At a Profit”, Wall Street Journal, December 11, 1934, p.4.
⑤Howard W. Starr.“The Silver Purchase Act”, The New York Times, Nov.14, 1935, p.20.
①http://baucus.senate.gov/about/values.cfm, 2009-1-29.
②ibid.
③Guy Gugliotta,“Baucus Pitted in Fight over China’s MFN Status”, The Washington Post, Jul 14, 1991, A6.
④Ann Devroy,“White House Targets Senate on China Bill”, The Washington Post, Jun.23, 1991, A.5.
①Susan B. Epstein,“China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status: U.S. Wheat Export”, CRS Report for Congress, 92-567 ENR, July 17, 1992, pp. 1-2.
②“Wheat Farmers Fearful on China Trade”, Los Angeles Times, Jun 22, 1990, p.5.
③ibid.
④Susan B. Epstein,“China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status: U.S. Wheat Export”, CRS Report for Congress, 92-567 ENR, July 17, 1992, p.5.
⑤Guy Gugliotta,“Baucus Pitted in Fight over China’s MFN Status”, The Washington Post, Jul 14, 1991, A6.
⑥Ibid.
⑦Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998,p.42; Also see Guy Gugliotta,“Baucus Pitted in Fight Over China’s MFN Status”, The Washington Post, Jul 14,1991, A6
⑧Ramon H. Myers, Michel Oksenberg, David Shambaugh, Making China policy: lessons from the Bush and Clintonadministrations, Lanham, MD:Rowman & Littlefield, 2001,p.95;Also see Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, pp. 42-43.
①“China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status”, Hearings before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, 102nd Congress, 1st Session, June 19 and 20, 1991.
②“Extending China’s MFN Status”, Hearing before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, July 30, 1992.
③Don Oberdorfer,“China Trip Sways Few in Congress”, The Washington Post, Nov.23, 1991, A.19.
①“U.S.-China Trade Relations and Renewal of China’s Most-Favored-Nation Status”, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade of the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, 104th Congress, 1st Session, May 23, 1995.
②Thomas L. Friedman,“Senator Asks End to Threats against China”, The New York Times, Jan.1994, A11.
③Public Papers of the President of the United States: William J. Clinton, 1995, pp.783-784.
④International Trade Report, Vol.15, No.26, July 1, 1998, Asia/ Pacific Rim.
①http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas#Politics, 2009年4月8日。
②目前,该州拥有34张选举人票,总数位居全国第二,在某种程度上左右着总统选举的结果,成为历次总统候选人的必争之地。
③Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998, pp.225-226.
④加利福尼亚州的合同总价值为167亿美元,占总量的19%。见William G. Smith,“A Good Offense for the Economy Lies in Having Good Defense Industry”, The Christian Science Monitor, October 5, 1982, Midwestern Edition, p.B3.
⑤该州的沃斯堡地区原本是一个牧区,由于美国军工企业在第二次世界大战前夕设在此处,随即迅速成为一个军工城市。
⑥William G. Smith,“A Good Offense for the Economy Lies in Having Good Defense Industry”, The Christian Science Monitor, October 5, 1982, (Midwestern Edition), p.B3.
①张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究:决策的视角》,北京:世界知识出版社,2006年版,第212页。
②John D. Morrocco,“Fighter Makers Struggle as World Markets Shrink”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Vol.137, No.10, September 7, 1992, p.97.
③张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究》,第207-208页。
④陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第229页。
⑤张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究》,第208页。
⑥John D. Morrocco,“Fighter Makers Struggle as World Markets Shrink”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, Vol.137, No.10, September 7, 1992.
①陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第229页。
②Don Oberdorfer,“1982 Arms Policy with China Victim of Bush Campain, Texas Lobbying”, The Washington Post, September 4, 1992, p.A31.
③Ibid.
④Bill Wang,“How Bush Decides on Sale of F-16s to Taiwan”, Central News Agency-Taiwan, September 3, 1992; Also see“Falcon Politics”, Aviation Week & Space Technology, August 3, 1992,p.19.
⑤Robert Ross,“The Bush Administration: The Origin of Engagement”, in Ramon H. Myers, et al.eds. Making China Policy: lessons from the Bush and Clinton administrations, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001, p.33.
①R.W. Apple Jr.,“The 1992 Campaign: Political Pulse-Texas”, The New York Times, October, 1992, p.26.
②“Texas: On a Knife-Edge”, The Economist, Oct.17, 1992.
③ibid.
④R.W. Apple Jr.,“The 1992 Campaign: Political Pulse-Texas”, The New York Times, October, 1992, p.26.
⑤ibid.
①Bill Wang,“How Bush Decides on Sale of F-16s to Taiwan”, Central News Agency-Taiwan, September 3, 1992.
②ibid.
③ibid.
④张清敏:《美国对台军售政策研究》,第214-215页。
⑤Jonathan Mirsky,“Jet Votes: China Cries Foul as Bush Buys Votes in Texas with Jet Fighters for Taiwan”, The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec), September 8, 1992, p.B3.
①“Bentson Urges OK of F-16 Jet Fighter Sales to Taiwan”Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1992, p.16.
②Micheal Wines,“The 1992 Campaign: The Republicans”, The New York Times, Sep 3, 1992. p.A1
③陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第231-232页。
④Jonathan Mirsky,“Jet Votes: China Cries Foul as Bush Buys Votes in Texas with Jet Fighters for Taiwan”The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec),September 8, 1992,p.B3
⑤James Mann, About Face, p.268,转引自陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第231页。
⑥熊志勇:《百年中美关系》,北京:世界知识出版社,2006年版,第357页。
①《人民日报》,1992年9月4日,第1版。
②熊志勇:《百年中美关系》,第358页。
③当今,加利福尼亚州的选举人票为55张。
④ http://hi.baidu.com/jhlb/blog/item/80fb312a4b5660385343c1d2.html, 2009-3-25.
①根据美国媒体的报道,为了报复美国向台湾出售F-16战斗机的做法,中国开始向巴基斯坦出售M-11导弹,并与伊朗达成了正式的核能源合作协定。
②阿姆斯特朗是美国商界的重要人物,担任休斯公司总裁前,在IBM公司任职30多年,后成为IBM世界贸易部的主席(Chairman of IBM World Trade Corporation),1992到1997年,阿姆斯特朗任休斯公司的总裁离开休斯公司后,他还曾担任过美国电话电报公司(AT&T)的总裁,美国最大的互联网公司Comcast的总裁。
③John Mintz,“White House Papers Trace Hughes Executive's Pressure for China Deals”, The Washington Post, Jul.27, 1998, p.A4.
④John Mintz,“How Hughes Got What It Wanted on China”, The Washington Post, Jun.25, 1998, p.A1.
①Jim Mann,“Executives Press Clinton to Smooth U.S.-China Ties, The Los Angeles Times, Nov.19, 1993, p.1.
②Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, pp.49-50.
③Eric Schmitt,”Lawmakers Shift View on Satellites for China”, The New York Times, May 24, 1998, p.22.
④Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy Towards China, pp.49-50.
⑤John Mintz,“White House Papers Trace Hughes Executive's Pressure for China Deals”, The Washington Post, Jul.27, 1998, p.A4.
①徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》(王邦宪译,梅缵月校),载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,上海:复旦大学出版社,1985年版,第260-261页。
②梁碧莹:《艰难的外交:晚清驻美公使研究》,天津古籍出版社,2004年版,第92页。
③《美国历史统计,殖民地时代至1970年》,华盛顿1975年,第一部分,第108页。转引自丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第169页。
①张庆松:《美国百年排华内幕》,上海人民出版社,1998年版,第48页。
②Ng Yen Tak,“On the Social and Political Environment Leading to the Restriction of Chinese Immigrants into the United States in 1882”, http://sunzi1.lib.hku.hk/hkjo/view/6/600211.pdf, 2009-3-11.
③Ted C. Hinckley,“The Politics of Sinophobia: Garfield, the Morey Letter and the Presidential Election of 1880”, Ohio History, Vol.89.
④该法案在众议院以155对72票通过。在表决中,党派色彩比较明显:在投赞成票的议员中,有104位民主党人,51位共和党人;在投反对票的议员中,有16位民主党人,56位共和党人。参议院的投票结果同样是如此,在共和党内部,赞成的议员和反对的议员大约各占一半。在民主党内,25人赞成,8人反对。Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.112.
①“Their Excellencies Pao and Li to the Commissioners”, Peking, October 7, 1880, United States Department of State, Index to the Executive Documents of the House of Representatives for the First Session of the 47th Congress, 1880-1881, Vol.1, 1881-1882, China, p.174.
②丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷)(刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编),北京:人民出版社,2002年版,第177页。
①陶文钊:《中美关系史》(上),第12页。
②Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.110.
①顾盛出生于马萨诸塞州的索尔兹伯里,曾长期在马萨诸塞州政界任职。1835年当选国会议员,之后担任众议院外交事务委员会主席,1843年到1845年,他担任美国驻中国专员和大使。
②《筹办洋务始末》,同治期,第69卷,第20页。转引自丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷),第168页。
③张庆松:《美国百年排华内幕》,第45页。
④《筹办洋务始末》,同治期,第69卷,第20页。转引自丁则民主编:《美国通史》(第3卷),第168页。
①徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》(王邦宪译,梅缵月校),载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,上海:复旦大学出版社,1985年版,第267页。
②James Palumbo, The States and American Foreign Relations, PhD Dissertation, The University of Chicago, 1960, p.154.
③徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》,载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,第275页。
①徐佩娟:《1876-1882年美国制定排华法案过程中立法与行政的冲突》,载汪熙主编:《中美关系史论丛》,第269页。
②同上,第271页。
③同上,第274页。
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, p.281.
②张兹暑:《美国两党制发展史》,石家庄:河北教育出版社,2004年版,第300页。
③Patrick Lloyd Hatcher,“How Local Issues Drive Foreign Policy”, Orbis, Winter, 1996,
①May R. Coolidge, Chinese Immigration, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1909, p.233. See James Palumbo, The States and American Foreign Relations, p.161.
②The New York Times, May 29, 1943.
①James Palumbo, The States and American Foreign Relations, p.189.
②Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945, p.94.
③陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),第231页。
①David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, p.296.
②陶文钊:《中美关系史》(下),上海人民出版社,2004年版,第439页。
①David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.296.
②Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, Apr.9, 1996, p.A12.
③Elaine Sciolino,“China, Vying with Taiwan, Explores Public Relations”, The New York Times, Feb.2, 1996, p.A1.
④David Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, p.296.
⑤http://www.taiwanembassy.org/ct.asp?xItem=31264&ctNode=2237,2009-2-5
⑥Ibid.
①Elaine Sciolino,“Taiwan’s Lobbying in U.S.: Mixing Friendship and Hardball”, The New York Times, Apr.9, 1996, p.A12.
②Pat Choate, Agents of Influence: How Japan’s Lobbyists in the United States Manipulate America’s Political and Economic System, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990, p.133.
③星岛环球网, www.singtaonet.com, 2007年5月6日。
④http://info.china.alibaba.com/news/detail/v2-d1002224672.html,2008-7-26.
⑤http://www.sdxm.gov.cn/art/2008/6/18/art_162_95194.html,2008-7-26.
⑥Joseph Kahn,“China Trade Mission Seeks to Ease Tensions: U.S. Buying Trip Paves Way for Hu Visit”, The International Herald Tribune, April 6, 2006.
⑦Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China, p.62.
①Neil King,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html,2007-4-2.
②Neil King, Jr.“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005.
③宋义达:《周文重就任美国大使后的10个月》,载《朝鲜日报》(中文网络版),http:// www.chinese.chosun. com/ site/data/html_dir/2006/02/07/20060207000001.html, 2009-2-6.
④Neil King,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html, 2007-4-2.
⑤Bara Vaida,“Red Star Rising on K Street”, The National Journal, July 23, 2005.
⑥Neil King, Jr.“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005.
①Neil King, Jr.“To Win Friends, China Takes Its Message on a U.S. Road Trip”, Wall Street Journal, November 18, 2005.
②Ibid.
③Ibid.
④Neil King Jr,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html,2007-4-2.
⑤《环球时报》2007-01-24,第1版。
⑥Bara Vaida,“Red Star Rising on K Street”, The National Journal, July 23, 2005.
⑦Ibid.
⑧Bara Vaida,”Red Star Rising on K Street”, The National Journal, July 23, 2005.
①Neil King,“Beijing on the Potomac”, http://www.washingtonian.com/articles/lawlobbying/3243.html, 2007-4-2.
②Pat Choate, Agents of Influence, 1990, p.134.
③Ibid, pp.133-134.
①Robert G. Sutter, U.S. Policy toward China: an Introduction to the Role of Interest Groups, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998, p.76.
②Pat Choate, Agents of Influence,p.134.
①Terrence Guay,“The Influence of Local Government on Transatlantic Relations”, Paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, March 20, 2004, Montreal, Quebec.
①Edward W. Chester, Sectionalism, Politics and American Diplomacy, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.1975, p.231.
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③Edward Iwata,“States Roll out Red Carpet for Defense Dollars”, USA Today, Nov 23, 2001, p.B7.
④而东北部传统工业区的选举人票数在下降,例如纽约,从上世纪80年代的36张减少到现在的31张。http://www.fec.gov/pages/elecvote.htm , 2009-4-10.
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