科学精神与人文关怀
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摘要
马修·阿诺德(1822-1888)是英国维多利亚时期著名的评论家兼诗人,他所倡导的“文化批评”理论在西方文学史及思想史上占有重要的地位。1869年,阿诺德在《文化与无政府状态:政治与社会批评》一书中集中阐述了他的文化观。目前,西方学界或从文本解读,或从文化传承,或从修辞学的角度对阿诺德的文化观作了相关研究和探讨,但从文化的概念、内涵及其实现途径深入探究阿诺德的文化观,仍然相对缺乏。学术界对于阿诺德文化观中赋予文化的内涵及其适用性,也一直存在着争论。有批评家认为,阿诺德的文化是有体系的;是超越时代、阶级局限的,是对现代社会的一种“智性救赎”。也有的批评家对他的文化持怀疑、否定态度,认为它是“不切实际的”、是“婆娑月影,一席清谈”。还有的批评家指出,阿诺德称谓的文化是一个非常空泛、含混的概念,缺乏完整、清晰的哲学体系。鉴于阿诺德在现代文学和文化史上的影响,正确地理解和评价阿诺德的文化观,具有重要的意义。
本论文认为,阿诺德的文化观是通过教育,实现科学精神与人文关怀二者的统一。阿诺德的文化,既提倡科学精神,如实看清事物之本相,理性地思考,掌握客观存在的可知规律,获得关于普遍秩序的知识;又倡导人文关怀,摒弃工具崇拜,追寻人性禀赋的全面和谐发展,使普天下的人都得到幸福和完美。为实现科学精神与人文关怀的结合,教育是实现文化使命的手段。
论文首先从“如实看清事物之本相”探讨了阿诺德文化观中求真的科学精神。论文着重分析和探讨了阿诺德所提出的“世界上最优秀的言论与思想”、“超然无执”的健全理智和文学批评中的“试金石”理论等观点,指出,要“如实看清事物之本相”,一方面要学习、观察和思考世界上最优秀的言论与思想;另一方面要保持超然无执、客观公允的审视态度。“如实看清事物之本相”的努力是阿诺德所提出的希腊精神的体现。对于阿诺德提出的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”,以往的批评有的对哪些是阿诺德认为的“最优秀言论和思想”提出了质疑,有的提出了自己的解释。论文在前人研究的基础上指出,要列出一份具体的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”的书单是不可能的,阿诺德的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”是存在于各个国家、各个时代、各类学科之中的一种普世共通的精神。在“如实看清事物之本相”过程中,阿诺德提出要保持超然无执的态度。对此,有的评论家指出,要做到超然无执是不可能的,也有的批评家指出,阿诺德自己的创作实践中自始至终也没能做到客观公允。论文指出,阿诺德所提出的“超然无执”是远离外在的、政治的、实际的思考,是兼容并蓄的胸怀,是不惧权威的从容,是比较出真知的方法,这在当时是一种难得的呼吁。尽管阿诺德提出的“超然无执”在批评实践中很难绝对做到,但他指明了客观公允的批评方向:在批评中,不能过多涉及党派的、宗派的、个人的利益,尽量避免个人的主观好恶。
其次,论文从“让天道和神的意旨通行天下”探讨了阿诺德文化观中求善的人文关怀。阿诺德认为,要实现“让天道和神的意旨通行天下”,个人、社会以及国家必须进行改革。第一,个人要了解自己,克服普通自我,实现最优秀自我,即个人要摆脱低下趣味,抛弃将他们绑缚于特定阶级的自私利益,不再局限于本阶级的狭隘视野和思维定势,从而关心整个社会各阶层的利益和福祉。论文指出,绝对意义上的最优秀自我是难以实现的,但阿诺德的普通自我和最优秀自我指出了个人不同层次的需求与追求。第二,英国社会的三个主要阶级要克服自身缺陷,有所改变:贵族(野蛮人)必须开阔思路,适应开放时代;中产阶级(非利士人)要克服物质崇拜,提升艺术修养;工人阶级(群氓)要以中产阶级为榜样,积极进取。论文指出,阿诺德本人与贵族阶级和中产阶级的交往使他比较清楚地看到了他们的局限,但同时,他又受制于自己的阶级观,因而影响了他对刚刚在政治舞台上崭露头角的工人阶级的看法。第三,阿诺德认为,必须以健全理智和完美的要素填充国家的基本架构,使国家越来越成为表达最优秀自我的形式。有的批评家指出,阿诺德的国家是个抽象的概念。论文指出,阿诺德的国家一方面是抽象的,它超越了个人利益、阶级利益,是最优秀自我的代表;但同时,它又是具体的,它承担着初等教育、中等教育和高等教育的改革责任,从而在三个阶级中传播文化。
再次,论文从“认识自己和认识世界”论述了教育是实现阿诺德文化观必不可少的手段。本文将阿诺德的教育理论纳入他的文化观,探讨二者之间的关系。阿诺德提出,国家应承担起教育中相应的责任,不同的阶级有不同的教育目标,基础教育要全面实现义务教育,成为“普及文明的工具”;国家要增设象伊顿公学、拉格比公学、牛津大学、剑桥大学等高水平的公学和大学。论文指出,阿诺德所提出的不同的阶级有不同的教育目标表明,他的各阶级是不平等的。此外,阿诺德强调要重视古典作品、《圣经》和人文学科的学习与研究。论文指出,阿诺德将《圣经》作为文学作品赏析的看法是值得肯定的,而他对古典作品和人文学科的偏爱势必会削弱自然科学的学习,影响到他的文化的实现。
最后,论文指出,阿诺德的文化之所以被有的批评家认为是“不切实际”、“婆娑月影,一席清谈”,这主要是因为,阿诺德的文化是内在的、变化的、成长的,而不是外在的、固定的、静止的;他的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”、“最优秀自我”、“健全理智”以及“了解自我和世界”等观点本身没有一个具体的衡量标准这一事实也增加了其可行性的难度。此外,论文指出,在面对英国人因物质财富急剧积累而盲目乐观、洋洋自得、拒绝接受外来思想,而周边国家却在迅速崛起的社会现状,阿诺德批判了当时国人只重物质利益而对文学和艺术没有兴趣的短视行为,反思了当时英国社会转型时期的文化和道德重建问题,提出通过教育,如实看清事物之本相,掌握客观存在的可知规律,并追寻人性禀赋的全面和谐发展,使普天下的人都得到幸福和完美。他的文化观把他同时代的有志之士推向了一个更高的思想境界,对今天的我们也具有一定的理念启迪和现实指导意义。
论文从科学精神、人文关怀以及教育三个方面研究了阿诺德的文化内涵,在文本细读的基础上,通过对阿诺德提出的“如实看清事物之本相”、“最优秀的言论和思想”、“超然无执”、“最优秀自我”、国家等观点的分析和解读,指出它们表明了阿诺德的文化观内涵深刻,境界高远,但同时,它们也揭示了阿诺德的文化观本身所引起的不可避免的争议的缘由。这对准确把握阿诺德的文化观,以及解决阿诺德倡导的客观公允和他批评实践的矛盾这类问题提供了新思路。
The cultural criticism advocated by Matthew Arnold (1822-1888), Victorian critic and poet, exerts great influence on the history of western literature and that of western thought. Arnold elaborated on his cultural theory in his masterpiece Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism in 1869 which offered a critical approach to literature and life. Since then, Arnold's cultural theory has been scrutinized from various perspectives, and this dissertation focuses on Arnold's conception of culture, and its connotations.
Critics pass different judgments on the connotation of Arnold's conception of culture and its applicability. Some critics hold that Arnold's conception of culture is systematic; it transcends time and class limitations, and is an "intellectual deliverance". But some others are doubtful about Arnold's conception of culture, regarding it as "impractical" and "all moonshine", as a broad, unsystematicconception with little immediate significance.
This dissertation, on the basis of close reading of Arnold's writings and related criticisms, attempts to show that scientific spirit, humanistic concern and education are three key points in Arnold's conception of culture. It is argued that scientific spirit is advocated to see the object as in itself it really is, and to think critically so as to grasp the laws of things and gain the knowledge of the general order of the universe. On the other hand, humanistic concern is to discard machinery worship, and pursue harmonious, all-round development of human beings so that everybody is bathed in bliss and happiness. To achieve good combination of scientific spirit and humanistic concern education is an indispensable means.
The dissertation begins in chapter one with the exploration of scientific spirit: to render an intelligent being more intelligent. In this chapter Arnold's ideas of "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "disinterestedness" and "touchstone" are analyzed. The dissertation points out that though Arnold did not provide a list of "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "the best" is characterized by a universal spirit shared by people of different times and places. "The best" is an open system, a display of broad-mindedness and a kind of cultural transmission. In this chapter the three means of getting to know "the best", that is, reading, observing and thinking, are also discussed. Concerning "disinterestedness" and "touchstone" theory, much discussion has been done either to refute or to affirm either of them. The present study points out that though both disinterestedness and touchstone have innate defects, and Arnold himself did not succeed in remaining disinterested all the time in his critical career, they are insightful in that disinterestedness asks one to divorce himself from ulterior, political and practical considerations, to be broad-minded and unprejudiced, to avoid personal preference in the presence of great masters and to select an appropriate method. In the meantime, touchstone theory lays emphasis on the edifying and instilling influence of the classics which will enhance the cultural quality and help to reach a higher critical standard after much comparison and practice. It further points out that the attempt to "see the object as in itself it really is" is the essence of Hellenism which, together with Hebraism, is taken by Arnold as the origin of the western culture.
The second chapter of the dissertation discusses the humanistic concern at three different levels, individual, social and national. In the eyes of Arnold, to make reason prevail an individual should learn to know himself and triumph his best self over his ordinary self; the three classes must overcome their respective defects and the State should be armed with right reason and perfection. The dissertation argues that Arnold's "best self is only a relative idea and his opinions about the three classes reveal that owing to his experience and class limitation, Arnold was not in favor of the working class. Besides, Arnold's idea of State is both abstract and concrete. It is abstract in that it transcends class, individual interest and is the representative of best self. At the same time it is concrete in that it is commissioned to organize its elementary, secondary and higher education, diffusing through all three classes of English society the ideals of culture.
The third chapter examines the agent of culture: education, which aims to know oneself and the world. Though much research has been done by other critics either on Arnold's educational criticism for its own sake or on its influence, education is discussed in its relation to culture in this dissertation. In Arnold's nationwide educational system elementary education should become the instrument of general civilization; more public schools and first-rate universities should be set up with the help of the State. The present study points out that in this system, contrary to Arnold's hope of eliminating inequality by way of education, the three classes are not equal since different classes have different aims. Regarding the educational content Arnold put emphasis on the study of classics, Bible and the humanities. The dissertation reveals that Arnold's insistence on appreciating Bible as a literary work rather than a religious one deserves notice while his preference for the classics and the humanities will undoubtedly overshadow the study of natural science which obstructs the achievement of his culture.
The conclusive part recapitulates my arguments and points out that Arnold's conception of culture is thought by some critics to be "impractical", and "moonshine" for the following reasons: first, his culture is inward, growing and becoming instead of outward, having and resting; second, the fact that there is no specific standard for such ideas as "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "best self, "right reason", "know oneself and the world" and the rest makes it difficult to achieve his culture. This part also points out that Arnold's efforts should be affirmed. In a time of rapid industrial development, the majority of the Englishmen were complacent with material wealth and the future seemed to be bright and promising. Arnold keenly sensed the danger of that complacency and provinciality which blinded his fellow countrymen from keeping an objective evaluation of their country and forming a right assessment of the neighboring countries. Though he did not see the truth that free competition might bring about economic crises as Karl Marx did, he was aware of the potential danger of the much-praised slogan "do as one likes", which could easily make the whole nation slip into anarchy. Consequently, to arouse their awareness of the severe situation, he stressed culture which, by means of education, was in pursuit of seeking the truth of things and the harmonious development of humanity. Arnold's conception of culture puts his contemporaries with noble aspirations to a higher plane, and proves enlightening to us today.
This dissertation examines Arnold's conception of culture from the perspective of scientific spirit, humanistic concern and education. On the basis of close reading of the text, the dissertation analyzes such important ideas advocated by Arnold as "to see the object as in itself it really is", "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "disinterestedness", "the best self and the State. In my opinion these ideas reveal the breadth and depth of his culture on the one hand and the vulnerability of it on the other hand. This interpretation is hoped to help better grasp the connotation of Arnold's conception of culture and provide deep insights into such questions as the contradiction between his theory of disinterestedness and his practice.
本论文认为,阿诺德的文化观是通过教育,实现科学精神与人文关怀二者的统一。阿诺德的文化,既提倡科学精神,如实看清事物之本相,理性地思考,掌握客观存在的可知规律,获得关于普遍秩序的知识;又倡导人文关怀,摒弃工具崇拜,追寻人性禀赋的全面和谐发展,使普天下的人都得到幸福和完美。为实现科学精神与人文关怀的结合,教育是实现文化使命的手段。
论文首先从“如实看清事物之本相”探讨了阿诺德文化观中求真的科学精神。论文着重分析和探讨了阿诺德所提出的“世界上最优秀的言论与思想”、“超然无执”的健全理智和文学批评中的“试金石”理论等观点,指出,要“如实看清事物之本相”,一方面要学习、观察和思考世界上最优秀的言论与思想;另一方面要保持超然无执、客观公允的审视态度。“如实看清事物之本相”的努力是阿诺德所提出的希腊精神的体现。对于阿诺德提出的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”,以往的批评有的对哪些是阿诺德认为的“最优秀言论和思想”提出了质疑,有的提出了自己的解释。论文在前人研究的基础上指出,要列出一份具体的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”的书单是不可能的,阿诺德的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”是存在于各个国家、各个时代、各类学科之中的一种普世共通的精神。在“如实看清事物之本相”过程中,阿诺德提出要保持超然无执的态度。对此,有的评论家指出,要做到超然无执是不可能的,也有的批评家指出,阿诺德自己的创作实践中自始至终也没能做到客观公允。论文指出,阿诺德所提出的“超然无执”是远离外在的、政治的、实际的思考,是兼容并蓄的胸怀,是不惧权威的从容,是比较出真知的方法,这在当时是一种难得的呼吁。尽管阿诺德提出的“超然无执”在批评实践中很难绝对做到,但他指明了客观公允的批评方向:在批评中,不能过多涉及党派的、宗派的、个人的利益,尽量避免个人的主观好恶。
其次,论文从“让天道和神的意旨通行天下”探讨了阿诺德文化观中求善的人文关怀。阿诺德认为,要实现“让天道和神的意旨通行天下”,个人、社会以及国家必须进行改革。第一,个人要了解自己,克服普通自我,实现最优秀自我,即个人要摆脱低下趣味,抛弃将他们绑缚于特定阶级的自私利益,不再局限于本阶级的狭隘视野和思维定势,从而关心整个社会各阶层的利益和福祉。论文指出,绝对意义上的最优秀自我是难以实现的,但阿诺德的普通自我和最优秀自我指出了个人不同层次的需求与追求。第二,英国社会的三个主要阶级要克服自身缺陷,有所改变:贵族(野蛮人)必须开阔思路,适应开放时代;中产阶级(非利士人)要克服物质崇拜,提升艺术修养;工人阶级(群氓)要以中产阶级为榜样,积极进取。论文指出,阿诺德本人与贵族阶级和中产阶级的交往使他比较清楚地看到了他们的局限,但同时,他又受制于自己的阶级观,因而影响了他对刚刚在政治舞台上崭露头角的工人阶级的看法。第三,阿诺德认为,必须以健全理智和完美的要素填充国家的基本架构,使国家越来越成为表达最优秀自我的形式。有的批评家指出,阿诺德的国家是个抽象的概念。论文指出,阿诺德的国家一方面是抽象的,它超越了个人利益、阶级利益,是最优秀自我的代表;但同时,它又是具体的,它承担着初等教育、中等教育和高等教育的改革责任,从而在三个阶级中传播文化。
再次,论文从“认识自己和认识世界”论述了教育是实现阿诺德文化观必不可少的手段。本文将阿诺德的教育理论纳入他的文化观,探讨二者之间的关系。阿诺德提出,国家应承担起教育中相应的责任,不同的阶级有不同的教育目标,基础教育要全面实现义务教育,成为“普及文明的工具”;国家要增设象伊顿公学、拉格比公学、牛津大学、剑桥大学等高水平的公学和大学。论文指出,阿诺德所提出的不同的阶级有不同的教育目标表明,他的各阶级是不平等的。此外,阿诺德强调要重视古典作品、《圣经》和人文学科的学习与研究。论文指出,阿诺德将《圣经》作为文学作品赏析的看法是值得肯定的,而他对古典作品和人文学科的偏爱势必会削弱自然科学的学习,影响到他的文化的实现。
最后,论文指出,阿诺德的文化之所以被有的批评家认为是“不切实际”、“婆娑月影,一席清谈”,这主要是因为,阿诺德的文化是内在的、变化的、成长的,而不是外在的、固定的、静止的;他的“世界上最优秀的言论和思想”、“最优秀自我”、“健全理智”以及“了解自我和世界”等观点本身没有一个具体的衡量标准这一事实也增加了其可行性的难度。此外,论文指出,在面对英国人因物质财富急剧积累而盲目乐观、洋洋自得、拒绝接受外来思想,而周边国家却在迅速崛起的社会现状,阿诺德批判了当时国人只重物质利益而对文学和艺术没有兴趣的短视行为,反思了当时英国社会转型时期的文化和道德重建问题,提出通过教育,如实看清事物之本相,掌握客观存在的可知规律,并追寻人性禀赋的全面和谐发展,使普天下的人都得到幸福和完美。他的文化观把他同时代的有志之士推向了一个更高的思想境界,对今天的我们也具有一定的理念启迪和现实指导意义。
论文从科学精神、人文关怀以及教育三个方面研究了阿诺德的文化内涵,在文本细读的基础上,通过对阿诺德提出的“如实看清事物之本相”、“最优秀的言论和思想”、“超然无执”、“最优秀自我”、国家等观点的分析和解读,指出它们表明了阿诺德的文化观内涵深刻,境界高远,但同时,它们也揭示了阿诺德的文化观本身所引起的不可避免的争议的缘由。这对准确把握阿诺德的文化观,以及解决阿诺德倡导的客观公允和他批评实践的矛盾这类问题提供了新思路。
The cultural criticism advocated by Matthew Arnold (1822-1888), Victorian critic and poet, exerts great influence on the history of western literature and that of western thought. Arnold elaborated on his cultural theory in his masterpiece Culture and Anarchy: An Essay in Political and Social Criticism in 1869 which offered a critical approach to literature and life. Since then, Arnold's cultural theory has been scrutinized from various perspectives, and this dissertation focuses on Arnold's conception of culture, and its connotations.
Critics pass different judgments on the connotation of Arnold's conception of culture and its applicability. Some critics hold that Arnold's conception of culture is systematic; it transcends time and class limitations, and is an "intellectual deliverance". But some others are doubtful about Arnold's conception of culture, regarding it as "impractical" and "all moonshine", as a broad, unsystematicconception with little immediate significance.
This dissertation, on the basis of close reading of Arnold's writings and related criticisms, attempts to show that scientific spirit, humanistic concern and education are three key points in Arnold's conception of culture. It is argued that scientific spirit is advocated to see the object as in itself it really is, and to think critically so as to grasp the laws of things and gain the knowledge of the general order of the universe. On the other hand, humanistic concern is to discard machinery worship, and pursue harmonious, all-round development of human beings so that everybody is bathed in bliss and happiness. To achieve good combination of scientific spirit and humanistic concern education is an indispensable means.
The dissertation begins in chapter one with the exploration of scientific spirit: to render an intelligent being more intelligent. In this chapter Arnold's ideas of "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "disinterestedness" and "touchstone" are analyzed. The dissertation points out that though Arnold did not provide a list of "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "the best" is characterized by a universal spirit shared by people of different times and places. "The best" is an open system, a display of broad-mindedness and a kind of cultural transmission. In this chapter the three means of getting to know "the best", that is, reading, observing and thinking, are also discussed. Concerning "disinterestedness" and "touchstone" theory, much discussion has been done either to refute or to affirm either of them. The present study points out that though both disinterestedness and touchstone have innate defects, and Arnold himself did not succeed in remaining disinterested all the time in his critical career, they are insightful in that disinterestedness asks one to divorce himself from ulterior, political and practical considerations, to be broad-minded and unprejudiced, to avoid personal preference in the presence of great masters and to select an appropriate method. In the meantime, touchstone theory lays emphasis on the edifying and instilling influence of the classics which will enhance the cultural quality and help to reach a higher critical standard after much comparison and practice. It further points out that the attempt to "see the object as in itself it really is" is the essence of Hellenism which, together with Hebraism, is taken by Arnold as the origin of the western culture.
The second chapter of the dissertation discusses the humanistic concern at three different levels, individual, social and national. In the eyes of Arnold, to make reason prevail an individual should learn to know himself and triumph his best self over his ordinary self; the three classes must overcome their respective defects and the State should be armed with right reason and perfection. The dissertation argues that Arnold's "best self is only a relative idea and his opinions about the three classes reveal that owing to his experience and class limitation, Arnold was not in favor of the working class. Besides, Arnold's idea of State is both abstract and concrete. It is abstract in that it transcends class, individual interest and is the representative of best self. At the same time it is concrete in that it is commissioned to organize its elementary, secondary and higher education, diffusing through all three classes of English society the ideals of culture.
The third chapter examines the agent of culture: education, which aims to know oneself and the world. Though much research has been done by other critics either on Arnold's educational criticism for its own sake or on its influence, education is discussed in its relation to culture in this dissertation. In Arnold's nationwide educational system elementary education should become the instrument of general civilization; more public schools and first-rate universities should be set up with the help of the State. The present study points out that in this system, contrary to Arnold's hope of eliminating inequality by way of education, the three classes are not equal since different classes have different aims. Regarding the educational content Arnold put emphasis on the study of classics, Bible and the humanities. The dissertation reveals that Arnold's insistence on appreciating Bible as a literary work rather than a religious one deserves notice while his preference for the classics and the humanities will undoubtedly overshadow the study of natural science which obstructs the achievement of his culture.
The conclusive part recapitulates my arguments and points out that Arnold's conception of culture is thought by some critics to be "impractical", and "moonshine" for the following reasons: first, his culture is inward, growing and becoming instead of outward, having and resting; second, the fact that there is no specific standard for such ideas as "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "best self, "right reason", "know oneself and the world" and the rest makes it difficult to achieve his culture. This part also points out that Arnold's efforts should be affirmed. In a time of rapid industrial development, the majority of the Englishmen were complacent with material wealth and the future seemed to be bright and promising. Arnold keenly sensed the danger of that complacency and provinciality which blinded his fellow countrymen from keeping an objective evaluation of their country and forming a right assessment of the neighboring countries. Though he did not see the truth that free competition might bring about economic crises as Karl Marx did, he was aware of the potential danger of the much-praised slogan "do as one likes", which could easily make the whole nation slip into anarchy. Consequently, to arouse their awareness of the severe situation, he stressed culture which, by means of education, was in pursuit of seeking the truth of things and the harmonious development of humanity. Arnold's conception of culture puts his contemporaries with noble aspirations to a higher plane, and proves enlightening to us today.
This dissertation examines Arnold's conception of culture from the perspective of scientific spirit, humanistic concern and education. On the basis of close reading of the text, the dissertation analyzes such important ideas advocated by Arnold as "to see the object as in itself it really is", "the best that has been known and thought in the world", "disinterestedness", "the best self and the State. In my opinion these ideas reveal the breadth and depth of his culture on the one hand and the vulnerability of it on the other hand. This interpretation is hoped to help better grasp the connotation of Arnold's conception of culture and provide deep insights into such questions as the contradiction between his theory of disinterestedness and his practice.
引文
1 See Jacobs Joseph. "A review of 'Discourses in America'". The Athenaeum, Vol. I, June 27, 1885, pp. 817-18. Reprinted in Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism, Vol. 6. Quoted in www. Galegroup. com.
2 See The New Encyclopedia Britannica, V10, 15th edition, USA. 2002. 552.
3 Take Thomas M. Weiss's definition of scientific spirit as an example. To him, scientific spirit is "a respect for logic, a desire to search for data, a longing for knowledge and understanding, a consideration of consequences, a consideration of premises, a demand for verification, and to question all things." See Thomas M. Weiss, "The Spirit of Science" National Association for Research, in Science Teaching, Vol. 53, No. 4. However, this definition is much more suitable for natural science. In the dissertation I prefer to one with common aspects shared by different definitions.
4 Susan Hamilton once provides a pertinent comment on this important piece of work by Matthew Arnold. "Despite the absence of a detailed critical practice in 'The Function of Criticism at the Present Time' and other essays in criticism, Matthew Arnold is generally acknowledged, by both proponents and detractors, to be the founder of 'modern' English literary criticism's stress on literature's social function. Though few literary critics now unreservedly uphold Arnold's definition of literary critical practice as the attempt to 'know the best that is known and thought in the world,' Arnold's influence can nonetheless be traced in the works of literary critics as disparate as T. S. Eliot, Lionel Trilling, F. R. Leavis, Raymond Williams, and Elaine Showalter." See Susan Hamilton "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time: Overview," Reference Guide to English Literature, 2nd ed., edited by D. L. Kirkpatrick, St. James Press, 1991. www. Galegroup. com.
5 See John Henry Raleigh. Matthew Arnold and American Culture. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957. 150.
6 See Timothy Peltason, "The Function of Matthew Arnold at the Present Time", College English, Vol. 56, No. 7, November, 1994, pp. 749-65. www. Galegroup. com.
7 F. R. Leavis selected and examined a handful of the great writers in his The Great Tradition.
8 Sterner Douglas W. "Matthew Arnold, The Apostle of Culture", Priests of Culture: A Study of Matthew Arnold and Henry James., Peter Lang. 1999. pp. 23-67. www.Galegroup. com.
9 Arnold said, "The language of the Bible, then, is literary, not scientific language." See Super, 6,189.
10 See Philip Davis, The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007. 202, 203
11 According to Philip Davis, thanks to generally increased economic and political stability, from 1860s onward, periodicals increasingly became less rigidly partisan under genuinely literary editors. In the period of 1859-69 a large number of important new publications was launched (115 in 1859 alone). As well as The Fortnightly Review (from 1865 under Lewes and Trollope, before Morley), these included Macmillan's Magazine (from the publisher Alexander Macmillan in 1859, as a showcase for his goods, edited by Davis Masson and later John Morley), Dickens's weekly All the Year Round in 1859 (in succession to his Household Words, 1850), and The Cornhill Magazine (from that most enterprising publisher George Smith in 1860, and edited in turn by Thackeray, Lewes, and Leslie Stephen). In addition from 1856 the weekly Saturday Review began publishing influential review articles of the latest novels. See Philip Davis, The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007.211-22.
12 Though Arnold more than once mentioned the phrase "by reading, observing and thinking..." critics has noticed and discussed reading and thinking, but hardly touched observing. Here I try to provide my interpretation of this negligence and my understanding of Arnold's observing.
13 Though curiosity, the starting point of science, was a commendatory term used by many peoples, Arnold pointed out that the English used it in a somewhat disapproving sense, conveying a certain notion of frivolous and unedifying activity. He distinguished two kinds of curiosity, "For as there is a curiosity about intellectual matters which is futile, and merely a disease, so there is certainly a curiosity,--a desire after the things of the mind simply for their own sakes and for the pleasure of seeing them as they are,--which is, in an intelligent being, natural and laudable." In another word, it is scientific passion. (Super, 5, 91) Therefore, culture was driven by the instinct to know the truth of things, to probe into its origin, its cause, its manifestation and its function.
14 See Russell George W. E. Letters of Matthew Arnold: 1848-1888. Vol. 2. London, New York: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1901.
15 "My Countryman" was written in 1866 and published in the Cornhill Magazine. This long article has shown some of the ideas developed in Culture and Anarchy. J. Dover Wilson comments "This article, exceedingly entertaining in itself, is the germ of the wittiest of all Arnold's books, Friendship's Garland and Culture and Anarchy. www. Galegroup. com, 1955.
16 See Sterner Douglas W. "Matthew Arnold, The Apostle of Culture", Priests of Culture: A Study of Matthew Arnold and Henry James., Peter Lang. 1999. pp. 23-67.
17 This quotation is taken from Geothe. See Super, 5, 227.
18 Though "disinterestedness" is mainly discussed in his literary criticism, it is applicable to his culture since literature is included in his cultural criticism.
19 Arnold borrowed "disinterestedness" from an essay by Sainte-Beuve, who spoke of the critic's task of introducing 'un certain souffle de desinteressenment'. See George Watson, "Matthew Arnold". The Literary Critics. London: The Hogarth Press. 1986. 139.
20 Arnold thought highly of Sainte-Beuve's criticism, "Sainte-Beuve's criticism may be called first-rate. His curiosity was unbounded, and he was born a naturalist, carrying into letters, so often the mere domain of rhetoric and futile amusement, the ideas and methods of scientific natural inquiry...Man, as he is, and as his history and the productions of his spirit show him, was the object of his study and interest; he strove to find the real data with which, in dealing with man and his affairs, we have to do." Super, 5, 306.
21 T. S. Eliot in his "Tradition and Individual Talent" put forward that the critic should be impersonal. He is often quoted for his expression, "Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only those who have personality and emotions know what it means to want to escape from these things."
22 This does not mean that Arnold was indifferent to the social debates or political activities.
23 The Reform Act of 1832 had enfranchised half the middle class of the country, leaving the other half and the whole of the working class outside the pale. In 1865 Palmerstone, the old Whig statesman who had kept the country from dwelling overmuch upon internal affairs by brilliant if risky adventures in foreign policy, died, leaving arrears of domestic legislation and a very different man from himself, named Gladstone, to carry them out. One of Gladstone's first acts was to introduce a franchise reform bill in March, 1866. It was a moderate measure, but it went too far for some of the Whigs of his own party, and a revolt in the House of Commons led by Robert Lowe who idolised the middle classes and dreaded any opening of the door to classes lower in the scale, enabled the conservatives to defeat the Russell ministry in which Gladstone held office and to form a government of their own with Lord Derby as prime minister, though really under the leadership of Disraeli. Lowe's secession group was wittily dubbed the Cave of Adullam by John Bright, the Quaker radical who led the left wing of Gladstone's forces, and in the course of the debates on the bill Lowe made the most famous speech of his life, one passage of which stirred the country to its depth, and which he was never allowed to forget. "You have had the opportunity," he declared to his fellow representatives, "of knowing some of the constituencies of this country; and I ask, if you want venality, if you want ignorance, if you want drunkenness and facility for being intimidated; or if, on the other hand, you want impulsive, unreflecting, and violent people, where do you look for them in the constituencies? Do you go to the top or to the bottom?" John Bright made capital out of these words in every speech he delivered in the campaign that followed in the country; they were printed on leaflets, distributed broadcast among the working classes, and even posted up in factories and workshops. Without a doubt they did more, by inflaming the country, to make the Reform Act of 1867 inevitable than any action of the Reform party itself. Yet they were true. As he spoke them, Lowe had in mind a rough handling by a mob at Kidderminster in which he had barely escaped with his life, an experience which he well knew could be paralleled more or less by most members of parliament. See J. Dover Wilson, "Editor's Introduction"; www. Galegroup. com.
24 See Park Honan. Matthew Arnold: a Life. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1983. 230.
25 See John Bryson, "Introduction", Matthew Arnold: Poetry and Prose. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. 1954. 17.
26 See Bryson John. ed. "Introduction", xxii. xvii. Matthew Arnold: Poetry and Prose. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. 1954.
27 See Super, 11, 327. In the article, Arnold, with Professor Dowden's biography of Shelley in his mind, in the main discussed Shelley's private life, his love affairs and his marriage.
28 See Victorian Perspectives: Six Essays, edited by John Clubbe and Jerome Meckier, pp. 120-44. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1989.
29 The twelve examples Arnold listed include three lines from Homer, a quarter of a dozen both from Dante and from Shakespeare, and three various bits from Milton.
30 Here, poetry is a term in its broad sense, including all the literary forms.
1 Arnold discussed two motive of culture in the first chapter of Culture and Anarchy. One was scientific motive and the other was social motive.
2 See Peter Brook, A Glossary of Cultural Theory. Co-published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press Inc., 2002. 125.
3 See Britannica, vol. 20, 665.
4 See Alan Bullock. The Humanist Tradition in the West. Translated by Dong Leshan. 12.
5 Socrates was famous for the saying "Know Thyself ((?)NΩ(?)I ∑AYTON in Greek or gnothi sauton). This phrase is said to have been inscribed on the entry porch of Apollo's temple at Delphi.
6 Stefan Collini in his article entitled "Arnold" says, "But even here, in 'The Buried Life', one of his more optimistic poems, the significance of the experience, its beneficiary, as it were, is a kind of reflective self-centeredness. More generously, one might observe how much of Arnold's work, in prose as well as poetry, expresses his sustained, though not showily strenuous, search for self-knowledge." See Victorian Thinkers, Oxford University Press, 1993, 27-47.
7 The process of electoral democracy, begun in the extension of the franchise in the Reform Act of 1832, was virtually completed for adult urban makes by the Act of 1867 and for their rural equivalent in 1884. The harsh new Poor Law Amendment Act was passed in 1834, and, for all the railway boom, the subsequent late 1830s and hungry 1840s mark a period of civil unrest, characterized in the Chartist protests of the working classes, amidst economic depression, bad harvest, and outbursts of cholera. That unrest culminated not in the revolutions that went on in Europe in 1848, as had been feared, but in the beginning of state-enforced improvement of conditions in the Factory Acts and municipal health legislation and, above all, in the Repeal of the protectionist Corn Laws, against the old landed interest, in 1846, allowing imported corn and thus cheaper bread. The Great Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, in Joseph Paxton's glass-and-iron Crystal Palace in 1851, is the giant symbol, inspired by Prince Albert, to show the world's technological achievements-and the lead taken by Britain-during the first half of the century. On display in this celebration of trade confidence was the visible progress in mechanization, meteorology, optics, electricity, engineering, sanitation, transport and communications, and photography. See Philip David, 5.
8 Thomas Carlyle in his essay "Shooting Niagara" called for a group of well-armed elite of "heroes" to defend culture. J. Dover Wilson comments that "...Carlyle turn in despair to the upper classes and implore them to effect a coup d'etat and rule the country from the House of Lords." See Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy, edited by J. Dover Wilson, 1932. Reprint, pp. xi-xl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955.
9 Robert Lowe, Viscount Sherbrook, (1811-1892) played an important role in the Reform Act of 1867. "The Reform Act of 1832 had enfranchised half the middle class of the country, leaving the other half and the whole of the working class outside the pale. In 1865 Palmerston, the old Whig statesman who had kept the country from dwelling overmuch upon internal affairs by brilliant if risky adventures in foreign policy, died, leaving arrears of domestic legislation and a very different man from himself, named Gladstone, to carry them out. One of Gladstone's first acts was to introduce a franchise reform bill in March, 1866. It was a moderate measure, but it went too far for some of the Whigs of his own party, and a revolt in the House of Commons led by Robert Lowe who idolised the middle classes and dreaded any opening of the door to classes lower in the scale, enabled the conservatives to defeat the Russell ministry in which Gladstone held office and to form a government of their own with Lord Derby as prime minister, though really under the leadership of Disraeli. Lowe's secession group was wittily dubbed the Cave of Adullam by John Bright, the Quaker radical who led the left wing of Gladstone's forces, and in the course of the debates on the bill Lowe made the most famous speech of his life, one passage of which stirred the country to its depth, and which he was never allowed to forget. "You have had the opportunity," he declared to his fellow representatives, "of knowing some of the constituencies of this country; and I ask, if you want venality, if you want ignorance, if you want drunkenness and facility for being intimidated; or if, on the other hand, you want impulsive, unreflecting, and violent people, where do you look for them in the constituencies? Do you go to the top or to the bottom?" John Bright made capital out of these words in every speech he delivered in the campaign that followed in the country; they were printed on leaflets, distributed broadcast among the working classes, and even posted up in factories and workshops. Without a doubt they did more, by inflaming the country, to make the Reform Act of 1867 inevitable than any action of the Reform party itself. Yet they were true. As he spoke them, Lowe had in mind a rough handling by a mob at Kidderminster in which he had barely escaped with his life, an experience which he well knew could be paralleled more or less by most members of parliament." See Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy, edited by J. Dover Wilson, 1932. Reprint, pp. xi-xl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955.
10 The term "epoch of concentration" appears in the article "The function of criticism at the present time". It refers to the period of the French Revolution in which violent political means were adopted so that thinking could not bring out intellectual fruit. England at that time was a nation to which free thinking was a stranger.
11 The term "epoch of expansion", too, comes from the article "The function of criticism at the present time". It refers to the 19th century when the threat of French Revolution seemed to be gone. Some European thoughts gradually combined with the native thought in England. Arnold said, "the essence of an epoch of expansion is a movement of ideas, and the one salvation of an epoch of expansion is a harmony of ideas." See Super, 5, 126.
12 See Philip Davis, The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. 109 Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007. 272.
13 Quoted from Philip Davis The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007. 273.
14 Matthew Arnold delivered the lecture "Heinrich Heine" on June 13 which was subsequently published in Cornhill. In this essay, Arnold talked about the central theme of the age of democracy and defined the task of literature in the new age. See The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold by Super, R. H.. 3,433.
15 Park Honan, Matthew Arnold: a Life. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1983.324.
16 Mr. Bright was frequently quoted in Culture and Anarchy by Arnold to mock. Once, Arnold satirized him to be "one of the school whose mission it is to bring into order and system that body of truth with which the earlier Liberals merely fumbled." See Super, 5, 87.
17 Raymond Henry Williams, one of Britain's greatest post-war cultural historians, theorists, was born in Llanfihangel Crocorney, Wales, 31 August 1921 and died in Cambridge, 26 January 1988.
18 The defeat of the Reform Bill of 1866 and of the Liberal government was followed by demonstrations all over the country. Ten thousand persons assembled in Trafalgar Square on June 29, marched to Gladstone's house to cheer, to the Carlton Club to hoot, and then quietly dispersed. Three weeks later a more serious affair took place in Hyde Park. A body known as the Reform League, under the leadership of a lawyer named Edmond Beales, a certain Colonel Dickson, G. J. Holyoake the co-operator and secularist, and Charles Bradlaugh, then known chiefly as an extreme radical and violent agitator, marched in processions converging from different quarters upon Hyde Park with the intention of holding a meeting there. The Park was at that time regarded by middle-class Londoners as a pleasure garden set aside for themselves and their families to take the air, and the notion of mass meetings being held there filled them with disgust and alarm. The Home Secretary therefore ordered the gates to be closed, and after a formal demand for entrance the leaders of the procession retired in an orderly fashion to hold their meeting in Trafalgar Square. They left behind them, however, a huge and miscellaneous crowd, which had collected en route. The rougher portions of the assemblage thereupon proceeded to pull down the railings, burst into the Park, and trample down the flower-beds, all very much to the terror of well-to-do citizens but little to the harm of any human being. See Galegroup, J. Dover Wilson, Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy, 1932.
19 Arnold clearly said, "the State is properly just what Burke called it-the nation in its collective and corporate character. The State is the representative acting-power of the nation; the action of the State is the representative action of the nation." See Super, 2, 26-27.
20 See Galegroup, Steven Marcus, "Culture and Anarchy Today", 1993.
21 While discussing the authority of the state, Arnold expected the enmity from some critics, as he said "But how to organize this authority, or what hands to entrust the wielding of it? How to get your State, summing up the right reason of the community, and giving effect to it, as circumstances may require, with vigor? And here I think I see my enemies waiting for me with a hungry joy in their eyes." See Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780-1950. 120-121.
1 This is quoted in W. F. C onnell. The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1950. 89.
2 Though the Elementary Education Act was passed in 1870, it was not until 1891 that free elementary education was put into practice. And in 1902 Education Act was passed and the public secondary school education system was founded.
3 See Carleton Stanley, Matthew Arnold. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press. 1938. 22-3. See J. Dover Wilson, "Editor's Introduction". Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy. 1932. Reprint, pp. xi-xl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955. www. Galegroup. com
5 The words "foretelling or extending" are used here for Arnold mainly dealt with the concept of culture in Culture and Anarchy, which was published in 1869, while he was appointed inspector in 1851, much earlier than the publication of the book. On the other hand, some of his reports were published in 1870s and 1880s.
6 Taking his interest and obsession in poetry writing into consideration, this unwillingness and hesitation is understandable.
7 His would-be father-in-law Judge Wightman insisted that Arnold acquire a secure and substantial position before he could entrust his daughter Lucy to his care.
8 See Howard Foster Lowry. Ed. The Letters of Matthew Arnold to Arthur Hugh Clough. New York: Russell & Russell.1968. 118.
9 See Geoffrey Tillotson, Criticism and the Nineteenth Century, 1951. 61.
10 He visited the Continent on behalf of the Newcastle Commission from March till August 1859. His reports based on the visit prove his seriousness in his profession as an inspector. According to Reports on Elementary Schools, 1852-1888, "The Inspectors will not [the Minute read] interfere with the religious instruction, or discipline, or management of the school, it being their object to collect facts and information and to report the result of their inspections to the Committee of Council." See F. S. Marvin, ed. Reports on Elementary Schools, 1852-1882. London: 1908. Appendix, 274.
11 Robert Lowe's Revised Code of 1862 insisted on "payment on results" which encouraged mechanical rote learning. In the eyes of Arnold it was to put "information" in place of "culture".
12 Mrs. Forster was Arnold's elder sister.
13 See George W. E. Russell Letters of Matthew Arnold: 1848-1888. Vol. 1. London, New York: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1901. 78-79.
14 See Archibald L. Bouton, "Introduction", Matthew Arnold: Prose and Poetry, viii.
15 The commission resolved to appoint ten assistant commissioners to investigate various aspects of popular education in England, and two more to go to the Continent on similar missions. See Super, 2, 327-28.
16 See Johnson William Savage. "Introduction". Selections from the Prose Works of Matthew Arnold. 1913. viii.
17 Thomas Carlyle held that no order could exist except that the country was ruled by the House of Lords.
18 The Committee of Council's Revised Code of 1862 drastically reduced the government grants to the colleges set up for the training of teachers and a minute of March 21, 1863 made them "retrospective" rather than "prospective"-that is, instead of basing them on the number of students at the college, it based them on the number who actually entered and continued in the teaching profession. It provided also that the government grant should not exceed seventy-five per cent of the approved annual expense of a training college. A further provision of the Revised Code, the so-called "conscience clause," was understood to compel the managers of schools built with the aid of grants to exempt from dogmatic instruction and worship the children of all parents who could not, because of their religious beliefs, conscientiously allow their children to receive such instruction. This clause, formerly applied only to non-conformist schools, was now applied to Church of England schools in districts where there were more than a few dissenters; its application led to a rupture between the Committee of Council and the National Society. See Super, 4, 338.
19 R. H. Super thinks highly of the writing style Arnold applied in the educational reports. He comments, "Reviewers might disagree with Arnold's doctrines, but they had reason to be grateful to an assistant commissioner who composed a government report with all the care of an artist. Its style was remarkably different from his polemic articles and his literary essays-far less allusive, perfectly straightforward, and remarkably clear. It is the only one of his books to be documented fully in footnotes; one can see the wide range of his investigation and the care with which he worked." See Super, 2, 331.
20 See Palmer Imelda. Matthew Arnold: Culture, Society and Education. Melbourne: The Macmillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd. 1979. 63.
21 Revised Code laid down the requirements necessary to pass at each standard and gave details of the way inspectors were to examine schools as to decide the grant to be paid. The code changed the status of the teacher too. "Before the Revised Code payments were made direct to teachers who could be seen in some sense as state employees.After 1862 payment was rriade to school managers with whom teacher now had to bargain as to their rate of remuneration.Hence the status of teachers seemed lower and,in fact,their salaries did drop somewhat in the early years of the new Code." See P.W.Musgrave.Society and Education in England Since 1800.Routledge,36-7.
22 See Davis Philip.The Oxford English Literary History.Vol.8 The Victorians.2007.219.
23 See R.H.Super.The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold.Vol.2.327-8.
24 See Teng Dachun ed,The History of Education of the Western Countries,Vol.4,122.
25 Ibid.125-126.
26 See Philip Davis.The Oxford English Literary History.Vol.8 The Victorians.2007.235.
27 Ibid.219.
28 See E.L.Woodward,The Age of Reform,1815-1870,600.
29 See W.F.Connell.The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold.London:Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.1950.246.
30 See Lesley Johnson.The Cultural Critics:from Matthew Arnold to Raymond Williams.London,Boston and Henley:Routledge & Kegan Paul.1979.24.
31 Middle-and upper-class parents were free to educate their children in any way they wished:at home,through governess or tutor;or in private schools,day or boarding.Secondary schools,taking education beyond the elementary stage and leading onto university level for a small minority,were for the fee-paying middle and upper classes and were without state aid or regulation.They included everything from the great "public" schools as Eton and Harrow and Rugby,to the charitably endowed grammar schools in Leeds and Liverpool.See Philip Davis,218.
32 See Teng Dachun,130.
33 See Stuart P.Sherman,Matthew Arnold:How to Know Him.New York:the Bobbs-Merrill Company.1917.139.
34 Refer to Imelda Palmer.Matthew Arnold:Culture,Society and Education.1979.83.
35 Ibid.84.
36 The "will of God" here clearly is used to be understood by the English countryman. Arnold's views on God can be found in "Literature and Dogma", "the word 'God' is used in most cases as by no means a term of science or exact knowledge, but a term of poetry and eloquence, a term thrown out, so to speak, at a not fully grasped object of the speaker's consciousness, a literary term, in short; and mankind mean different things by it as their consciousness differs." See Super, 6,171.
37 When Arnold was young, Romanticism was in bloom in England but Arnold distanced himself from it. Even the Arnolds had close relationship with William Wordsworth, Matthew Arnold did not hold positive attitude toward Wordsworth's poems. Only in his late years, Arnold reconsidered romanticism and affirmed the contribution of Wordsworth for his style and philosophical insight and Byron for his revolutionary spirit fighting against Philistines.
38 See Herbert Spencer, On Education, ed. F. A. Cavenagh. C. U. P., 1932, 58-59.
39 See W. F.Connell. The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 1950. 199-200.
40 Ibid. 186.
41 In the introduction by Sir Fred Clarke, M. A. to W. F. Connell's The Educaitonal Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnld, Fred Clarke comments, "So an interest in comparative education could arise, a study which in England has had no greater pioneer and illuminator than Arnold." (ix)
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2 See The New Encyclopedia Britannica, V10, 15th edition, USA. 2002. 552.
3 Take Thomas M. Weiss's definition of scientific spirit as an example. To him, scientific spirit is "a respect for logic, a desire to search for data, a longing for knowledge and understanding, a consideration of consequences, a consideration of premises, a demand for verification, and to question all things." See Thomas M. Weiss, "The Spirit of Science" National Association for Research, in Science Teaching, Vol. 53, No. 4. However, this definition is much more suitable for natural science. In the dissertation I prefer to one with common aspects shared by different definitions.
4 Susan Hamilton once provides a pertinent comment on this important piece of work by Matthew Arnold. "Despite the absence of a detailed critical practice in 'The Function of Criticism at the Present Time' and other essays in criticism, Matthew Arnold is generally acknowledged, by both proponents and detractors, to be the founder of 'modern' English literary criticism's stress on literature's social function. Though few literary critics now unreservedly uphold Arnold's definition of literary critical practice as the attempt to 'know the best that is known and thought in the world,' Arnold's influence can nonetheless be traced in the works of literary critics as disparate as T. S. Eliot, Lionel Trilling, F. R. Leavis, Raymond Williams, and Elaine Showalter." See Susan Hamilton "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time: Overview," Reference Guide to English Literature, 2nd ed., edited by D. L. Kirkpatrick, St. James Press, 1991. www. Galegroup. com.
5 See John Henry Raleigh. Matthew Arnold and American Culture. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957. 150.
6 See Timothy Peltason, "The Function of Matthew Arnold at the Present Time", College English, Vol. 56, No. 7, November, 1994, pp. 749-65. www. Galegroup. com.
7 F. R. Leavis selected and examined a handful of the great writers in his The Great Tradition.
8 Sterner Douglas W. "Matthew Arnold, The Apostle of Culture", Priests of Culture: A Study of Matthew Arnold and Henry James., Peter Lang. 1999. pp. 23-67. www.Galegroup. com.
9 Arnold said, "The language of the Bible, then, is literary, not scientific language." See Super, 6,189.
10 See Philip Davis, The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007. 202, 203
11 According to Philip Davis, thanks to generally increased economic and political stability, from 1860s onward, periodicals increasingly became less rigidly partisan under genuinely literary editors. In the period of 1859-69 a large number of important new publications was launched (115 in 1859 alone). As well as The Fortnightly Review (from 1865 under Lewes and Trollope, before Morley), these included Macmillan's Magazine (from the publisher Alexander Macmillan in 1859, as a showcase for his goods, edited by Davis Masson and later John Morley), Dickens's weekly All the Year Round in 1859 (in succession to his Household Words, 1850), and The Cornhill Magazine (from that most enterprising publisher George Smith in 1860, and edited in turn by Thackeray, Lewes, and Leslie Stephen). In addition from 1856 the weekly Saturday Review began publishing influential review articles of the latest novels. See Philip Davis, The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007.211-22.
12 Though Arnold more than once mentioned the phrase "by reading, observing and thinking..." critics has noticed and discussed reading and thinking, but hardly touched observing. Here I try to provide my interpretation of this negligence and my understanding of Arnold's observing.
13 Though curiosity, the starting point of science, was a commendatory term used by many peoples, Arnold pointed out that the English used it in a somewhat disapproving sense, conveying a certain notion of frivolous and unedifying activity. He distinguished two kinds of curiosity, "For as there is a curiosity about intellectual matters which is futile, and merely a disease, so there is certainly a curiosity,--a desire after the things of the mind simply for their own sakes and for the pleasure of seeing them as they are,--which is, in an intelligent being, natural and laudable." In another word, it is scientific passion. (Super, 5, 91) Therefore, culture was driven by the instinct to know the truth of things, to probe into its origin, its cause, its manifestation and its function.
14 See Russell George W. E. Letters of Matthew Arnold: 1848-1888. Vol. 2. London, New York: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1901.
15 "My Countryman" was written in 1866 and published in the Cornhill Magazine. This long article has shown some of the ideas developed in Culture and Anarchy. J. Dover Wilson comments "This article, exceedingly entertaining in itself, is the germ of the wittiest of all Arnold's books, Friendship's Garland and Culture and Anarchy. www. Galegroup. com, 1955.
16 See Sterner Douglas W. "Matthew Arnold, The Apostle of Culture", Priests of Culture: A Study of Matthew Arnold and Henry James., Peter Lang. 1999. pp. 23-67.
17 This quotation is taken from Geothe. See Super, 5, 227.
18 Though "disinterestedness" is mainly discussed in his literary criticism, it is applicable to his culture since literature is included in his cultural criticism.
19 Arnold borrowed "disinterestedness" from an essay by Sainte-Beuve, who spoke of the critic's task of introducing 'un certain souffle de desinteressenment'. See George Watson, "Matthew Arnold". The Literary Critics. London: The Hogarth Press. 1986. 139.
20 Arnold thought highly of Sainte-Beuve's criticism, "Sainte-Beuve's criticism may be called first-rate. His curiosity was unbounded, and he was born a naturalist, carrying into letters, so often the mere domain of rhetoric and futile amusement, the ideas and methods of scientific natural inquiry...Man, as he is, and as his history and the productions of his spirit show him, was the object of his study and interest; he strove to find the real data with which, in dealing with man and his affairs, we have to do." Super, 5, 306.
21 T. S. Eliot in his "Tradition and Individual Talent" put forward that the critic should be impersonal. He is often quoted for his expression, "Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only those who have personality and emotions know what it means to want to escape from these things."
22 This does not mean that Arnold was indifferent to the social debates or political activities.
23 The Reform Act of 1832 had enfranchised half the middle class of the country, leaving the other half and the whole of the working class outside the pale. In 1865 Palmerstone, the old Whig statesman who had kept the country from dwelling overmuch upon internal affairs by brilliant if risky adventures in foreign policy, died, leaving arrears of domestic legislation and a very different man from himself, named Gladstone, to carry them out. One of Gladstone's first acts was to introduce a franchise reform bill in March, 1866. It was a moderate measure, but it went too far for some of the Whigs of his own party, and a revolt in the House of Commons led by Robert Lowe who idolised the middle classes and dreaded any opening of the door to classes lower in the scale, enabled the conservatives to defeat the Russell ministry in which Gladstone held office and to form a government of their own with Lord Derby as prime minister, though really under the leadership of Disraeli. Lowe's secession group was wittily dubbed the Cave of Adullam by John Bright, the Quaker radical who led the left wing of Gladstone's forces, and in the course of the debates on the bill Lowe made the most famous speech of his life, one passage of which stirred the country to its depth, and which he was never allowed to forget. "You have had the opportunity," he declared to his fellow representatives, "of knowing some of the constituencies of this country; and I ask, if you want venality, if you want ignorance, if you want drunkenness and facility for being intimidated; or if, on the other hand, you want impulsive, unreflecting, and violent people, where do you look for them in the constituencies? Do you go to the top or to the bottom?" John Bright made capital out of these words in every speech he delivered in the campaign that followed in the country; they were printed on leaflets, distributed broadcast among the working classes, and even posted up in factories and workshops. Without a doubt they did more, by inflaming the country, to make the Reform Act of 1867 inevitable than any action of the Reform party itself. Yet they were true. As he spoke them, Lowe had in mind a rough handling by a mob at Kidderminster in which he had barely escaped with his life, an experience which he well knew could be paralleled more or less by most members of parliament. See J. Dover Wilson, "Editor's Introduction"; www. Galegroup. com.
24 See Park Honan. Matthew Arnold: a Life. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1983. 230.
25 See John Bryson, "Introduction", Matthew Arnold: Poetry and Prose. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. 1954. 17.
26 See Bryson John. ed. "Introduction", xxii. xvii. Matthew Arnold: Poetry and Prose. London: Rupert Hart-Davis. 1954.
27 See Super, 11, 327. In the article, Arnold, with Professor Dowden's biography of Shelley in his mind, in the main discussed Shelley's private life, his love affairs and his marriage.
28 See Victorian Perspectives: Six Essays, edited by John Clubbe and Jerome Meckier, pp. 120-44. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1989.
29 The twelve examples Arnold listed include three lines from Homer, a quarter of a dozen both from Dante and from Shakespeare, and three various bits from Milton.
30 Here, poetry is a term in its broad sense, including all the literary forms.
1 Arnold discussed two motive of culture in the first chapter of Culture and Anarchy. One was scientific motive and the other was social motive.
2 See Peter Brook, A Glossary of Cultural Theory. Co-published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press Inc., 2002. 125.
3 See Britannica, vol. 20, 665.
4 See Alan Bullock. The Humanist Tradition in the West. Translated by Dong Leshan. 12.
5 Socrates was famous for the saying "Know Thyself ((?)NΩ(?)I ∑AYTON in Greek or gnothi sauton). This phrase is said to have been inscribed on the entry porch of Apollo's temple at Delphi.
6 Stefan Collini in his article entitled "Arnold" says, "But even here, in 'The Buried Life', one of his more optimistic poems, the significance of the experience, its beneficiary, as it were, is a kind of reflective self-centeredness. More generously, one might observe how much of Arnold's work, in prose as well as poetry, expresses his sustained, though not showily strenuous, search for self-knowledge." See Victorian Thinkers, Oxford University Press, 1993, 27-47.
7 The process of electoral democracy, begun in the extension of the franchise in the Reform Act of 1832, was virtually completed for adult urban makes by the Act of 1867 and for their rural equivalent in 1884. The harsh new Poor Law Amendment Act was passed in 1834, and, for all the railway boom, the subsequent late 1830s and hungry 1840s mark a period of civil unrest, characterized in the Chartist protests of the working classes, amidst economic depression, bad harvest, and outbursts of cholera. That unrest culminated not in the revolutions that went on in Europe in 1848, as had been feared, but in the beginning of state-enforced improvement of conditions in the Factory Acts and municipal health legislation and, above all, in the Repeal of the protectionist Corn Laws, against the old landed interest, in 1846, allowing imported corn and thus cheaper bread. The Great Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, in Joseph Paxton's glass-and-iron Crystal Palace in 1851, is the giant symbol, inspired by Prince Albert, to show the world's technological achievements-and the lead taken by Britain-during the first half of the century. On display in this celebration of trade confidence was the visible progress in mechanization, meteorology, optics, electricity, engineering, sanitation, transport and communications, and photography. See Philip David, 5.
8 Thomas Carlyle in his essay "Shooting Niagara" called for a group of well-armed elite of "heroes" to defend culture. J. Dover Wilson comments that "...Carlyle turn in despair to the upper classes and implore them to effect a coup d'etat and rule the country from the House of Lords." See Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy, edited by J. Dover Wilson, 1932. Reprint, pp. xi-xl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955.
9 Robert Lowe, Viscount Sherbrook, (1811-1892) played an important role in the Reform Act of 1867. "The Reform Act of 1832 had enfranchised half the middle class of the country, leaving the other half and the whole of the working class outside the pale. In 1865 Palmerston, the old Whig statesman who had kept the country from dwelling overmuch upon internal affairs by brilliant if risky adventures in foreign policy, died, leaving arrears of domestic legislation and a very different man from himself, named Gladstone, to carry them out. One of Gladstone's first acts was to introduce a franchise reform bill in March, 1866. It was a moderate measure, but it went too far for some of the Whigs of his own party, and a revolt in the House of Commons led by Robert Lowe who idolised the middle classes and dreaded any opening of the door to classes lower in the scale, enabled the conservatives to defeat the Russell ministry in which Gladstone held office and to form a government of their own with Lord Derby as prime minister, though really under the leadership of Disraeli. Lowe's secession group was wittily dubbed the Cave of Adullam by John Bright, the Quaker radical who led the left wing of Gladstone's forces, and in the course of the debates on the bill Lowe made the most famous speech of his life, one passage of which stirred the country to its depth, and which he was never allowed to forget. "You have had the opportunity," he declared to his fellow representatives, "of knowing some of the constituencies of this country; and I ask, if you want venality, if you want ignorance, if you want drunkenness and facility for being intimidated; or if, on the other hand, you want impulsive, unreflecting, and violent people, where do you look for them in the constituencies? Do you go to the top or to the bottom?" John Bright made capital out of these words in every speech he delivered in the campaign that followed in the country; they were printed on leaflets, distributed broadcast among the working classes, and even posted up in factories and workshops. Without a doubt they did more, by inflaming the country, to make the Reform Act of 1867 inevitable than any action of the Reform party itself. Yet they were true. As he spoke them, Lowe had in mind a rough handling by a mob at Kidderminster in which he had barely escaped with his life, an experience which he well knew could be paralleled more or less by most members of parliament." See Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy, edited by J. Dover Wilson, 1932. Reprint, pp. xi-xl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955.
10 The term "epoch of concentration" appears in the article "The function of criticism at the present time". It refers to the period of the French Revolution in which violent political means were adopted so that thinking could not bring out intellectual fruit. England at that time was a nation to which free thinking was a stranger.
11 The term "epoch of expansion", too, comes from the article "The function of criticism at the present time". It refers to the 19th century when the threat of French Revolution seemed to be gone. Some European thoughts gradually combined with the native thought in England. Arnold said, "the essence of an epoch of expansion is a movement of ideas, and the one salvation of an epoch of expansion is a harmony of ideas." See Super, 5, 126.
12 See Philip Davis, The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. 109 Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007. 272.
13 Quoted from Philip Davis The Oxford English Literary History. Vol.8 The Victorians. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Oxford University Press. 2007. 273.
14 Matthew Arnold delivered the lecture "Heinrich Heine" on June 13 which was subsequently published in Cornhill. In this essay, Arnold talked about the central theme of the age of democracy and defined the task of literature in the new age. See The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold by Super, R. H.. 3,433.
15 Park Honan, Matthew Arnold: a Life. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1983.324.
16 Mr. Bright was frequently quoted in Culture and Anarchy by Arnold to mock. Once, Arnold satirized him to be "one of the school whose mission it is to bring into order and system that body of truth with which the earlier Liberals merely fumbled." See Super, 5, 87.
17 Raymond Henry Williams, one of Britain's greatest post-war cultural historians, theorists, was born in Llanfihangel Crocorney, Wales, 31 August 1921 and died in Cambridge, 26 January 1988.
18 The defeat of the Reform Bill of 1866 and of the Liberal government was followed by demonstrations all over the country. Ten thousand persons assembled in Trafalgar Square on June 29, marched to Gladstone's house to cheer, to the Carlton Club to hoot, and then quietly dispersed. Three weeks later a more serious affair took place in Hyde Park. A body known as the Reform League, under the leadership of a lawyer named Edmond Beales, a certain Colonel Dickson, G. J. Holyoake the co-operator and secularist, and Charles Bradlaugh, then known chiefly as an extreme radical and violent agitator, marched in processions converging from different quarters upon Hyde Park with the intention of holding a meeting there. The Park was at that time regarded by middle-class Londoners as a pleasure garden set aside for themselves and their families to take the air, and the notion of mass meetings being held there filled them with disgust and alarm. The Home Secretary therefore ordered the gates to be closed, and after a formal demand for entrance the leaders of the procession retired in an orderly fashion to hold their meeting in Trafalgar Square. They left behind them, however, a huge and miscellaneous crowd, which had collected en route. The rougher portions of the assemblage thereupon proceeded to pull down the railings, burst into the Park, and trample down the flower-beds, all very much to the terror of well-to-do citizens but little to the harm of any human being. See Galegroup, J. Dover Wilson, Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy, 1932.
19 Arnold clearly said, "the State is properly just what Burke called it-the nation in its collective and corporate character. The State is the representative acting-power of the nation; the action of the State is the representative action of the nation." See Super, 2, 26-27.
20 See Galegroup, Steven Marcus, "Culture and Anarchy Today", 1993.
21 While discussing the authority of the state, Arnold expected the enmity from some critics, as he said "But how to organize this authority, or what hands to entrust the wielding of it? How to get your State, summing up the right reason of the community, and giving effect to it, as circumstances may require, with vigor? And here I think I see my enemies waiting for me with a hungry joy in their eyes." See Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780-1950. 120-121.
1 This is quoted in W. F. C onnell. The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1950. 89.
2 Though the Elementary Education Act was passed in 1870, it was not until 1891 that free elementary education was put into practice. And in 1902 Education Act was passed and the public secondary school education system was founded.
3 See Carleton Stanley, Matthew Arnold. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press. 1938. 22-3. See J. Dover Wilson, "Editor's Introduction". Landmarks in the History of Education: Culture and Anarchy. 1932. Reprint, pp. xi-xl. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955. www. Galegroup. com
5 The words "foretelling or extending" are used here for Arnold mainly dealt with the concept of culture in Culture and Anarchy, which was published in 1869, while he was appointed inspector in 1851, much earlier than the publication of the book. On the other hand, some of his reports were published in 1870s and 1880s.
6 Taking his interest and obsession in poetry writing into consideration, this unwillingness and hesitation is understandable.
7 His would-be father-in-law Judge Wightman insisted that Arnold acquire a secure and substantial position before he could entrust his daughter Lucy to his care.
8 See Howard Foster Lowry. Ed. The Letters of Matthew Arnold to Arthur Hugh Clough. New York: Russell & Russell.1968. 118.
9 See Geoffrey Tillotson, Criticism and the Nineteenth Century, 1951. 61.
10 He visited the Continent on behalf of the Newcastle Commission from March till August 1859. His reports based on the visit prove his seriousness in his profession as an inspector. According to Reports on Elementary Schools, 1852-1888, "The Inspectors will not [the Minute read] interfere with the religious instruction, or discipline, or management of the school, it being their object to collect facts and information and to report the result of their inspections to the Committee of Council." See F. S. Marvin, ed. Reports on Elementary Schools, 1852-1882. London: 1908. Appendix, 274.
11 Robert Lowe's Revised Code of 1862 insisted on "payment on results" which encouraged mechanical rote learning. In the eyes of Arnold it was to put "information" in place of "culture".
12 Mrs. Forster was Arnold's elder sister.
13 See George W. E. Russell Letters of Matthew Arnold: 1848-1888. Vol. 1. London, New York: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. 1901. 78-79.
14 See Archibald L. Bouton, "Introduction", Matthew Arnold: Prose and Poetry, viii.
15 The commission resolved to appoint ten assistant commissioners to investigate various aspects of popular education in England, and two more to go to the Continent on similar missions. See Super, 2, 327-28.
16 See Johnson William Savage. "Introduction". Selections from the Prose Works of Matthew Arnold. 1913. viii.
17 Thomas Carlyle held that no order could exist except that the country was ruled by the House of Lords.
18 The Committee of Council's Revised Code of 1862 drastically reduced the government grants to the colleges set up for the training of teachers and a minute of March 21, 1863 made them "retrospective" rather than "prospective"-that is, instead of basing them on the number of students at the college, it based them on the number who actually entered and continued in the teaching profession. It provided also that the government grant should not exceed seventy-five per cent of the approved annual expense of a training college. A further provision of the Revised Code, the so-called "conscience clause," was understood to compel the managers of schools built with the aid of grants to exempt from dogmatic instruction and worship the children of all parents who could not, because of their religious beliefs, conscientiously allow their children to receive such instruction. This clause, formerly applied only to non-conformist schools, was now applied to Church of England schools in districts where there were more than a few dissenters; its application led to a rupture between the Committee of Council and the National Society. See Super, 4, 338.
19 R. H. Super thinks highly of the writing style Arnold applied in the educational reports. He comments, "Reviewers might disagree with Arnold's doctrines, but they had reason to be grateful to an assistant commissioner who composed a government report with all the care of an artist. Its style was remarkably different from his polemic articles and his literary essays-far less allusive, perfectly straightforward, and remarkably clear. It is the only one of his books to be documented fully in footnotes; one can see the wide range of his investigation and the care with which he worked." See Super, 2, 331.
20 See Palmer Imelda. Matthew Arnold: Culture, Society and Education. Melbourne: The Macmillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd. 1979. 63.
21 Revised Code laid down the requirements necessary to pass at each standard and gave details of the way inspectors were to examine schools as to decide the grant to be paid. The code changed the status of the teacher too. "Before the Revised Code payments were made direct to teachers who could be seen in some sense as state employees.After 1862 payment was rriade to school managers with whom teacher now had to bargain as to their rate of remuneration.Hence the status of teachers seemed lower and,in fact,their salaries did drop somewhat in the early years of the new Code." See P.W.Musgrave.Society and Education in England Since 1800.Routledge,36-7.
22 See Davis Philip.The Oxford English Literary History.Vol.8 The Victorians.2007.219.
23 See R.H.Super.The Complete Prose Works of Matthew Arnold.Vol.2.327-8.
24 See Teng Dachun ed,The History of Education of the Western Countries,Vol.4,122.
25 Ibid.125-126.
26 See Philip Davis.The Oxford English Literary History.Vol.8 The Victorians.2007.235.
27 Ibid.219.
28 See E.L.Woodward,The Age of Reform,1815-1870,600.
29 See W.F.Connell.The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold.London:Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.1950.246.
30 See Lesley Johnson.The Cultural Critics:from Matthew Arnold to Raymond Williams.London,Boston and Henley:Routledge & Kegan Paul.1979.24.
31 Middle-and upper-class parents were free to educate their children in any way they wished:at home,through governess or tutor;or in private schools,day or boarding.Secondary schools,taking education beyond the elementary stage and leading onto university level for a small minority,were for the fee-paying middle and upper classes and were without state aid or regulation.They included everything from the great "public" schools as Eton and Harrow and Rugby,to the charitably endowed grammar schools in Leeds and Liverpool.See Philip Davis,218.
32 See Teng Dachun,130.
33 See Stuart P.Sherman,Matthew Arnold:How to Know Him.New York:the Bobbs-Merrill Company.1917.139.
34 Refer to Imelda Palmer.Matthew Arnold:Culture,Society and Education.1979.83.
35 Ibid.84.
36 The "will of God" here clearly is used to be understood by the English countryman. Arnold's views on God can be found in "Literature and Dogma", "the word 'God' is used in most cases as by no means a term of science or exact knowledge, but a term of poetry and eloquence, a term thrown out, so to speak, at a not fully grasped object of the speaker's consciousness, a literary term, in short; and mankind mean different things by it as their consciousness differs." See Super, 6,171.
37 When Arnold was young, Romanticism was in bloom in England but Arnold distanced himself from it. Even the Arnolds had close relationship with William Wordsworth, Matthew Arnold did not hold positive attitude toward Wordsworth's poems. Only in his late years, Arnold reconsidered romanticism and affirmed the contribution of Wordsworth for his style and philosophical insight and Byron for his revolutionary spirit fighting against Philistines.
38 See Herbert Spencer, On Education, ed. F. A. Cavenagh. C. U. P., 1932, 58-59.
39 See W. F.Connell. The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 1950. 199-200.
40 Ibid. 186.
41 In the introduction by Sir Fred Clarke, M. A. to W. F. Connell's The Educaitonal Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnld, Fred Clarke comments, "So an interest in comparative education could arise, a study which in England has had no greater pioneer and illuminator than Arnold." (ix)
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