礼貌策略与性别差异
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摘要
本文介绍了礼貌理论,比较了各种关于语言与性别关系的模式,并进而提出一种更合理的方法论来研究语言策略的性别差异。本文涉及的语料选自美国各大电视台的人物访谈节目,共选取八十套不同时间段录制的节目,根据采访者与受访者的性别分为四组进行研究分析,即每组有二十套不同的节目。观察和分析了访谈者面对不同性别的对话方采取的面子补救策略有何变化,这不同于以往只单纯统计男女各采用某种语言手段的数量的简单做法。
语料分析主要针对行为策略和语言策略,前者包括赞扬,打断,请求等言语行为的实施,后者包括回馈语,模糊语,省略语,附加疑问句等语言形式。这些策略主要来源于布朗和列文森的礼貌理论,特别是面子补救策略,同时借鉴了其他语言学家的研究成果。
性别和其他语境因素同为变量,共同决定访谈者在表达礼貌时采用何种礼貌策略。要达到礼貌交际的目的,语境是关键,而语境由许多因素组成,性别因素只位列其一。
After the introduction of politeness theory and the comparison of different models of language and gender, this paper proposes a more feasible methodology to analyze the gender differences in the employment of politeness strategies. Eighty interviews collected from American TV talk shows are analyzed in four dyads according to the gender of the interviewer and interviewee that may have been involved. When interacting with the different gender, the interlocutors’variation in face-saving strategies has been observed and analyzed. This excels the common practices in which only a simple counting was made of the frequency of occurrences of a linguistic form.
The collected data are analyzed with special focus on behaviour strategies as seen in the performance of such speech acts as compliments, interruptions and requests, and linguistic strategies such as minimal responses, hedges, ellipsis and tag questions. Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory and especially the face-saving strategies are the main source of the mentioned politeness strategies. The research results of other linguists have also been used as a reference in the analysis process.
Gender, along with other contextual variables, determines the employment of politeness strategies chosen by the interlocutors in expressing politeness. The achievement of polite communication relies on the context which consists of various factors, gender being only one of them.
语料分析主要针对行为策略和语言策略,前者包括赞扬,打断,请求等言语行为的实施,后者包括回馈语,模糊语,省略语,附加疑问句等语言形式。这些策略主要来源于布朗和列文森的礼貌理论,特别是面子补救策略,同时借鉴了其他语言学家的研究成果。
性别和其他语境因素同为变量,共同决定访谈者在表达礼貌时采用何种礼貌策略。要达到礼貌交际的目的,语境是关键,而语境由许多因素组成,性别因素只位列其一。
After the introduction of politeness theory and the comparison of different models of language and gender, this paper proposes a more feasible methodology to analyze the gender differences in the employment of politeness strategies. Eighty interviews collected from American TV talk shows are analyzed in four dyads according to the gender of the interviewer and interviewee that may have been involved. When interacting with the different gender, the interlocutors’variation in face-saving strategies has been observed and analyzed. This excels the common practices in which only a simple counting was made of the frequency of occurrences of a linguistic form.
The collected data are analyzed with special focus on behaviour strategies as seen in the performance of such speech acts as compliments, interruptions and requests, and linguistic strategies such as minimal responses, hedges, ellipsis and tag questions. Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory and especially the face-saving strategies are the main source of the mentioned politeness strategies. The research results of other linguists have also been used as a reference in the analysis process.
Gender, along with other contextual variables, determines the employment of politeness strategies chosen by the interlocutors in expressing politeness. The achievement of polite communication relies on the context which consists of various factors, gender being only one of them.
引文
Bargiela-Chiappini, Francesca.“Face and Politeness: New (Insights) for Old (Concepts).”Journal of Pragmatics 35 (2003): 1453-69.
Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Trans. H. M. Parshley. New York: Vintage, 1974.
Benor, Sarah, et al, eds. Gendered Practices in Language. Stanford, Calif: CSLI, 2002.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana.“Indirectness and Politeness in Requests: Same or Different?”Journal of Pragmatics 11. 2 (1987): 131-46.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, Juliane House, and Gabriele Kasper, eds. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Norwood: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1989.
Brown, Penelope.“How and Why Women Are Women More Polite: Some Evidence from a Mayan Community.”Women and Language in Literature and Society. Ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker, and Nelly Furman. New York: Praegar, 1980. 111-36.
Brown, Penelope, and Stephen Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987.
Brown, Penelope, and Stephen Levinson.“Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena.”Questions and Politeness: Strategies in Social Interaction. Ed. E. N. Goody. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1978. 56-289.
Button, Grahm, and John R. E. Lee.“Moving out of Closings.”Talk and Social Organization. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1987. 101-51.
Cameron, Deborah. Feminism and Linguistic Theory. Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1992.
Christie, Christine. Gender and Language: Towards A Feminist Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2000.
Cixous, Hélène.“Sorties.”New French Feminisms. Ed. Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron. New York: Harvester, 1981.
Coates, Jennifer, ed. Language and Gender: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
---. Women, Men and Language. 2nd ed. London, New York: Longman, 1993.
Crawford, Mary.“Gender and Humor in Social Context.”Journal of Pragmatics 35. 9 (2003): 1413-30.
Dubois, Betty Lou and Isable Crouch.“The Question of Tag Questions in Women’s Speech: They Don’t Really Use More of Them, Do They?”Language in Society 4 (1975): 289-294.
Durkheim, Emile. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1915.
Eckert, Penelope, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Language and Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
Edelsky, Carole.“Acquisition of an Aspect of Communicative Competence: Learning What it Means to Talk Like a Lady.”Child Discourse. Ed. Susan Ervin-Tripp and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan. New York: Academic Press, 1977. 225-43.
Fairclough, Norman. Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. New York: Longman, 1995.
Fishman, Pamela.“Conversational Insecurity.”Giles, Robinson and Smith 127-32.
---.“Interaction: The Work Women Do.”Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae and Nancy Henley 89-101.
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt and Bill Jirsa.“The Principle of Indirect Means in Language Use and Language Structure.”Journal of Pragmatics 38. 4 (2006): 513-42.
Furfey, Paul Hanley.“Men’s and Women’s Language.”American Catholic Sociological Review 5 (1944): 218-23.
Giles, H., W. P. Robinson and P. M. Smith, eds. Language: Social Psychological Perspectives. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1980.
Goffman, Erving. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior. London: Allen Lane the Penguin Press, 1967.
Gray, John. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. Harris, Sandra.“Politeness and Power: Making and Responding to‘Requests’in Institutional Settings.”Text 23. 1 (2003): 27-52.
Hellinger, Marlis, and Hadumod BuBmann, eds. Gender Across Languages. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001.
Herbert, Robert K.“Sex-Based Differences in Compliment Behavior.”Language in Society 19. 2 (1990): 201-24.
---.“The Ethnography of English Compliments and Compliment Responses: A Contrastive Sketch.”Contrastive Pragmatics. Ed. Wieslaw Oleksy. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1989. 3-35.
Hirschman, Lynette.“Female-Male Differences in Conversational Interaction.”Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley 249.
Hobbs, Pamela.“The Medium Is the Message: Politeness Strategies in Men’s and Women’s Voice Mail Messages.”Journal of Pragmatics 35. 2 (2003): 243-62.
Holmes, Janet.“Paying Compliments: A Sex-Preferential Politeness Strategy.”Journal of Pragmatics 12 (1988): 445-65.
---.“The Functions of Tag Questions.”English Language Research Journal 3 (1982), 40-65.
---.“‘Women’s Language’: A Functional Approach.”General Linguistics 24. 3 (1984): 149-78.
---. Women, Men and Politeness. London, New York: Longman, 1995.
Holmes, Janet, and Miriam Meyerhoff, eds. The Handbook of Language and Gender. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Jesperson, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. London: Allen and Unwin, 1922.
Kitzinger, Celia.“Feminism, Psychology, and the Paradox of Power.”Feminism and Psychology 1 (1991): 111-29.
Kramer, Cheris R.“Women’s Speech: Separate But Unequal?”Quarterly Journal of Speech 60 (1974): 14-24.
Lakoff, Robin T. Language and Woman’s Place. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1975.
Lakoff, Robin T. Lanuage and Woman’s Place: Text and Commentaries. Ed. Mary Bucholtz. New York: Oxford UP, 2004.
Lakoff, Robin T. and Sachiko Ide, eds. Broadening the Horizon of Linguistic Politeness. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2005.
Leech, Geoffrey N. Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman, 1983.
Lorraine, Tasmin. E. Gender, Identity, and the Production of Meaning. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990.
Maccoby, Eleanor Emmons, and Carol Nagy Jacklin. The Psychology of Sex Differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1974.
MacKinnon, Catherine A.“Difference and Dominance: On Sex Discrimination.”Feminism Unmodified: Discourse on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1984. 32-45.
Malam, S.“A Politeness-Based Model of Turn-Taking for the Consideration of Sex Differences in Interaction.”Journal of Linguistics 2 (1995): 223-241.
Maltz, Daniel N. and Ruth A. Borker.“A Cultural Approach to Male-Female Miscommunication.”Language and Social Identity. Ed. John J. Gumperz. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1982. 196-216.
Mao, LuMing Robert.“Beyond Politeness Theory:‘Face’Revisited and Renewed.”Journal of Pragmatics 21 (1994): 451-86.
Meier, A. J.“Passages of Politeness.”Journal of Pragmatics 24 (1995): 381-92.
Mills, Sara. Gender and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
---. Gendering the Reader. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994.
Morgan, Jerry.“Two Types of Convention in Indirect Speech Acts.”Syntax and Semantics 9: Pragmatics. Ed. Peter Cole. New York: Academic Press, 1978. 261-81.
Newcombe, Nora, and Diane B. Arnkoff.“Effects of Speech Style and Sex of Speaker on Person Perception.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 1293-1303.
O’Barr, William, and Bowman Atkins.“Women’s Language or Powerless Language?”Women and Language in Literature and Society. Ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker and Nelly Furman. New York: Praeger, 1980. 93-110.
O’Driscoll, Jim.“About Face: A Defence and Elaboration of Universal Dualism.”Journal of Pragmatics 25 (1996): 1-32.
Pearson, Judy Cornelia. Gender and Communication. U.S.A.: Wm.C.Brown Company, 1985.
Reid, Julie.“A Study of Gender Differences in Minimal Responses.”Journal of Pragmatics 24 (1995): 489-512.
Rundquist, Suellen.“Indirectness: A Gender Study of Flouting Grice’s Maxims.”Journal of Pragmatics 18 (1992): 431-49.
Searle, John.“Indirect Speech Acts.”Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. Ed. Peter Cole and Jerry L. Morgan. New York: Academic Press, 1975. 30-82.
Steiner, Philippe. La Sociologie de Durkheim. Paris: La Découverte, 2000.
Sunderland, Jane. Gendered Discourses. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
Talbot, Mary, Karen Atkinson, and David Atkinson. Language and Power in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2003. Tannen, Deborah, ed. Gender and Conversational Interaction. New York: Oxford UP, 1993.
---. Gender and Discourse. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994.
---. That’s Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Your Relations with Others. New York: Ballantine, 1986.
---. You Just Don’t Understand. New York: William Morrow, 1990.
Thomas, Jenny. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. London: Longman, 1995.
Thorne, Barrie, and Nancy Henley, eds. Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975.
Thorne, Barrie, Cheris Kramarae and Nancy Henley, eds. Language, Gender, and Society. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.
Todd, Alexandra Dundas, and Sue Fisher, eds. Gender and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1988.
Turner, K.“The Principal Principles of Pragmatic Inference: Politeness.”Language Teaching 29 (1996): 1-13.
Watts, Richard J. Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
---. Politeness in Language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992.
West, Candace, and Don Zimmerman.“Small Insults: A Study of Interrruptions in Cross-Sex Conversations Between Unaquainted Persons.”Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae and Nancy Henley 102-17.
Winter, J.“Gender and the Political Interview in an Australian Context.”Journal of Pragmatics 20 (1993): 117-39.
Zimmerman, Don, and Candace West.“Sex Roles, Interruptions and Silences inCoversation.”Thorne and Henley 105-29.
Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. Trans. H. M. Parshley. New York: Vintage, 1974.
Benor, Sarah, et al, eds. Gendered Practices in Language. Stanford, Calif: CSLI, 2002.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana.“Indirectness and Politeness in Requests: Same or Different?”Journal of Pragmatics 11. 2 (1987): 131-46.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, Juliane House, and Gabriele Kasper, eds. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Norwood: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1989.
Brown, Penelope.“How and Why Women Are Women More Polite: Some Evidence from a Mayan Community.”Women and Language in Literature and Society. Ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker, and Nelly Furman. New York: Praegar, 1980. 111-36.
Brown, Penelope, and Stephen Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987.
Brown, Penelope, and Stephen Levinson.“Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenomena.”Questions and Politeness: Strategies in Social Interaction. Ed. E. N. Goody. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1978. 56-289.
Button, Grahm, and John R. E. Lee.“Moving out of Closings.”Talk and Social Organization. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1987. 101-51.
Cameron, Deborah. Feminism and Linguistic Theory. Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1992.
Christie, Christine. Gender and Language: Towards A Feminist Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2000.
Cixous, Hélène.“Sorties.”New French Feminisms. Ed. Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron. New York: Harvester, 1981.
Coates, Jennifer, ed. Language and Gender: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
---. Women, Men and Language. 2nd ed. London, New York: Longman, 1993.
Crawford, Mary.“Gender and Humor in Social Context.”Journal of Pragmatics 35. 9 (2003): 1413-30.
Dubois, Betty Lou and Isable Crouch.“The Question of Tag Questions in Women’s Speech: They Don’t Really Use More of Them, Do They?”Language in Society 4 (1975): 289-294.
Durkheim, Emile. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1915.
Eckert, Penelope, and Sally McConnell-Ginet. Language and Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
Edelsky, Carole.“Acquisition of an Aspect of Communicative Competence: Learning What it Means to Talk Like a Lady.”Child Discourse. Ed. Susan Ervin-Tripp and Claudia Mitchell-Kernan. New York: Academic Press, 1977. 225-43.
Fairclough, Norman. Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language. New York: Longman, 1995.
Fishman, Pamela.“Conversational Insecurity.”Giles, Robinson and Smith 127-32.
---.“Interaction: The Work Women Do.”Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae and Nancy Henley 89-101.
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt and Bill Jirsa.“The Principle of Indirect Means in Language Use and Language Structure.”Journal of Pragmatics 38. 4 (2006): 513-42.
Furfey, Paul Hanley.“Men’s and Women’s Language.”American Catholic Sociological Review 5 (1944): 218-23.
Giles, H., W. P. Robinson and P. M. Smith, eds. Language: Social Psychological Perspectives. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1980.
Goffman, Erving. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior. London: Allen Lane the Penguin Press, 1967.
Gray, John. Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. Harris, Sandra.“Politeness and Power: Making and Responding to‘Requests’in Institutional Settings.”Text 23. 1 (2003): 27-52.
Hellinger, Marlis, and Hadumod BuBmann, eds. Gender Across Languages. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2001.
Herbert, Robert K.“Sex-Based Differences in Compliment Behavior.”Language in Society 19. 2 (1990): 201-24.
---.“The Ethnography of English Compliments and Compliment Responses: A Contrastive Sketch.”Contrastive Pragmatics. Ed. Wieslaw Oleksy. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1989. 3-35.
Hirschman, Lynette.“Female-Male Differences in Conversational Interaction.”Barrie Thorne and Nancy Henley 249.
Hobbs, Pamela.“The Medium Is the Message: Politeness Strategies in Men’s and Women’s Voice Mail Messages.”Journal of Pragmatics 35. 2 (2003): 243-62.
Holmes, Janet.“Paying Compliments: A Sex-Preferential Politeness Strategy.”Journal of Pragmatics 12 (1988): 445-65.
---.“The Functions of Tag Questions.”English Language Research Journal 3 (1982), 40-65.
---.“‘Women’s Language’: A Functional Approach.”General Linguistics 24. 3 (1984): 149-78.
---. Women, Men and Politeness. London, New York: Longman, 1995.
Holmes, Janet, and Miriam Meyerhoff, eds. The Handbook of Language and Gender. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Jesperson, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. London: Allen and Unwin, 1922.
Kitzinger, Celia.“Feminism, Psychology, and the Paradox of Power.”Feminism and Psychology 1 (1991): 111-29.
Kramer, Cheris R.“Women’s Speech: Separate But Unequal?”Quarterly Journal of Speech 60 (1974): 14-24.
Lakoff, Robin T. Language and Woman’s Place. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1975.
Lakoff, Robin T. Lanuage and Woman’s Place: Text and Commentaries. Ed. Mary Bucholtz. New York: Oxford UP, 2004.
Lakoff, Robin T. and Sachiko Ide, eds. Broadening the Horizon of Linguistic Politeness. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2005.
Leech, Geoffrey N. Principles of Pragmatics. London: Longman, 1983.
Lorraine, Tasmin. E. Gender, Identity, and the Production of Meaning. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1990.
Maccoby, Eleanor Emmons, and Carol Nagy Jacklin. The Psychology of Sex Differences. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1974.
MacKinnon, Catherine A.“Difference and Dominance: On Sex Discrimination.”Feminism Unmodified: Discourse on Life and Law. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1984. 32-45.
Malam, S.“A Politeness-Based Model of Turn-Taking for the Consideration of Sex Differences in Interaction.”Journal of Linguistics 2 (1995): 223-241.
Maltz, Daniel N. and Ruth A. Borker.“A Cultural Approach to Male-Female Miscommunication.”Language and Social Identity. Ed. John J. Gumperz. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1982. 196-216.
Mao, LuMing Robert.“Beyond Politeness Theory:‘Face’Revisited and Renewed.”Journal of Pragmatics 21 (1994): 451-86.
Meier, A. J.“Passages of Politeness.”Journal of Pragmatics 24 (1995): 381-92.
Mills, Sara. Gender and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
---. Gendering the Reader. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994.
Morgan, Jerry.“Two Types of Convention in Indirect Speech Acts.”Syntax and Semantics 9: Pragmatics. Ed. Peter Cole. New York: Academic Press, 1978. 261-81.
Newcombe, Nora, and Diane B. Arnkoff.“Effects of Speech Style and Sex of Speaker on Person Perception.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 1293-1303.
O’Barr, William, and Bowman Atkins.“Women’s Language or Powerless Language?”Women and Language in Literature and Society. Ed. Sally McConnell-Ginet, Ruth Borker and Nelly Furman. New York: Praeger, 1980. 93-110.
O’Driscoll, Jim.“About Face: A Defence and Elaboration of Universal Dualism.”Journal of Pragmatics 25 (1996): 1-32.
Pearson, Judy Cornelia. Gender and Communication. U.S.A.: Wm.C.Brown Company, 1985.
Reid, Julie.“A Study of Gender Differences in Minimal Responses.”Journal of Pragmatics 24 (1995): 489-512.
Rundquist, Suellen.“Indirectness: A Gender Study of Flouting Grice’s Maxims.”Journal of Pragmatics 18 (1992): 431-49.
Searle, John.“Indirect Speech Acts.”Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts. Ed. Peter Cole and Jerry L. Morgan. New York: Academic Press, 1975. 30-82.
Steiner, Philippe. La Sociologie de Durkheim. Paris: La Découverte, 2000.
Sunderland, Jane. Gendered Discourses. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
Talbot, Mary, Karen Atkinson, and David Atkinson. Language and Power in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2003. Tannen, Deborah, ed. Gender and Conversational Interaction. New York: Oxford UP, 1993.
---. Gender and Discourse. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994.
---. That’s Not What I Meant!: How Conversational Style Makes or Breaks Your Relations with Others. New York: Ballantine, 1986.
---. You Just Don’t Understand. New York: William Morrow, 1990.
Thomas, Jenny. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. London: Longman, 1995.
Thorne, Barrie, and Nancy Henley, eds. Language and Sex: Difference and Dominance. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975.
Thorne, Barrie, Cheris Kramarae and Nancy Henley, eds. Language, Gender, and Society. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.
Todd, Alexandra Dundas, and Sue Fisher, eds. Gender and Discourse: The Power of Talk. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1988.
Turner, K.“The Principal Principles of Pragmatic Inference: Politeness.”Language Teaching 29 (1996): 1-13.
Watts, Richard J. Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003.
---. Politeness in Language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992.
West, Candace, and Don Zimmerman.“Small Insults: A Study of Interrruptions in Cross-Sex Conversations Between Unaquainted Persons.”Barrie Thorne, Cheris Kramarae and Nancy Henley 102-17.
Winter, J.“Gender and the Political Interview in an Australian Context.”Journal of Pragmatics 20 (1993): 117-39.
Zimmerman, Don, and Candace West.“Sex Roles, Interruptions and Silences inCoversation.”Thorne and Henley 105-29.