维特经济政策研究
摘要
19世纪末20世纪初,在俄国的历史上是一个波澜壮阔风云激荡的时期。维特因其家族的缘源、历史机缘和个人魅力,成为这一时期沙皇的重臣。他充分吸收和借鉴当时社会及经济学界的各种理论思潮,尤其是德国历史学派代表人物李斯特的经济思想,结合俄国社会经济发展的历史背景和现实,对俄国经济进行大刀阔斧的改革,实施了一系列新型的财政、金融、税收、国债、贸易政策,促进了俄国的经济发展和工业化进程。然而,作为沙皇的忠实奴仆和专制制度的维护者,维特经济思想和经济政策本身有其局限性,加之经济的发展对政治制度的变化提出了新的要求,导致其理想与现实之间、结果与期望之间的巨大落差,这直接决定了维特本人和维特改革的最终命运。
The author systematically discusses Viler’s economic thoughts and policies mainly in five parts. The first part is the introduction of the formation course of Vilter’s economic thoughts. It includes the historical background of his life and family notion. Vilter (1849. 5~1915. 2) was born in Tbilisi. His ancestor was German, while his mother was Russian. Vilter spent all his teen-age time in his uncle’s family. He was affected and edified by his uncle’s monarchism thoughts from childhood. He was appointed minister of finance in Aug1892, Vilter’s economic thoughts were deeply affected by Liszt, a German economist, who thinks the core of civil economics is the theory of productivity, advocates the harmonious developmental viewpoint of productivity balance, and emphasizes that not only a country must develop its own national industry but also the industry should take effect as a locomotive in the whole developmental course of civil economy. He also thinks that a country must recur to tariff protection policy, firm credit system and balanceable currency circulation for the sake of the modernization of economy. Vilter almost fully accepted Liszt’s economic thought and formed his own economic viewpoint. After he charged the ministry of finance, he practiced these economic thoughts according the situation then in Russian.
In the second part the author generally introduces the Czar’s policies in 1980s in order to show the social and historical background of Vilter’s system formation. And also show the predecessors reformation which offered theory base and economic condition for Vilter. In 19th century, political crisis deepen in Russia which made some men of insight tried to find a way to modernization
On February the 2nd 1861, Alexander the second issued act of abolishment serf, from then Russia began to go the way to reform from the high class to the low class. After the reformation of serf, the reformation of Czar Government in 1860s and 1870s extended to all parts of life including social economy, cultural education and administration management. It also issued the declaration of abolishment the peasants vassal relation followed which it took some reformation like locality and city reformation, judicatory and education reformation, press and military affairs reformation. All these methods put the whole nation to the west world without doubt. Though Alxander the second’s reformation extended all parts of life with large scale, it didn’t change the nature of autarchy management. In 1881 Alexander the third ascent the throng, who made some political policy according to particularity of Russia including confirmation self-mastery regime under the help of development national industry, keep paper money currency through protecting tariff, to manage trade and private firm strictly and to take wine and tobacco industry as national monopoly to impose taxation and to offer economic aid to lord economy using aristocrat and peasant bank to develop national economy. In foreign policy, it went on expand its territory around Russian border in order to consolidate its influence in Asia and associated with France.
In the third part, the author discuss the Czar Government realized that the industry development lag and transportation underdevelopment were the reasons of expanding war. In this formidable situation, the finance minister Vilter took some active fiscal policies, financial policies and commercial policies to reform Russian economy.
In 1890s Vilter took some measures to reform fiscal system to satisfy the new needs including let the paper currency system rose rapidly in the base of guarantee spiral of national fiscal growth, pay much attention to national budget and revenue policy that is think much of balance of budget income and expenditure and the accommodation role of revenue to national economy. Under these thoughts, Vilter stimulated the development of national economy and concerned specially the speed of national revenue. He took the alcohol monopolization reformation, industry tax and housing tax reformation, enhanced excise ways. He took many methods to increase the national revenue and controlled the expenditure farthest. When the national budget appeared deficit and the paper currency ran maladjusted, Vilter took the conservative fiscal policy to emphasize the balance of surplus which emphasized the national strong intervening. Vilter’s tax policy made the national budget income increase and solidified the base of national fiscal budget. The last goal of revenue was to strengthen the Czar Autarchy regime and to maintain the benefit of capitalism, to exploit the common people deeply, to make some classes have special rights, in the other hand, to let other classes burden heavily and deepen their exploiting degree. Vilter’s revenue policy was the reflection of Czar Russian national policy.
In finance field, after late 19th century, gold played more and more important role in national coins in currency. And many countries abandoned silver as mental standard early or late and took gold as standard which caused Russian paper ruble into trouble, for it took silver as universal equivalent. During the time when Vilter took charge the ministry of finance, he took some currency reformation. After 1893, Vilter made reformation rules and plans in detail and caught chances to withstand the pressure to advance quickly. Vilter’s currency reformation fit the tide of world economy development at that time which consolidated the Russian fiancéand stimulated the investment and accelerated the Russian economy development.
In the commercial policy, Vilter’s commerce protection policy was influenced by Frenderlier. Liz who was a German economist and the founder of tariff protection,. At that time Russian consumable market and raw and processed materials market were underdevelopment, so when Vilter was in charge of the finance, he adopted commence protection policy. Through the method of commence protection, some trade agreement were signed and the lowest charge rate was built according to offering the low charge rate to the countries who gave the most preferential duties too Russia. He also limited the importation to protect the national market and gave benefit and allowance to national export product in order to stimulate the export product and protect national market and maintain the political and economic benefit.
In foreign economic policy, Vilter stared construction of Siberia railway and Middle East railway and united the Russain far- east policy and finance capital with the help of St. Petersburg International Bank and Chinese- Russia Dao sheng Bank. Through the economic influence, Vilter enhanced the Russian expanding to far-east and served for the Russian political purpose.
Estimating Vilter’s inner and external economic policies from Russian system, economic situation, economic development and international situation, we can say that the policies enhanced the Russian national strength and fast the industrialization course of Russia proceeds and promoted the development of Russian capitalism economy.
In the fourth part the author mainly discusses that Russian came into the period of industry development rapidly under the leading of Vilter’s economic thoughts in 1890s. Because of the government directly investment, Russian industry developed very fast both in speed and scale. And the nation interference policy strengthens. Nation controlled economic field which played a very important role in Russian economic life. In the process of human historical action, maybe no other nation is more abroad and all-embracing than what the Russian government did in industry field. Vilter succeed to the predecessor finance minister’s thoughts, and was sure that only nation could control Russian economic fate and could serve for national finance and could heighten the role of nation in social economic life. So he gathers all the nation economic departments which could increase the revenue together to develop the national corporation.
At this period, except the numbers of corporations and production value increase greatly, the industry structure also changed. Vilter thinks that the constructions of basic installations should be developed preferentially and the market system in favor of the development of industry should be maintained. He also thinks that the traffic transportation especially the railway transportation plays an important role in the basic industry. Therefore, after becoming the ministry of finance, he pushed on the construction of the big railway of Siberia. He increased the investment of railway network from direct or indirect payout, not only reduced the transportation cost but also became the needed source of industry products. He put forward that the important political task was to extend the railway network, and the central task was to control the private railways into government, and let the private railway economy obey the leading of government. During the time when Vilter was the minister of finance, the whole line length of railway almost enlarged twice.
Vilter advocated and took concrete measures to invest through government and foster some important industry departments, such as coal, petroleum, and steel. Vilter continued and constantly aggrandized the tariff policy actualized by his two predecessors and delivered a tariff battle with Germany at all cost in order to develop national industry. Vilter’s policies of protecting the tariff had taken great effect both on promoting the increase of industry and on accelerating the industrialization course of Russia, the industry economy had been developed so rapidly.
During this period, due to the large scale of railway construction, foreign capital and t techniques input and the government carried out national capitalism policy, Russian industry throughput rose rapidly which led the process change greatly and caused the great change of Russian industry production structure; which also made machine industry start to dominate the Russian whole national economy and caused the Russian industry over rely on foreign capital and techniques. The advancement of industry depends mainly on nation and the needs of railway construction, that is mainly depends on the force of economic policy. In order to support the industry, finance department used the methods including intervening bourse, providing large loan among which mainly were production quota, in virtue of national ordering goods, the government provide steel and mechanism production standard production rating base on the 60percent of the level of normal productivity. Because of this, the process of industry monopolization enhanced obviously and the sale monopolization developed specially.
At the end of 19th century, the reform since 1861 had caused the polarization of peasants, rural bourgeois and rural proletariate had appeared. The economy of service system had not been perished drastically, thus this obstructed the transition to capitalism. To abolish the serf system didn’t mean the end of feudal relation. In fact, the sinuous and traditional fashion of exceeding economic exploitation was continually prevailing in Russian minors, and this was the reality of agricultural economy of Russia when Vilter was in power in the ministry of finance. Vilter thinks that the tariff protection policy should not be adopted to develop Russian agriculture, but an expansive domestic market should be established through developing local industry, the expenditure of deficit should be decreased, and the efficient and reasonable use of land resources could be improved through developing trade of techniques and primary products and through enhancing of the agricultural knowledge. Under Vilter’s presiding, the government issued a new identification card constitution, and this expanded the peasants’freedom largely. Together with heavy industry increased which guaranteed the flowage of remain work force came from rural areas. By the methods of development of techniques and farm produce trade, agricultural knowledge improved, and the land source were improved and used effectively and with reason. Under the pressure of agriculture crisis and land owner class, Vilter had to take some direct methods to support the agriculture sections especially the lord owner’s economy. And also provided benefit loan to aristocrat bank in order to save lord owners. In order to free the management of peasants bank, Vilter took the special policy of reinforcing the providing short-time load operation to peasants from national bank by using real property and farm produce as the guaranty.
However, Vilter did not realize that the modernization of agricultural economy was the necessary condition of the industrial development of Russia, and did not combine the perishing of feudal serf system remains with the development of national industry and the establishment of domestic market, this cause the unbalance of industrial and agricultural development of Russia.
The fifth part mainly about the foundation stone of vilter’s system got disaggregating. And the author analyses the characteristic and limitation of Vilter’s economic thoughts and the characteristic of Russian industrialization process led by Viler’s economic thoughts analyzes the promoting and blocking effect of Vilter’s economic thoughts to Russian economy. It is safe to say Vilter takes official career and is to be successful by eating the latex of autocratic system. His affection to autocratic is profound. The essential starting point of all kinds of measures to strengthen the basis of national economy and to push the national industrialization is to consolidate the autocratic system of Russia and to serve for the benefit of nobility. Therefore, Vilter’s economic thoughts have the brand of regnant class unavoidably and involuntarily. The various economic measures taken by Viler are the choices of patterns and paths of national economic development under specific historic conditions, bear a certain character of exploration and experiment, and embody an era trait of Vilter’s economic thoughts. However, there is an incontestable contradiction between the economic thoughts embodied by Vilter’s economic system and his political thoughts and position. That is to strengthen the economic basis and to push the industrialization, some of sensitive nerves of autocratic system have to be touched, but Vilter is unwilling to see this.
It can be imagined that Viler is in a dilemma during this course. Leding by Viler’s economic thoughts, the industrialization course of Russia proceeds greatly. The economic reform initiated by him holds the balance in the history of economic development of Russia. This is first embodied in the intervention of government and the foreign capital. But simultaneously this function has caused the Russian bourgeois to be too much reliant on the protection and support of government and has made the proportion of state-owned economy is too big. The second is that the industrialization of Russia is affected by the feudal serf system remains all along, this determines the feudal hue of the industrial revolution of Russia. . The third is the centralization with the highest degree of production embodied in the industrial course of Russia. . The forth is that for the reason of the introduction of foreign capital and advanced techniques and national active intervention, the industrial revolution course of Russia is rather rapid, but the overall level of industry is low, the working productivity is low, the development of industry structure is lopsided, the industrialization course is broken by the crisis time after time. The reform taken by Vilter accelerates the industrialization course of Russia, but this kind of industrialization is established on the basis of immolation of agriculture and is carried through under the control of autocratic system. In pushing on his reform Vilter is faced with some contradictions, such as the contradiction between industrialization and laggard agriculture, and the contraction between modernization and autocratic system, moreover, these contradictions cannot be conquered. On the one hand Vilter’s system needs to rely on the autarchy, on the other hand it challenge the land system. Vilter’s system tries hard to build the conditions of development of western capitalism in Russia, but it makes the capitalist and private enterprises become the vassals of czar autocratic government. The czar autocratic system cannot tolerate the social disillusion consciousness led by Vilater’s economic system any more. Till 1902, Vilter’s system had become the burden of the czar autocratic system, in 1903 Vilter was excused from the duty of minister of finance, and the disorganization of Vilter’s system has become the inevitable result of historical development of Russia.
The author systematically discusses Viler’s economic thoughts and policies mainly in five parts. The first part is the introduction of the formation course of Vilter’s economic thoughts. It includes the historical background of his life and family notion. Vilter (1849. 5~1915. 2) was born in Tbilisi. His ancestor was German, while his mother was Russian. Vilter spent all his teen-age time in his uncle’s family. He was affected and edified by his uncle’s monarchism thoughts from childhood. He was appointed minister of finance in Aug1892, Vilter’s economic thoughts were deeply affected by Liszt, a German economist, who thinks the core of civil economics is the theory of productivity, advocates the harmonious developmental viewpoint of productivity balance, and emphasizes that not only a country must develop its own national industry but also the industry should take effect as a locomotive in the whole developmental course of civil economy. He also thinks that a country must recur to tariff protection policy, firm credit system and balanceable currency circulation for the sake of the modernization of economy. Vilter almost fully accepted Liszt’s economic thought and formed his own economic viewpoint. After he charged the ministry of finance, he practiced these economic thoughts according the situation then in Russian.
In the second part the author generally introduces the Czar’s policies in 1980s in order to show the social and historical background of Vilter’s system formation. And also show the predecessors reformation which offered theory base and economic condition for Vilter. In 19th century, political crisis deepen in Russia which made some men of insight tried to find a way to modernization
On February the 2nd 1861, Alexander the second issued act of abolishment serf, from then Russia began to go the way to reform from the high class to the low class. After the reformation of serf, the reformation of Czar Government in 1860s and 1870s extended to all parts of life including social economy, cultural education and administration management. It also issued the declaration of abolishment the peasants vassal relation followed which it took some reformation like locality and city reformation, judicatory and education reformation, press and military affairs reformation. All these methods put the whole nation to the west world without doubt. Though Alxander the second’s reformation extended all parts of life with large scale, it didn’t change the nature of autarchy management. In 1881 Alexander the third ascent the throng, who made some political policy according to particularity of Russia including confirmation self-mastery regime under the help of development national industry, keep paper money currency through protecting tariff, to manage trade and private firm strictly and to take wine and tobacco industry as national monopoly to impose taxation and to offer economic aid to lord economy using aristocrat and peasant bank to develop national economy. In foreign policy, it went on expand its territory around Russian border in order to consolidate its influence in Asia and associated with France.
In the third part, the author discuss the Czar Government realized that the industry development lag and transportation underdevelopment were the reasons of expanding war. In this formidable situation, the finance minister Vilter took some active fiscal policies, financial policies and commercial policies to reform Russian economy.
In 1890s Vilter took some measures to reform fiscal system to satisfy the new needs including let the paper currency system rose rapidly in the base of guarantee spiral of national fiscal growth, pay much attention to national budget and revenue policy that is think much of balance of budget income and expenditure and the accommodation role of revenue to national economy. Under these thoughts, Vilter stimulated the development of national economy and concerned specially the speed of national revenue. He took the alcohol monopolization reformation, industry tax and housing tax reformation, enhanced excise ways. He took many methods to increase the national revenue and controlled the expenditure farthest. When the national budget appeared deficit and the paper currency ran maladjusted, Vilter took the conservative fiscal policy to emphasize the balance of surplus which emphasized the national strong intervening. Vilter’s tax policy made the national budget income increase and solidified the base of national fiscal budget. The last goal of revenue was to strengthen the Czar Autarchy regime and to maintain the benefit of capitalism, to exploit the common people deeply, to make some classes have special rights, in the other hand, to let other classes burden heavily and deepen their exploiting degree. Vilter’s revenue policy was the reflection of Czar Russian national policy.
In finance field, after late 19th century, gold played more and more important role in national coins in currency. And many countries abandoned silver as mental standard early or late and took gold as standard which caused Russian paper ruble into trouble, for it took silver as universal equivalent. During the time when Vilter took charge the ministry of finance, he took some currency reformation. After 1893, Vilter made reformation rules and plans in detail and caught chances to withstand the pressure to advance quickly. Vilter’s currency reformation fit the tide of world economy development at that time which consolidated the Russian fiancéand stimulated the investment and accelerated the Russian economy development.
In the commercial policy, Vilter’s commerce protection policy was influenced by Frenderlier. Liz who was a German economist and the founder of tariff protection,. At that time Russian consumable market and raw and processed materials market were underdevelopment, so when Vilter was in charge of the finance, he adopted commence protection policy. Through the method of commence protection, some trade agreement were signed and the lowest charge rate was built according to offering the low charge rate to the countries who gave the most preferential duties too Russia. He also limited the importation to protect the national market and gave benefit and allowance to national export product in order to stimulate the export product and protect national market and maintain the political and economic benefit.
In foreign economic policy, Vilter stared construction of Siberia railway and Middle East railway and united the Russain far- east policy and finance capital with the help of St. Petersburg International Bank and Chinese- Russia Dao sheng Bank. Through the economic influence, Vilter enhanced the Russian expanding to far-east and served for the Russian political purpose.
Estimating Vilter’s inner and external economic policies from Russian system, economic situation, economic development and international situation, we can say that the policies enhanced the Russian national strength and fast the industrialization course of Russia proceeds and promoted the development of Russian capitalism economy.
In the fourth part the author mainly discusses that Russian came into the period of industry development rapidly under the leading of Vilter’s economic thoughts in 1890s. Because of the government directly investment, Russian industry developed very fast both in speed and scale. And the nation interference policy strengthens. Nation controlled economic field which played a very important role in Russian economic life. In the process of human historical action, maybe no other nation is more abroad and all-embracing than what the Russian government did in industry field. Vilter succeed to the predecessor finance minister’s thoughts, and was sure that only nation could control Russian economic fate and could serve for national finance and could heighten the role of nation in social economic life. So he gathers all the nation economic departments which could increase the revenue together to develop the national corporation.
At this period, except the numbers of corporations and production value increase greatly, the industry structure also changed. Vilter thinks that the constructions of basic installations should be developed preferentially and the market system in favor of the development of industry should be maintained. He also thinks that the traffic transportation especially the railway transportation plays an important role in the basic industry. Therefore, after becoming the ministry of finance, he pushed on the construction of the big railway of Siberia. He increased the investment of railway network from direct or indirect payout, not only reduced the transportation cost but also became the needed source of industry products. He put forward that the important political task was to extend the railway network, and the central task was to control the private railways into government, and let the private railway economy obey the leading of government. During the time when Vilter was the minister of finance, the whole line length of railway almost enlarged twice.
Vilter advocated and took concrete measures to invest through government and foster some important industry departments, such as coal, petroleum, and steel. Vilter continued and constantly aggrandized the tariff policy actualized by his two predecessors and delivered a tariff battle with Germany at all cost in order to develop national industry. Vilter’s policies of protecting the tariff had taken great effect both on promoting the increase of industry and on accelerating the industrialization course of Russia, the industry economy had been developed so rapidly.
During this period, due to the large scale of railway construction, foreign capital and t techniques input and the government carried out national capitalism policy, Russian industry throughput rose rapidly which led the process change greatly and caused the great change of Russian industry production structure; which also made machine industry start to dominate the Russian whole national economy and caused the Russian industry over rely on foreign capital and techniques. The advancement of industry depends mainly on nation and the needs of railway construction, that is mainly depends on the force of economic policy. In order to support the industry, finance department used the methods including intervening bourse, providing large loan among which mainly were production quota, in virtue of national ordering goods, the government provide steel and mechanism production standard production rating base on the 60percent of the level of normal productivity. Because of this, the process of industry monopolization enhanced obviously and the sale monopolization developed specially.
At the end of 19th century, the reform since 1861 had caused the polarization of peasants, rural bourgeois and rural proletariate had appeared. The economy of service system had not been perished drastically, thus this obstructed the transition to capitalism. To abolish the serf system didn’t mean the end of feudal relation. In fact, the sinuous and traditional fashion of exceeding economic exploitation was continually prevailing in Russian minors, and this was the reality of agricultural economy of Russia when Vilter was in power in the ministry of finance. Vilter thinks that the tariff protection policy should not be adopted to develop Russian agriculture, but an expansive domestic market should be established through developing local industry, the expenditure of deficit should be decreased, and the efficient and reasonable use of land resources could be improved through developing trade of techniques and primary products and through enhancing of the agricultural knowledge. Under Vilter’s presiding, the government issued a new identification card constitution, and this expanded the peasants’freedom largely. Together with heavy industry increased which guaranteed the flowage of remain work force came from rural areas. By the methods of development of techniques and farm produce trade, agricultural knowledge improved, and the land source were improved and used effectively and with reason. Under the pressure of agriculture crisis and land owner class, Vilter had to take some direct methods to support the agriculture sections especially the lord owner’s economy. And also provided benefit loan to aristocrat bank in order to save lord owners. In order to free the management of peasants bank, Vilter took the special policy of reinforcing the providing short-time load operation to peasants from national bank by using real property and farm produce as the guaranty.
However, Vilter did not realize that the modernization of agricultural economy was the necessary condition of the industrial development of Russia, and did not combine the perishing of feudal serf system remains with the development of national industry and the establishment of domestic market, this cause the unbalance of industrial and agricultural development of Russia.
The fifth part mainly about the foundation stone of vilter’s system got disaggregating. And the author analyses the characteristic and limitation of Vilter’s economic thoughts and the characteristic of Russian industrialization process led by Viler’s economic thoughts analyzes the promoting and blocking effect of Vilter’s economic thoughts to Russian economy. It is safe to say Vilter takes official career and is to be successful by eating the latex of autocratic system. His affection to autocratic is profound. The essential starting point of all kinds of measures to strengthen the basis of national economy and to push the national industrialization is to consolidate the autocratic system of Russia and to serve for the benefit of nobility. Therefore, Vilter’s economic thoughts have the brand of regnant class unavoidably and involuntarily. The various economic measures taken by Viler are the choices of patterns and paths of national economic development under specific historic conditions, bear a certain character of exploration and experiment, and embody an era trait of Vilter’s economic thoughts. However, there is an incontestable contradiction between the economic thoughts embodied by Vilter’s economic system and his political thoughts and position. That is to strengthen the economic basis and to push the industrialization, some of sensitive nerves of autocratic system have to be touched, but Vilter is unwilling to see this.
It can be imagined that Viler is in a dilemma during this course. Leding by Viler’s economic thoughts, the industrialization course of Russia proceeds greatly. The economic reform initiated by him holds the balance in the history of economic development of Russia. This is first embodied in the intervention of government and the foreign capital. But simultaneously this function has caused the Russian bourgeois to be too much reliant on the protection and support of government and has made the proportion of state-owned economy is too big. The second is that the industrialization of Russia is affected by the feudal serf system remains all along, this determines the feudal hue of the industrial revolution of Russia. . The third is the centralization with the highest degree of production embodied in the industrial course of Russia. . The forth is that for the reason of the introduction of foreign capital and advanced techniques and national active intervention, the industrial revolution course of Russia is rather rapid, but the overall level of industry is low, the working productivity is low, the development of industry structure is lopsided, the industrialization course is broken by the crisis time after time. The reform taken by Vilter accelerates the industrialization course of Russia, but this kind of industrialization is established on the basis of immolation of agriculture and is carried through under the control of autocratic system. In pushing on his reform Vilter is faced with some contradictions, such as the contradiction between industrialization and laggard agriculture, and the contraction between modernization and autocratic system, moreover, these contradictions cannot be conquered. On the one hand Vilter’s system needs to rely on the autarchy, on the other hand it challenge the land system. Vilter’s system tries hard to build the conditions of development of western capitalism in Russia, but it makes the capitalist and private enterprises become the vassals of czar autocratic government. The czar autocratic system cannot tolerate the social disillusion consciousness led by Vilater’s economic system any more. Till 1902, Vilter’s system had become the burden of the czar autocratic system, in 1903 Vilter was excused from the duty of minister of finance, and the disorganization of Vilter’s system has become the inevitable result of historical development of Russia.
引文
1刘祖熙:《改革和革命》,北京大学出版社,2001年。
2张广翔:外国资本与俄国工业化,《历史研究》,1995年,第6期。
1张建华:李鸿章和维特经济现代化,《北方论丛》,2001年,第5期。
2张建华:维特的改革的影响及实质,《求是学刊》,1990年,第4期。
3张建华:维特的经济改革与俄国工业化,学习时报,2004年,3月
4罗爱林:维特货币改革评述,《西伯利亚研究》,1999年,第5期。
1张德敬:论19世纪下半期的俄国币制改革,《历史教学》,1994年,第8期。
2张广翔:19世纪俄国政府的工商业政策基本趋势,《西泊利亚研究》,2000年,第4期。
3张广翔:19世纪末-20世纪初欧洲煤炭市场整合与俄国煤炭进口,《北方论丛》,2004年,第1期。
4张广翔: 19世纪-20世纪俄国的税制改革与经济增长,《吉林大学社会科学学报》,2004年,第3期。
1张广翔:俄国农业的改革艰难推进与斯托雷平的农业现代化尝试,《吉林大学社会科学学报》, 2005年,第5期。
2刘存宽:维特与1895年中俄四厘贷款,《黑龙江社会科学》,2002年,第3期。
3毛晨岚:维特在西伯利亚大铁路建设中的作用,《上饶师范学院学报》,2004年,第4期。
1祝政宏:沙皇制度演变时期一位充满矛盾的人物―评1905年前后的谢?尤?维特,《苏州科技学院学报》,1993年,第1期。
1С.Ю.Витте,СобраниесочиненийидокумендальныхматериаловВ5,Т1,ПутисообщенияиэкономическоеразвитиеРоссии,Кн1,М,Наука,2002.
2Б.В.Ананьч,Р.Ш.Ганелзн,СергеийЮльевичВиттеиеговремя,С-Петербург,1999, 17 C.
1Б.В.Ананьч,Р.Ш.Ганелзн,СергеийЮльевичВиттеиеговремя,С-Петербург,1999, 29 C.
2 [俄]维特著,[美]亚尔莫林斯基编,傅正译:《维特伯爵回忆录》,商务印书馆,1976年,第14页。
3С.Ю.Витте,СобраниесочиненийидокумендальныхматериаловВ5,Т1,ПутисообщенияиэкономическоеразвитиеРоссии,Кн1,М,Наука,2002,46c.
1 [俄]维特著,[美]亚尔莫林斯基编,傅正译:《维特伯爵回忆录》,商务印书馆,1976年,第22页。
2 [俄]维特著,[美]亚尔莫林斯基编,傅正译:《维特伯爵回忆录》,商务印书馆,1976年,第22页。
1 [俄]维特著,[美]亚尔莫林斯基编,傅正译:《维特伯爵回忆录》,商务印书馆,1976年,第25页。
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