后期维特根斯坦语境论研究
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摘要
维特根斯坦作为20世纪最伟大的哲学家,如何对其前后期理论进行合理的解读,一直是中西方学界孜孜以求的事情。对前期维特根斯坦的研究大多侧重于他的逻辑原子论,而对后期维特根斯坦理论的研究则侧重从语言哲学、现象学、美学等进行分析。本文拟从语言哲学、认知科学和科学知识社会学三方面来分析论证后期维特根斯坦的主要理论,并得出后期维特根斯坦就是一位语境论者。
在语言哲学维度上,国内在这面的讨论相对较多,在此本论文的着墨并不多。在维特根斯坦看来,哲学就是进行语言分析。哲学的任务在于澄清语言的意义。文中主要讨论了维特根斯坦的语言哥白尼式革命,从实在论与反实在论的讨论引申出维特根斯坦是否把语言作为了一种实在或基底,就如柏拉图的理念与康德的范畴。维特根斯坦本人反对实在论,但他本人却又恰恰把语言当作一种实在在进行研究与分析。维特根斯坦认为,语言的意义在于用法,后期维特根斯坦的这种语用学观点就是明显的语境论观。
在人工智能方面来说,目前属于研究的热点,有多个学科在做这方面的研究,也有不少论文提到过维特根斯坦心智哲学思想,但并没有专门的著作或论文进行过这方面的讨论。即使有也只是从心理哲学的角度上进行分析。本文首先讨论了“机器能否思维”的问题,及弱AI代表人物图灵(主张机器能思维)与强逻辑行为主义代表人物维特根斯坦(主张机器不能思维)之间的争议,并讨论了维特根斯坦是否是一位认知主义者,他又是否修正了塞尔的中文屋思想实验。那么通过分析得出：由于人是特定语境中的人,作为准规则遵守者的机器并不需要环境,由于机器是非语境化的。因此,语境化是人区别于机器的本质特征之一。而毋庸置疑维特根斯坦可以算是人工智能的先驱,但把他归于认知主义者,却需要谨慎有待进一步的分析与论证。并且维特根斯坦是从语义外在论(语境思想)上修正了塞尔的中文屋思想。
在科学知识社会学(SSK)维度上,国内在对SSK对维特根斯坦理论的分析上讨论相对较少。本文分为六小节全面讨论了SSK对后期维特根斯坦观点的引用与阐释,即维特根斯坦的遵守规则理论、个例：与世隔绝的鲁滨逊能否遵守规则、维特根斯坦规则遵守悖论、维特根斯坦“有限”与“无限”概念的争议、维特根斯坦对数学实在性的解构、弗郎西斯对维特根斯坦理论的辩护六个方面。从分析论证可以得出,SSK对于维特根斯坦理论的引用与阐释,虽然并非都合理,但它却从某一角度表明,后期的维特根斯坦理论离不开社会实践因素与社会语境因素。
最后,通过三方面的论证分析得出结论：维特根斯坦的语言游戏、遵守规则、家族相似性及生活形式都包含了语境论思想。①语言游戏：语言的意义在于使用,而语言的使用又依赖于日常生活的语境背景,进行语言游戏又离不开一定的规则。②遵守规则：遵守规则的基础在于共同体对规则有一致的认可性,因此不可能私自的遵守规则,规则的遵守离不开传统、制度与习俗等的语境因素；③生活形式：语言游戏根植于生活形式之中,而生活形式又为语言游戏提供参考,后期维特根斯坦的生活形式来源于生活而又高于生活语境。④家族相似性：后期维特根斯坦的家族相似概念直接针对的是共相概念,其最根本的基点是否认世界本质的存在。词或句没有本质上的相同性,只有语境中的相似性。
Wittgenstein, as one of the greatest philosopher of the20th century, it has been assiduously seek for Chinese and Western academia that how appropriate to interpret his pre-and post-theory. The study of pre-Wittgenstein mainly focus on the logical atomism and of the later Wittgenstein focus on the philosophy of language,phenomenology, aesthetics.This paper intends to analyse the later Wittgenstein's main theory from the three dimension, viz, language philosophy(Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution), cognitive sicence(AI), and sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK), concluded that later Wittgenstein is a contextualist.
Philosophy of language dimension. This dimension's domestic discussion is more relatively to the other dimension, so this paper intends not to describe too much about it. It seems to Wittgenstein that philosophy's task is do linguistic analysis, and the task of philosophy is to clarify the meaning of the language. In this paper, mainly focuses on Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution, whether Wittgenstein regards languages as a reality or substratum from the angle of the realism and anti-realism, which are just as Plato's Idea and Kant's Category. Wittgenstein who himself opposed to realism, but his own regard language as one kind of reality to research and analysis. Wittgenstein claims that the meaning of language lies in using, and later Wittgenstein's pragmatics obviously is the view of ocntextualism.
As far as AI concerned, it is a hot research which have multi-disciplinary do research in this area, and lots of papers have mentioned of Wittgenstein's philosophy of mind, but there is no specialized books and papers to discuss about it. Even if there have some discusses that it is only from the perspective of philosophy of psychology. There mainly discuss the different view between the weak AI of A.M.Turing (who believes that machine can thinking) and Logical behaviorism of Wittgenstein(who claims that machine cannot thinking) on the issue of whether machine thinking. And also discuss whether Wittgenstein is a cognitivist and whether he revises Searle's Chinese Room Argument experiment?Then, we can draw the conclusion from the analysis that due to human being is in the specific context, and the machine of a quasi-rules following does not need the environment, so, the machine is non-contextualized.Therefore, contextualism is one of the essential characteristics different between human being and machine. There is no doubt that Wittgenstein can be regarded as a pioneer in AI, but it needs to be cautious that attribute him to a cognitivist, which is still further analysis and argument.Wittgenstein is amended Searle's Chinese Room Argument from the semantic externalism(the thought of context).
SSK dimension. It is seldom discuss to Wittgenstein's theory from SSK dimension in domestic and the relevant literature is bare. So, this paper discusses six issues to Wittgenstein's theory of sociology:such as Wittgenstein's theory of rules following, a case:isolated Robinson who can follow rule or not, Wittgenstein's rule following paradox, Wittgenstein's finitism, Wittgenstein's deconstruction of mathematical's reality and David Francis's defense of Wittgenstein. It can conclude that SSK's reference and interpretation for Wittgenstein theory is not reasonable, but it shows that later Wittgenstein's theory can not be separated from social practice factors and social context factors.
We can conclude, from the three dimension, that Wittgenstein'language games, rule following,family resemblance and forms of life contain the characterictics of contextualism.①Language games:the meaning of language is the use of language. Language'using depends on the daily life's context, and language game can not do without certain rules.②Rule following:the foundation of rule following is there has a consistent idea in community, so it is impossible to private follow rule. Rule following is inseparable from the contextual factors, such as the traditions, institutions and practices etc.③Forms of life:language game is root in the forms of life, and the forms of life also provide a reference for the language game.The later wittgenstein's forms of life origins from life and higher than life context.④family resemblance: Later Wittgenstein's family resemblance concept that targeted is the concepts of general. Its most foundamental point is to deny the existence of the nature of world. Words or sentence is essentially the same, which only have the resemblance in the context.
在语言哲学维度上,国内在这面的讨论相对较多,在此本论文的着墨并不多。在维特根斯坦看来,哲学就是进行语言分析。哲学的任务在于澄清语言的意义。文中主要讨论了维特根斯坦的语言哥白尼式革命,从实在论与反实在论的讨论引申出维特根斯坦是否把语言作为了一种实在或基底,就如柏拉图的理念与康德的范畴。维特根斯坦本人反对实在论,但他本人却又恰恰把语言当作一种实在在进行研究与分析。维特根斯坦认为,语言的意义在于用法,后期维特根斯坦的这种语用学观点就是明显的语境论观。
在人工智能方面来说,目前属于研究的热点,有多个学科在做这方面的研究,也有不少论文提到过维特根斯坦心智哲学思想,但并没有专门的著作或论文进行过这方面的讨论。即使有也只是从心理哲学的角度上进行分析。本文首先讨论了“机器能否思维”的问题,及弱AI代表人物图灵(主张机器能思维)与强逻辑行为主义代表人物维特根斯坦(主张机器不能思维)之间的争议,并讨论了维特根斯坦是否是一位认知主义者,他又是否修正了塞尔的中文屋思想实验。那么通过分析得出：由于人是特定语境中的人,作为准规则遵守者的机器并不需要环境,由于机器是非语境化的。因此,语境化是人区别于机器的本质特征之一。而毋庸置疑维特根斯坦可以算是人工智能的先驱,但把他归于认知主义者,却需要谨慎有待进一步的分析与论证。并且维特根斯坦是从语义外在论(语境思想)上修正了塞尔的中文屋思想。
在科学知识社会学(SSK)维度上,国内在对SSK对维特根斯坦理论的分析上讨论相对较少。本文分为六小节全面讨论了SSK对后期维特根斯坦观点的引用与阐释,即维特根斯坦的遵守规则理论、个例：与世隔绝的鲁滨逊能否遵守规则、维特根斯坦规则遵守悖论、维特根斯坦“有限”与“无限”概念的争议、维特根斯坦对数学实在性的解构、弗郎西斯对维特根斯坦理论的辩护六个方面。从分析论证可以得出,SSK对于维特根斯坦理论的引用与阐释,虽然并非都合理,但它却从某一角度表明,后期的维特根斯坦理论离不开社会实践因素与社会语境因素。
最后,通过三方面的论证分析得出结论：维特根斯坦的语言游戏、遵守规则、家族相似性及生活形式都包含了语境论思想。①语言游戏：语言的意义在于使用,而语言的使用又依赖于日常生活的语境背景,进行语言游戏又离不开一定的规则。②遵守规则：遵守规则的基础在于共同体对规则有一致的认可性,因此不可能私自的遵守规则,规则的遵守离不开传统、制度与习俗等的语境因素；③生活形式：语言游戏根植于生活形式之中,而生活形式又为语言游戏提供参考,后期维特根斯坦的生活形式来源于生活而又高于生活语境。④家族相似性：后期维特根斯坦的家族相似概念直接针对的是共相概念,其最根本的基点是否认世界本质的存在。词或句没有本质上的相同性,只有语境中的相似性。
Wittgenstein, as one of the greatest philosopher of the20th century, it has been assiduously seek for Chinese and Western academia that how appropriate to interpret his pre-and post-theory. The study of pre-Wittgenstein mainly focus on the logical atomism and of the later Wittgenstein focus on the philosophy of language,phenomenology, aesthetics.This paper intends to analyse the later Wittgenstein's main theory from the three dimension, viz, language philosophy(Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution), cognitive sicence(AI), and sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK), concluded that later Wittgenstein is a contextualist.
Philosophy of language dimension. This dimension's domestic discussion is more relatively to the other dimension, so this paper intends not to describe too much about it. It seems to Wittgenstein that philosophy's task is do linguistic analysis, and the task of philosophy is to clarify the meaning of the language. In this paper, mainly focuses on Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution, whether Wittgenstein regards languages as a reality or substratum from the angle of the realism and anti-realism, which are just as Plato's Idea and Kant's Category. Wittgenstein who himself opposed to realism, but his own regard language as one kind of reality to research and analysis. Wittgenstein claims that the meaning of language lies in using, and later Wittgenstein's pragmatics obviously is the view of ocntextualism.
As far as AI concerned, it is a hot research which have multi-disciplinary do research in this area, and lots of papers have mentioned of Wittgenstein's philosophy of mind, but there is no specialized books and papers to discuss about it. Even if there have some discusses that it is only from the perspective of philosophy of psychology. There mainly discuss the different view between the weak AI of A.M.Turing (who believes that machine can thinking) and Logical behaviorism of Wittgenstein(who claims that machine cannot thinking) on the issue of whether machine thinking. And also discuss whether Wittgenstein is a cognitivist and whether he revises Searle's Chinese Room Argument experiment?Then, we can draw the conclusion from the analysis that due to human being is in the specific context, and the machine of a quasi-rules following does not need the environment, so, the machine is non-contextualized.Therefore, contextualism is one of the essential characteristics different between human being and machine. There is no doubt that Wittgenstein can be regarded as a pioneer in AI, but it needs to be cautious that attribute him to a cognitivist, which is still further analysis and argument.Wittgenstein is amended Searle's Chinese Room Argument from the semantic externalism(the thought of context).
SSK dimension. It is seldom discuss to Wittgenstein's theory from SSK dimension in domestic and the relevant literature is bare. So, this paper discusses six issues to Wittgenstein's theory of sociology:such as Wittgenstein's theory of rules following, a case:isolated Robinson who can follow rule or not, Wittgenstein's rule following paradox, Wittgenstein's finitism, Wittgenstein's deconstruction of mathematical's reality and David Francis's defense of Wittgenstein. It can conclude that SSK's reference and interpretation for Wittgenstein theory is not reasonable, but it shows that later Wittgenstein's theory can not be separated from social practice factors and social context factors.
We can conclude, from the three dimension, that Wittgenstein'language games, rule following,family resemblance and forms of life contain the characterictics of contextualism.①Language games:the meaning of language is the use of language. Language'using depends on the daily life's context, and language game can not do without certain rules.②Rule following:the foundation of rule following is there has a consistent idea in community, so it is impossible to private follow rule. Rule following is inseparable from the contextual factors, such as the traditions, institutions and practices etc.③Forms of life:language game is root in the forms of life, and the forms of life also provide a reference for the language game.The later wittgenstein's forms of life origins from life and higher than life context.④family resemblance: Later Wittgenstein's family resemblance concept that targeted is the concepts of general. Its most foundamental point is to deny the existence of the nature of world. Words or sentence is essentially the same, which only have the resemblance in the context.
引文
[1]关于这场争论,感兴趣的读者可以参阅安德鲁.皮克林主编的《作为实践与文化的科学》。
①魏屹东.广义语境中的科学.京：科学出版社会.2004：14.
①魏屹东,语境与认知推理.山西大学学报,2008(6)：12-62.
②Ibid：pp12-62.
①彩票悖论最早是由凯伯格首先发现并正式发表的。彩票悖论大致如下：在有一百万张彩票的公平抽奖活动中,有且仅有一张彩票会中奖,那么,每张彩票不会中奖的概率高达0.999999,根据“公认的”信念的高概率接受规则,我们可以合理地认为“第N张彩票不会中奖”(在此,N是1到1 000 000之间的任何一个自然数)。这意味着没有一张彩票会中奖。这显然与所给条件“有且仅有一张彩票中奖”相矛盾。
②Elke Brendel, Christoph Jager. Contextualist Approaches to Epistemology:Problems and prospects. In Contextualisms in Epistemology. Ed by Elke Brendel,Christoph Jager. Dordrecht:Sprinker,2005:1.
③魏屹东.广义语境中的科学.北京：科学出版社会.2004：16-17.
①以上参阅：魏屹东.广义语境中的科学.北京：科学出版社会.2004：16-17.
①魏屹东.作为世界假设的语境论.自然辩证法通讯.2006(3)：39-45.
①成素梅,郭贵春.论科学解释语境与语境分析法.自然辩证法通讯.2002(2)：24-30.
①蒯因.语词和对象.陈启伟等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：141-143.
②蒯因.从逻辑的观点看.江天骥等译.上海：上海译文出版社,1987：24.
③Ludwig Wittgenstein(1967). Philosophical Investigation. Translate by GEM Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §539&§107.
①涂纪亮主编.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§411.
② David K. Henderson(994). Episstemic competence and contextualist epistemology why contextualism is not just the poor person's coherentism. The Journal of Philosophy,91(12):p634.
③陈嘉映.后期维特根斯坦.中国学术论坛.http://www.frchina.net/data/personArticle.php?id=133.
④以上摘引自：Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4"d ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schultc Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§156,§525.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.p123§242.
②Jose Medina(2002). The Unity of Wittgenstein's Philosophy, Necessity. Intelligibility, and Normativity, New York: University of New York Press:pp186-188.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：II p254,§351.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第九卷心理学哲学评论.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p93§331.p314§136,p329§189,p333§203,333§207.
④江怡.维特根斯坦.湖南：湖南教育出版社,1999：352.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：Ⅱp260-261,参见《心理学哲学评论》第§14及§22.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§38,§47,§50.§53.
③Ludwig Wittgenstein(1967).Philosophical Investigation.Translate by G·E·M Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §693.
④江怡.维特根斯坦：一种后哲学的文化.北京：社会科学文献出版社,1998：73.
⑤涂纪亮主编.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§16.
①约翰希顿.维特根斯坦与心理分析.徐向东译.北京：北京大学出版社,2005：68-69.
②David Bloor(1983). Wittgenstein-A Social Theory of Knowledge. London:Macmillan Education Ltd:p11.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：187§99.
④劳伦斯·卡弘.哲学的终结.冯克利译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2001：28.
⑤维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集筇六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：78.
①Rom Harre.Michael A. Tissaw(2005).Wittgenstein and psychology:a practical guide. Hants:Ashgate publishing Limited:pp71-73.
①Michael Friendman(1998).on the sociology of scientific knowledge and its philosophical agenda.原载studies in history and philosophy of science.29(2):pp239-271.张敦敏摘译.论科学知识社会学及其哲学任务.哲学译丛:74-79.
②李侠,邢润川.论科学知识社会学对科学主义的消解.厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2003(1)：91.
③安德鲁·皮克林编.柯文.伊梅译.作为实践和文化的科学.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：221-231.
①郭贵春.语境的边界及其意义.哲学研究.2009(2)：94-100.
①殷杰.维特根斯坦“语言游戏”语用学的构造.江西社会科学,2005(2)：44-48.
①张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春,李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：7577.
②彭孟尧.知识论.台北：三民书局,2009：52.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§197.
②Ludwig wittgenstein(2009).Philosopical Investigations(4th ed).Translated by G.E.M.Anscombe.P.M.S.Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§558,§584.§595.§652.Ⅳ§19.
①Rom Harre,Michael A. Tissaw(2005),Wittgenstein and psychology:a practical guide. Hants:Ashgate publishing Limited:p119.
②G·克尔,P·海克尔.今维特根斯坦.李梅译.载《哲学译从》.1994(5)：38.
③殷杰.维特根斯坦“语言游戏”语用学的构造.江西社会科学,2005(2)：203-210.
[1]本小节内容主要参考：Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave.
④徐友渔.哥白尼式的革命：哲学中的语言转向.上海：三联书店上海分店：18
①涂纪亮主编.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§113.
②韩林合.维特根斯坦的“哥白尼式革命”.云南大学学报(社会科学版),2010(2)：25-29.
①Hham Dilman(2002)Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p10.
①维特根斯坦自己明确列为家族相似性质的概念有：游戏、数、词、句子、语言、读、引导等等,他对其中有些概念的家族相似性质作了相当详尽的研究。另外一些提法似乎暗示他认为一切概念,甚至包括专名都具有家族相似的性质。“家族相似”概念就属于这类并小大常见的洞见。R.Fogelin称家族相似概念是人们对维特根斯坦后期哲学中“讨论得最多的问题之一”。从纠错的角度讲,家族相似概念猛烈地冲击了传统的共相观念。Renford Bambrough相信这个概念已经“解决了通常所谓的‘共相问题’
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§297.
③Ibid.§304.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.
②Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:pp20-21.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003.
[1]Justification有国内学者译成辩护,本文采用彭孟尧的译法,译成证立。
①数学唯实论或数学柏拉图主义通常认为数学是实在的,并且数学是先天且先验的,小同于知觉经验知识。
②Hham Dilman(2002).Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p22.
①休谟著.人类理解研究.关文运译.北京：商务印书馆,1982：41.
②Ibid,p23.
[1] bare particulars:本文采用彭孟尧教授的建议,译成无性质殊物。无性质殊物最早由Edwin Alaire提出。该术语是针对“什么是对象(object) "而提出来的,基本上有两种理论。一种是：一种对象有共相(universals),另一种是：一种对象是无性质殊物。无性质殊物本身是没有任何性质的殊物。由于无性质殊物没有性质,所以任何两个无性质殊物之间都不存在相似性。
③Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p24.
①Hham Dilman(2002).Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:pp24-26.
②Ibid.p26.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§293.
②约翰.海尔.当代心灵哲学导论.高新民等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：5859.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p204§357.
④Ibid, p204 §358.
①Ibid,p30.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p196§320.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮上编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p151§337.
①Ibid, p194 §497.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p198§331.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.
①Ibid, p43 §116.
②Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p32.
[1]补充：真理先于人类及其语言实践,这并不依赖于人类的语言——例如一只狼在7天里杀了三只羊——而这独立于我们语言言论的事物,却需要语言来思考,来表达。
①Ibid, p33.
②罗素的说法在文献中通称罗素世界论证。罗素假想我们所居处的这个世界其实只有存在一秒钟而已,当然,每个人也只不过存在了一秒钟而已,存在的时间非常短暂。不过在这世界的一切种种都让我们误以为这个世界已经存在了很久,每个人已经活了相当久的一段时间。如果授受罗素的说法,我们当然没有关于过去与未来的知识,因为我们根本没有过去也没有未来。——参见彭孟尧著《知识论》：p8.
③塞尔.心灵、语言与社会.李步楼译.上海：上海译文出版社,2006：1
①John. R.Searle(1995). The Construction of Social Reality. NY:A Division of Simon& Schuster Inc.:pp59-60.
②Ibid,p64-65.
①Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p35.
②Ibid.p36.
[1]本小节内容就要参考Emma Borg (2010). Meaning and Context:A Survey of a Contemporary Debate. In Daniel Whiting (ed.). The Later Wittgenstein on Language. Palgrave Macmillan.:pp96-113.
①张绍杰.后格赖斯语用学的理论走向—语义学和语用学界面研究的兴起.外国问题研究,2010(1)：3-11.
①C·Travis(1989).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language,Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: pp81&84.
②C-Travis(2001).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language. Oxford:Oxford University Press:pp19-20.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：68§117,197§514.
②Cappelen, H. and E. Lepore(2005),Insensitive Semantics. Oxford:Blackwell:p17.
③Emma Borg (2010). Meaning and Context:A Survey of a Contemporary Debate. In Daniel Whiting (ed.). The Later Wittgenstein on Language. Palgrave Macmillan:pp96-113.
①Emma Borg(2004). Minimal Semantics. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p242.
②Emma Borg(2010). Context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate, in The later Wittgenstein on Language, Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:p98.
①Emma Borg(2010). context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate, in The later Wittgenstein on Language, Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:p101.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：p180§432.
②Travis.C(2001).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p35.
③Emma Borg(2010). context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate. in The later Wittgenstein on Language. Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:p103.
①C·Travis (2008). Occasion-Sensitivity. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p115.
①Travis.C(2001).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p24.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§595,§665.
②以上参考Emma Borg(2010). context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate, in The later Wittgenstein on Language. Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:pp96-113.
①以上选摘引自：约翰·卡斯蒂.剑桥五重奏：机器能思考吗.胡运发等译.上海：上海科学技术出版社,2006.
①郭琰.赵洪英.“图林测验”、“中文屋论证”与心灵的本质.集美大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2005(2)：5-9.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§359,§360.§361.
②Diane Gillespie (1992).The mind's we:contextualism in cognitive psychology.USA:The board of Trustees:p3.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§193.
②Ibid,§194.
①涂纪亮.维特根斯坦后期哲学思想研究：英美语言哲学概论.武汉：武汉大学出版社,2007：210-211.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：115§30,113§28.
②Davis. Martin (1978).'What is a computation?'.in Lynn Arthur Steen (ed.),, Mathematics Today, New York:SpringerVerlag：p243
③Stuart Sbanker(1998). Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations of AI. New York:Routledge:pp6-9.
④王浩(1921-1995),华裔美籍哲学家、数理逻辑学家、计算机科学家.
① Wang.Hao(1974).From Mathematics to Philosophy. London:Routledge and Kegan Paul:p91.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第九卷心理学哲学评论.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§1096.
① Stuart Sbanker(1998). Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations of AI. New York:Routledge:pp6-9.
②John Searle(1980).Minds Brains and Programs. Edited by John Hugeland. Mind Design 11:Philosophy, psychology.Artificial Intellilence. London:MIT press.pp203-204.
③徐英瑾.对”汉字屋论证”逻辑结构的五种诊断模式.复旦学报(社会科学版),2008(3)：82-89.
①A.M.Turing(1950). Computing Machinery and intelligence. Edited by John Hugeland. Mind Design Ⅱ:Philosophy, psychology.Artificial Intellilence. London:MIT press.pp29-56.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§420.
③Diane Proudfott(2002). Wittgenstein's Anticipation of the Chinese Room. Edited by John Preston and Mark Bishop. In Views into the chinese room:new essays on searle and artificial intelligence. New Your:Oxford University Press:pp 168-169.
Rolf Herken(1995). The universal Turing machine:a half-century survey. New York:Springer:p81.
①Dddiane Proudfoot(1998). Robots and Rule-Following. Edited by Christof Teuscher. In Alan Turing:. Life and Legacy of a Great thinker. New York:Sprinker:pp359-377.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔,涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§60.
①塞尔著.心、脑与科学.杨音莱译.上海译文出版社.1991：29-32.
①K.K. Obermeier(1983).Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese.56(3):pp339-349.
②John Searle(1980);Minds Brains and Programs. Edited by John Hugeland. Mind Design Ⅱ:Philosophy, psychology.Artificial Intellilence. London:MIT press:pp203-204.
③K.K. Obermeier(1983).Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese.56(3):p342.
④Putnam(1960).'Minds and machines', in Anderson:pp72-97.
①Ludwig wittgenstein.(1958).The Blue and Brown Books.Oxford:BlackwellPublishers Ltd:p147&p32.
②江怡.维特根斯坦：一种后哲学的文化.北京：社会科学文献出版社1998：p73.
①Diane Proudfoot, B. Jack Copeland(1994). Turing, Wittgenstein and the Science of the Mind:A Critical Notice of Justin Leiber'An Invitation to Cognitive Science,Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Volume 72, Issue 4:pp497-519.
②Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§360.
③Diane Proudfott(2002). Wittgenstein's Anticipation of the Chinese Room. Edited by John Preston and Mark Bishop. In Views into the chinese room:new essays on searle and artificial intelligence. NY:Oxford University Press:pp168-169.
④Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§199.
⑤Ibid,§122.
① K.K. Obermeier(1983).Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese.56(3):pp339-349.
② Stuart Sbanker(1998). Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations ofAl. New York:Routledge:pp223-224.
① Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4th ed) Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§359.
②Ibid.§361.
①K·K·Obermeier(1983). Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese. Volume 56, Number 3:pp339-349.
② Daniel C·Dennett(2002). content and consciousness. Routledge:p92.
③Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopica! Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§194.
④C-Grant Luckhardt(1983). Wittgenstein and Behaviorism. Synthese(56):pp319-338.
①Ludwig wittgenstein(2009).Philosopical Investigations(4'h ed).Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:p357.
②Diane Gillespie(1992).The mind's we:contextualism in cognitive psychology.USA:The board of Trustees:p3.
③Ludwig wittgenstein(1958).The Blue and Brown Books.Oxford:BlackwellPublishers Ltd:p138.
④Ludwig wittgenstein(2009) Philosopical Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§139.
①董佳蓉.语境论视野下的人工智能范式发展趋势研究.科学技术哲学研究,2011(2)：33-38.
②郑祥社.人工智能的四大哲学问题.科学技术与辩证法：2005(5)：34-37.
③Derrdre Wilson. Dan Sperber (2006). Relevance Theor.L.Horn and G.Ward (eds.) Handbook of Pragmatic.Oxf ord:Blackwell:pp607-632.
①Ibid, p252.
②Ibid, p281.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第九卷心理学哲学评论.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：178§925.
④胡塞尔.现象学的观念.倪梁康译.上海：上海译文出版社,1986：71.
① McGilvray, J(2001). "Chomsky on the creative aspects of language use and its implications for lexical semantic studies." Eds by P. Bouillon and F. Busa (eds.), The Language of Word Meaning. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press:p5.
②Diane Gillespie(1992).The mind's we:contextualism in cognitive psychology.USA:the board of trustees:ppl-3.
①Massimo Marraffa,Mario De Caro.Francesco Ferretti(2007).Cartographies of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:pp 131-132.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第四卷哲学语法.涂纪亮主编.程志民,涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：p181.
②C-Travis(1989).The use of sense.Oxford:Oxford University Press:pp18-19.
①Allen·J(1995).Natural Language Understanding.Redwood:Benjamin/Cummings:p2.
①Massimo Marraffa. Mario De Caro,Francesco Ferretti(2007).Cartograph:es of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:pp133-136.
②T-Rohrer(2001). The cognitive science of metaphor from philosophy to neuroscience.Theoria et Historia Scientarium (6):p28.
③DSperber(1994b)."Understanding verbal understanding." In J. Khalfa(ed.). What is Intelligence? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press:p180.
①T·Rohrer (2001). The cognitive science of metaphor from philosophy to neuroscience.Theoria et Historia Scientarium (6):p30.
②Massimo Marraffa,Mario De Caro,Francesco Ferretti.(2007).Cartographies of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:p137.
③T-Rohrer (2001). The cognitive science of metaphor from philosophy to neuroscience.Theoria et Historia Scientarium (6):pp35-42.
④Gibbs·R·W(1990). "Comprehending figurative referential description." Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition (16):pp56-66.
①Massimo Marraffa.Mario De Caro. Francesco Ferretti(2007).Cartographies of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:pp138-142.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein, Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p7.
①David Bloor(1983). Wittgenstein-A Social Theory of Knowledge.London:Macmillan Education Ltd:p11.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：§99.
③江怡.维特根斯坦：一种后哲学的文化.北京：社会科学文献出版社,1998：76.
④张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春,李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：75-77.
⑤维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：7-8.
①张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春,李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：277.
②Ludwig Wittgenstein(1961).Philosophical Investigation.Translate by G·E·M Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §198.
③劳伦斯·卡弘.哲学的终结.冯克利译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2001：256-257.
①劳伦斯·卡弘.哲学的终结.冯克利译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2001：256&259.
②David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein, rules and institutions.London:Routlcdge,1997:pp31-32.
③汉斯·斯鲁格,大卫·G·斯特恩编.维特根斯坦The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein.北京：生活读书新知三联书店,2006：370.
④维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：304§26.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§198.§206,§219.
①Ludwig Wittgenstein(1967).Philosophical Investigation.Translate by G·E·M Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §33.
②David Bloor(1997). Wittgenstein, Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp44&67.
①刑冬梅.有限论与强纲领SSK.南京社会科学,2004(12)：68.
②巴里·巴恩斯,大卫·布鲁尔,约翰·亨利.科学知识：一种社会学的分析.邢冬梅,蔡仲译.南京：南京大学出 版社,2003：45.
③格雷林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：91.
④维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：p267§45.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§206.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：37§49.
②樊岳红,魏屹东.鲁滨逊能遵守规则吗?—关于个体论与集体论之争的解决.自然辩证法通讯,2011(2)：6670.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮,张金言译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：246§567.
②格雷林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：92.
③Elke Brendel, Christoph Jager(2004). Contextualist Approaches to Epistemology:Problems and prospects.Erkenntnis, (61):pp43&159.
④Stalnaker Robert(1999).Context and Content:Essays on Intentionality in Speech and Thought.Oxford:University Press:p97.
①G·P·Baker,P·M·S·Haker(2005).Wittgenstein:Understanding and Meaning.Oxford:blackwell Publishing:p160.
②王娜.论科学知识社会学的认识论抱负.云南社会科学,2009(3)：117.
②巴里·巴恩斯科学知识与社会学理论.鲁旭东,译.北京：东方出版社,2001：5.
④维特根斯坦.游戏规则：维特根斯坦神秘之物沉默集.唐少杰等.译.天津：天津人民出版社,2007：236.
David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein:A social theory if knowledge.London:Macmillan education LTD:p65.
①Patricia H·Werhane(1992). Skepticism, Rules and Private Languages. London:Humanities Press International, Inc.:p290.
②唐热风.个体论与反个体论.哲学动态,2000(12).37.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp91-92.
② Meredith Williams(1999). Wittgenstein, Mind and Meaning:Toward a Social Conception of Mind.New York: Routledge:p172.
③Patricia H·Werhane(1992). Skepticism, Rules and Private Languages. London:Humanities Press International. Inc.:p98.
'David Pears(2006).Paradox and Platitude in Wittgenstein's Philosophy.New York:Oxford university Press:pp61-63.
③格雷林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：122-123.
①汉斯·斯鲁格.大卫·G斯特恩编.维特根斯坦=The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein北京：生活读书新知三联书店.2006：p361
①Colin McGinn(1984). Wittgenstein on Meaning:An Interpretation and Evaluation.Oxford:Basil Blackwell publisher Ltd:pp193-194.
②David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp106-108.
①刘晓力.科学知识社会学的集体认识论和社会认识论.哲学研究.2004(11)：64.
②Colin McGinn(1984). Wittgenstein on Meaning:An Interpretation and Evaluation.Oxford:Basil Blackwell publisher Ltd:p195.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp.246-248.
②Ibid.P97.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮,张金言译.石家
①安德鲁·皮克林编著.作为实践和文化的科学.柯文,伊梅.译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：218.
②江怡.维特根斯坦传.石家庄：河北人民出版社,1998：177-178.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§202.
④Ibid, §202.
①黄敏.作为先验论证的私人语言论证.哲学研究.2004(2)：73.
②Patricia H·Werhane(1992).Skepticism,Rules and Private Languages.London:Humanities Press International Inc.:pp94-95.
③Saul Kripke(1982).Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language.Oxford:Basil Blackwell:p74.
④David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p59.
①David Bloor(1997). Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions. London:Routledge:pp61-76.
②Saul Kripke(1982). Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language.Oxford:Basil Blackwell:p101.
③郭贵春,赵晓聃.规则遵循中的语言共同体和规范性.山西大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2009(32)：1-7.
①Marie McGinn(1997). Wittgenstein and the Philosophical Investigations.London:Routledge:pp74-77.
①M·麦金.维特根斯坦与《哲学研究》.李国山译.桂林：广西师范大学出版社,2007：93.
②Colin McGinn(1984). Wittgenstein on Meaning:An Interpretation and Evaluation.Oxford:Basil Blackwell publisher Ltd:pp90-91.
③David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p83.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§219.
①David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein:A social theory of knowledge.London:Macmillan Education Ltd.. p3.
②Meredith Williams(1999). Wittgenstein,Mind and Meaning:Toward a social conception of mind.New York:Routledge:pp 157-187.
③David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein:A social theory of knowledge.London:Macmillan Education Ltd.:pp115-132.
①安德鲁·皮克林编著.作为实践和文化的科学.柯文,伊梅,译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：277.
②汉斯·斯鲁格,大卫·G·斯特恩编.维特根斯坦=The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein北京：生活读书新知三联书店(2006年影印本)：357-360.
①涂纪亮.维特根斯坦后期哲学思想研究：英美语音哲学概论.武汉：武汉大学出版社,2007：283.
①袁海军,郭敏.爱丁堡学派的歧途：从强纲领到社会学有限主义.内蒙古大学学报(人文社会科学版).2007(06)：54-57.
②巴里·巴恩斯,大卫·布鲁尔,约翰·亨利.邢冬梅、蔡仲译.科学知识：一种社会学的分析.南京：南京大学出版社,2003.65-71.
①安德鲁·皮克林编著.作为实践和文化的科学.柯文,伊梅译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006;12.
② Jussi Haukioja(2005). A Middle Position between Meaning Finitism and Meaning Platonism. International Journal of Philosophical Studies.Vol.13(1).pp35-51.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§24.
①David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein-A Social Theory of Knowledge.London:Macmillan education Itd:p3.
②理查德·罗蒂.真理与进步.杨玉成译,北京：华夏出版社,2003：20.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.§188.
④Dean Proessel(2005).Phiosophical Investigations.New York:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:p332.
①巴里·巴恩斯.科学知识与社会学理论.鲁旭东译.北京：东方出版社,2001：116-117.
②巴里·巴恩斯,大卫·布鲁尔,约翰·亨利.科学知识：一种社会学的分析.邢冬梅,蔡仲译.南京：南京大学出版社,2003：6.
③雷格林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：89-92.
①Jussi Haukioja(2005). A Middle Position between Meaning Finitism and Meaning Platonism.International Journal of Philosophical Studies.Vol.13(1).pp35-51.
①Dean Proessel(2005).Phiosophical Investigations.New York:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:pp330-331.
②David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p27.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§1.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein.Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp 17-20.
①Ibid,pp.75-77.
②张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春、李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：284-285.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p141§72.
② Sal P·Restivo(1985).The Social Relations of Physics,Mysticism and Mathematics.Holland:D.Reidal Publishing Company:pp161-163.
③ Richard Tieszen(2005),Phenomenology,Logic, and the Philosophy of Mathematics.New York:Cambridge university press:p277.
Ibid.1 §1.
①彭孟尧.知识论.台北：三民书局,2009：230.
②Ibid.p233-234.
③Ibid.p229.
④Ibid.p244.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版 社,2003.：p59§165.
①Ibid. §166.
②Ibid.p113§28.
③David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein——A Social Theory of Knowledge,London:Maemillan education Itd:p83.
④James Robert Brown(2008),Philosophy of Mathematics:A Contemporary Introduction to the World of Proofs and Pictures(2nd ed.). New York:Routledge:pp12-15.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p1-2§3&p181§44.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p118§217-§238.
②Paul Ernest(1998).Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. New York:State University of New York Press:p75.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p186§52.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§106,§108,§109,§110.
①bid.p241-242§16-17.
②Pasquale Frdscolla(1994),Wittgenstein's philosophy of mathematics New York:Routledge:pp128-131.
③江怡,后期维特根斯坦论逻辑和数学的基础.中国社会科学院研究生院学报,2003(5)：1-7.
①Michael Dummett(1959),Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Mathematics.The Philosophical Review, Vol.68(3):pp324-348.
②Sal P·Restivo(1985).The Social Relations of Physics,Mysticism and Mathematics.Holland:D.Reidal Publishing Company:p163.
③Paul Emest(1998).Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. New York:State University of New York Press:pp76-78.
④维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：p112§26.
①Ibid.p190§1.
②Ibid.p115§30.
③Paul Emest(1998).Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics,New York:State University of New York Press. Albany:pp71-79.
①Mary Leng, Alexander Paseau and Michael Potter(2007).Mathematical Knowledge,NewYork:Oxford University Press: p23.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003,p181.§45.
③Pasquale Frascolla(1994),Wittgenstin's philosophy of mathemutics.New York:Routledge:p111.
①James Robert Brown(2008), Philosophy of Mathematics:A Contemporary Introduction to the World of Proofs and Pictures(2nd ed.), New York:Routledge:p140.
②Ludwig Wittgenstein(2005).Th Big Typescript TS 213 (German-English Scholars'Edition), Grant Luckhardt and Maximilian A. E. Aue ed.and trans.Malden:Blackwell Publishing:pp231-233.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p164§5.p315§39.p324§47.
④Jose Medina(2002),The Unity of Wittgenstein's Philosophy, Necessity, Intelligibility, and Normativity,New York: University of Nes York Press:pp101&156.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：p315§39
②Ibid,p324§47.
③Ibid,p60§168.
④Ibid.p69附录2§2.
①张庆熊.维特根斯坦的后期哲学和20世纪西方社会科学方法论的发展.外国哲学研究：11-18.
②David Francis(2005). Using Wittgenstein to Respecify Constitructivism. Human Studies(28):pp251-290.
①维特根斯坦.哲学研究.汤潮等译,北京：三联书店.1992：109.
②李醒民.从理论整体论到意义整体论.湖南社会科学.2003(5)：103.
③蒯因.从逻辑的观点看.江天骥等译.上海：上海译文出版社,1987：21.
④Ibid.p26
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p123§241.
①彭孟尧.知识论.北：三民书局,2009：p285
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[42]袁海军,郭敏.爱丁堡学派的歧途：从强纲领到社会学有限主义[J].内蒙古大学学报(人文社会科学版).2007(06).
[43]袁海军.略论强纲领与社会学有限主义的关系[J].内蒙古大学学报(人文社会科学版)2007(01)
[44]袁海军.语言、实在与科学知识的社会性—论科学知识社会学的哲学旨趣[J].内蒙古大学学报(人文社会科学版).2003(02).
[45]张家龙.评维特根斯坦的反本质主义纲领一“语言游戏”说和“家族相似”论[J].哲学研究.2001(07).
[46]张庆熊.维特根斯坦的后期哲学和20世纪西方社会科学方法论的发展[J].云南大学学报(社会科学版),2009(06).
[47]张绍杰.后格赖斯语用学的理论走向——语义学和语用学界面研究的兴起[J].外国问题研究,2010(1).
[48]赵立凡.科学语言与生活形式—维特根斯坦对科学哲学的启示[J].科学技术与辩证法,1999(4).
[49]郑祥福.人工智能的四大哲学问题[J]科学技术与辩证法：2005(5).
[50]郑毓信.维特根斯坦《关于数学基础的意见》述评[J].自然辩证法通讯,1987(6).
①魏屹东.广义语境中的科学.京：科学出版社会.2004：14.
①魏屹东,语境与认知推理.山西大学学报,2008(6)：12-62.
②Ibid：pp12-62.
①彩票悖论最早是由凯伯格首先发现并正式发表的。彩票悖论大致如下：在有一百万张彩票的公平抽奖活动中,有且仅有一张彩票会中奖,那么,每张彩票不会中奖的概率高达0.999999,根据“公认的”信念的高概率接受规则,我们可以合理地认为“第N张彩票不会中奖”(在此,N是1到1 000 000之间的任何一个自然数)。这意味着没有一张彩票会中奖。这显然与所给条件“有且仅有一张彩票中奖”相矛盾。
②Elke Brendel, Christoph Jager. Contextualist Approaches to Epistemology:Problems and prospects. In Contextualisms in Epistemology. Ed by Elke Brendel,Christoph Jager. Dordrecht:Sprinker,2005:1.
③魏屹东.广义语境中的科学.北京：科学出版社会.2004：16-17.
①以上参阅：魏屹东.广义语境中的科学.北京：科学出版社会.2004：16-17.
①魏屹东.作为世界假设的语境论.自然辩证法通讯.2006(3)：39-45.
①成素梅,郭贵春.论科学解释语境与语境分析法.自然辩证法通讯.2002(2)：24-30.
①蒯因.语词和对象.陈启伟等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：141-143.
②蒯因.从逻辑的观点看.江天骥等译.上海：上海译文出版社,1987：24.
③Ludwig Wittgenstein(1967). Philosophical Investigation. Translate by GEM Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §539&§107.
①涂纪亮主编.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§411.
② David K. Henderson(994). Episstemic competence and contextualist epistemology why contextualism is not just the poor person's coherentism. The Journal of Philosophy,91(12):p634.
③陈嘉映.后期维特根斯坦.中国学术论坛.http://www.frchina.net/data/personArticle.php?id=133.
④以上摘引自：Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4"d ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schultc Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§156,§525.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.p123§242.
②Jose Medina(2002). The Unity of Wittgenstein's Philosophy, Necessity. Intelligibility, and Normativity, New York: University of New York Press:pp186-188.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：II p254,§351.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第九卷心理学哲学评论.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p93§331.p314§136,p329§189,p333§203,333§207.
④江怡.维特根斯坦.湖南：湖南教育出版社,1999：352.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：Ⅱp260-261,参见《心理学哲学评论》第§14及§22.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§38,§47,§50.§53.
③Ludwig Wittgenstein(1967).Philosophical Investigation.Translate by G·E·M Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §693.
④江怡.维特根斯坦：一种后哲学的文化.北京：社会科学文献出版社,1998：73.
⑤涂纪亮主编.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§16.
①约翰希顿.维特根斯坦与心理分析.徐向东译.北京：北京大学出版社,2005：68-69.
②David Bloor(1983). Wittgenstein-A Social Theory of Knowledge. London:Macmillan Education Ltd:p11.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：187§99.
④劳伦斯·卡弘.哲学的终结.冯克利译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2001：28.
⑤维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集筇六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：78.
①Rom Harre.Michael A. Tissaw(2005).Wittgenstein and psychology:a practical guide. Hants:Ashgate publishing Limited:pp71-73.
①Michael Friendman(1998).on the sociology of scientific knowledge and its philosophical agenda.原载studies in history and philosophy of science.29(2):pp239-271.张敦敏摘译.论科学知识社会学及其哲学任务.哲学译丛:74-79.
②李侠,邢润川.论科学知识社会学对科学主义的消解.厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2003(1)：91.
③安德鲁·皮克林编.柯文.伊梅译.作为实践和文化的科学.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：221-231.
①郭贵春.语境的边界及其意义.哲学研究.2009(2)：94-100.
①殷杰.维特根斯坦“语言游戏”语用学的构造.江西社会科学,2005(2)：44-48.
①张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春,李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：7577.
②彭孟尧.知识论.台北：三民书局,2009：52.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§197.
②Ludwig wittgenstein(2009).Philosopical Investigations(4th ed).Translated by G.E.M.Anscombe.P.M.S.Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§558,§584.§595.§652.Ⅳ§19.
①Rom Harre,Michael A. Tissaw(2005),Wittgenstein and psychology:a practical guide. Hants:Ashgate publishing Limited:p119.
②G·克尔,P·海克尔.今维特根斯坦.李梅译.载《哲学译从》.1994(5)：38.
③殷杰.维特根斯坦“语言游戏”语用学的构造.江西社会科学,2005(2)：203-210.
[1]本小节内容主要参考：Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave.
④徐友渔.哥白尼式的革命：哲学中的语言转向.上海：三联书店上海分店：18
①涂纪亮主编.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§113.
②韩林合.维特根斯坦的“哥白尼式革命”.云南大学学报(社会科学版),2010(2)：25-29.
①Hham Dilman(2002)Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p10.
①维特根斯坦自己明确列为家族相似性质的概念有：游戏、数、词、句子、语言、读、引导等等,他对其中有些概念的家族相似性质作了相当详尽的研究。另外一些提法似乎暗示他认为一切概念,甚至包括专名都具有家族相似的性质。“家族相似”概念就属于这类并小大常见的洞见。R.Fogelin称家族相似概念是人们对维特根斯坦后期哲学中“讨论得最多的问题之一”。从纠错的角度讲,家族相似概念猛烈地冲击了传统的共相观念。Renford Bambrough相信这个概念已经“解决了通常所谓的‘共相问题’
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§297.
③Ibid.§304.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.
②Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:pp20-21.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003.
[1]Justification有国内学者译成辩护,本文采用彭孟尧的译法,译成证立。
①数学唯实论或数学柏拉图主义通常认为数学是实在的,并且数学是先天且先验的,小同于知觉经验知识。
②Hham Dilman(2002).Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p22.
①休谟著.人类理解研究.关文运译.北京：商务印书馆,1982：41.
②Ibid,p23.
[1] bare particulars:本文采用彭孟尧教授的建议,译成无性质殊物。无性质殊物最早由Edwin Alaire提出。该术语是针对“什么是对象(object) "而提出来的,基本上有两种理论。一种是：一种对象有共相(universals),另一种是：一种对象是无性质殊物。无性质殊物本身是没有任何性质的殊物。由于无性质殊物没有性质,所以任何两个无性质殊物之间都不存在相似性。
③Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p24.
①Hham Dilman(2002).Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:pp24-26.
②Ibid.p26.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§293.
②约翰.海尔.当代心灵哲学导论.高新民等译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2005：5859.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p204§357.
④Ibid, p204 §358.
①Ibid,p30.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p196§320.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮上编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p151§337.
①Ibid, p194 §497.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十一卷.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p198§331.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮、吴晓红等译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.
①Ibid, p43 §116.
②Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p32.
[1]补充：真理先于人类及其语言实践,这并不依赖于人类的语言——例如一只狼在7天里杀了三只羊——而这独立于我们语言言论的事物,却需要语言来思考,来表达。
①Ibid, p33.
②罗素的说法在文献中通称罗素世界论证。罗素假想我们所居处的这个世界其实只有存在一秒钟而已,当然,每个人也只不过存在了一秒钟而已,存在的时间非常短暂。不过在这世界的一切种种都让我们误以为这个世界已经存在了很久,每个人已经活了相当久的一段时间。如果授受罗素的说法,我们当然没有关于过去与未来的知识,因为我们根本没有过去也没有未来。——参见彭孟尧著《知识论》：p8.
③塞尔.心灵、语言与社会.李步楼译.上海：上海译文出版社,2006：1
①John. R.Searle(1995). The Construction of Social Reality. NY:A Division of Simon& Schuster Inc.:pp59-60.
②Ibid,p64-65.
①Hham Dilman(2002). Wittgenstein's Copernican revolution:the question of linguistic idealism. Palgrave:p35.
②Ibid.p36.
[1]本小节内容就要参考Emma Borg (2010). Meaning and Context:A Survey of a Contemporary Debate. In Daniel Whiting (ed.). The Later Wittgenstein on Language. Palgrave Macmillan.:pp96-113.
①张绍杰.后格赖斯语用学的理论走向—语义学和语用学界面研究的兴起.外国问题研究,2010(1)：3-11.
①C·Travis(1989).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language,Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: pp81&84.
②C-Travis(2001).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language. Oxford:Oxford University Press:pp19-20.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：68§117,197§514.
②Cappelen, H. and E. Lepore(2005),Insensitive Semantics. Oxford:Blackwell:p17.
③Emma Borg (2010). Meaning and Context:A Survey of a Contemporary Debate. In Daniel Whiting (ed.). The Later Wittgenstein on Language. Palgrave Macmillan:pp96-113.
①Emma Borg(2004). Minimal Semantics. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p242.
②Emma Borg(2010). Context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate, in The later Wittgenstein on Language, Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:p98.
①Emma Borg(2010). context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate, in The later Wittgenstein on Language, Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:p101.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：p180§432.
②Travis.C(2001).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p35.
③Emma Borg(2010). context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate. in The later Wittgenstein on Language. Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:p103.
①C·Travis (2008). Occasion-Sensitivity. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p115.
①Travis.C(2001).The Uses of Sense:Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Language. Oxford:Oxford University Press:p24.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§595,§665.
②以上参考Emma Borg(2010). context and meaning:a survey of contemporary Debate, in The later Wittgenstein on Language. Daniel Whiting ed. London:Palgrave Macmillan:pp96-113.
①以上选摘引自：约翰·卡斯蒂.剑桥五重奏：机器能思考吗.胡运发等译.上海：上海科学技术出版社,2006.
①郭琰.赵洪英.“图林测验”、“中文屋论证”与心灵的本质.集美大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2005(2)：5-9.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§359,§360.§361.
②Diane Gillespie (1992).The mind's we:contextualism in cognitive psychology.USA:The board of Trustees:p3.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§193.
②Ibid,§194.
①涂纪亮.维特根斯坦后期哲学思想研究：英美语言哲学概论.武汉：武汉大学出版社,2007：210-211.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：115§30,113§28.
②Davis. Martin (1978).'What is a computation?'.in Lynn Arthur Steen (ed.),, Mathematics Today, New York:SpringerVerlag：p243
③Stuart Sbanker(1998). Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations of AI. New York:Routledge:pp6-9.
④王浩(1921-1995),华裔美籍哲学家、数理逻辑学家、计算机科学家.
① Wang.Hao(1974).From Mathematics to Philosophy. London:Routledge and Kegan Paul:p91.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第九卷心理学哲学评论.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§1096.
① Stuart Sbanker(1998). Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations of AI. New York:Routledge:pp6-9.
②John Searle(1980).Minds Brains and Programs. Edited by John Hugeland. Mind Design 11:Philosophy, psychology.Artificial Intellilence. London:MIT press.pp203-204.
③徐英瑾.对”汉字屋论证”逻辑结构的五种诊断模式.复旦学报(社会科学版),2008(3)：82-89.
①A.M.Turing(1950). Computing Machinery and intelligence. Edited by John Hugeland. Mind Design Ⅱ:Philosophy, psychology.Artificial Intellilence. London:MIT press.pp29-56.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§420.
③Diane Proudfott(2002). Wittgenstein's Anticipation of the Chinese Room. Edited by John Preston and Mark Bishop. In Views into the chinese room:new essays on searle and artificial intelligence. New Your:Oxford University Press:pp 168-169.
Rolf Herken(1995). The universal Turing machine:a half-century survey. New York:Springer:p81.
①Dddiane Proudfoot(1998). Robots and Rule-Following. Edited by Christof Teuscher. In Alan Turing:. Life and Legacy of a Great thinker. New York:Sprinker:pp359-377.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔,涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§60.
①塞尔著.心、脑与科学.杨音莱译.上海译文出版社.1991：29-32.
①K.K. Obermeier(1983).Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese.56(3):pp339-349.
②John Searle(1980);Minds Brains and Programs. Edited by John Hugeland. Mind Design Ⅱ:Philosophy, psychology.Artificial Intellilence. London:MIT press:pp203-204.
③K.K. Obermeier(1983).Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese.56(3):p342.
④Putnam(1960).'Minds and machines', in Anderson:pp72-97.
①Ludwig wittgenstein.(1958).The Blue and Brown Books.Oxford:BlackwellPublishers Ltd:p147&p32.
②江怡.维特根斯坦：一种后哲学的文化.北京：社会科学文献出版社1998：p73.
①Diane Proudfoot, B. Jack Copeland(1994). Turing, Wittgenstein and the Science of the Mind:A Critical Notice of Justin Leiber'An Invitation to Cognitive Science,Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Volume 72, Issue 4:pp497-519.
②Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§360.
③Diane Proudfott(2002). Wittgenstein's Anticipation of the Chinese Room. Edited by John Preston and Mark Bishop. In Views into the chinese room:new essays on searle and artificial intelligence. NY:Oxford University Press:pp168-169.
④Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§199.
⑤Ibid,§122.
① K.K. Obermeier(1983).Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese.56(3):pp339-349.
② Stuart Sbanker(1998). Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations ofAl. New York:Routledge:pp223-224.
① Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopical Investigations(4th ed) Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§359.
②Ibid.§361.
①K·K·Obermeier(1983). Wittgenstein on language and artificial intelligence:The Chinese-room thought experiment revisited. Synthese. Volume 56, Number 3:pp339-349.
② Daniel C·Dennett(2002). content and consciousness. Routledge:p92.
③Ludwig wittgenstein(2009). Philosopica! Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§194.
④C-Grant Luckhardt(1983). Wittgenstein and Behaviorism. Synthese(56):pp319-338.
①Ludwig wittgenstein(2009).Philosopical Investigations(4'h ed).Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:p357.
②Diane Gillespie(1992).The mind's we:contextualism in cognitive psychology.USA:The board of Trustees:p3.
③Ludwig wittgenstein(1958).The Blue and Brown Books.Oxford:BlackwellPublishers Ltd:p138.
④Ludwig wittgenstein(2009) Philosopical Investigations(4th ed). Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte Oxford:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:§139.
①董佳蓉.语境论视野下的人工智能范式发展趋势研究.科学技术哲学研究,2011(2)：33-38.
②郑祥社.人工智能的四大哲学问题.科学技术与辩证法：2005(5)：34-37.
③Derrdre Wilson. Dan Sperber (2006). Relevance Theor.L.Horn and G.Ward (eds.) Handbook of Pragmatic.Oxf ord:Blackwell:pp607-632.
①Ibid, p252.
②Ibid, p281.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第九卷心理学哲学评论.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：178§925.
④胡塞尔.现象学的观念.倪梁康译.上海：上海译文出版社,1986：71.
① McGilvray, J(2001). "Chomsky on the creative aspects of language use and its implications for lexical semantic studies." Eds by P. Bouillon and F. Busa (eds.), The Language of Word Meaning. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press:p5.
②Diane Gillespie(1992).The mind's we:contextualism in cognitive psychology.USA:the board of trustees:ppl-3.
①Massimo Marraffa,Mario De Caro.Francesco Ferretti(2007).Cartographies of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:pp 131-132.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第四卷哲学语法.涂纪亮主编.程志民,涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：p181.
②C-Travis(1989).The use of sense.Oxford:Oxford University Press:pp18-19.
①Allen·J(1995).Natural Language Understanding.Redwood:Benjamin/Cummings:p2.
①Massimo Marraffa. Mario De Caro,Francesco Ferretti(2007).Cartograph:es of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:pp133-136.
②T-Rohrer(2001). The cognitive science of metaphor from philosophy to neuroscience.Theoria et Historia Scientarium (6):p28.
③DSperber(1994b)."Understanding verbal understanding." In J. Khalfa(ed.). What is Intelligence? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press:p180.
①T·Rohrer (2001). The cognitive science of metaphor from philosophy to neuroscience.Theoria et Historia Scientarium (6):p30.
②Massimo Marraffa,Mario De Caro,Francesco Ferretti.(2007).Cartographies of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:p137.
③T-Rohrer (2001). The cognitive science of metaphor from philosophy to neuroscience.Theoria et Historia Scientarium (6):pp35-42.
④Gibbs·R·W(1990). "Comprehending figurative referential description." Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition (16):pp56-66.
①Massimo Marraffa.Mario De Caro. Francesco Ferretti(2007).Cartographies of the Mind:Philosophy and Psychology in Intersection.The Netherlands:Springer:pp138-142.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein, Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p7.
①David Bloor(1983). Wittgenstein-A Social Theory of Knowledge.London:Macmillan Education Ltd:p11.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：§99.
③江怡.维特根斯坦：一种后哲学的文化.北京：社会科学文献出版社,1998：76.
④张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春,李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：75-77.
⑤维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第六卷蓝皮书一种哲学的考察(褐皮书).涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：7-8.
①张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春,李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：277.
②Ludwig Wittgenstein(1961).Philosophical Investigation.Translate by G·E·M Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §198.
③劳伦斯·卡弘.哲学的终结.冯克利译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2001：256-257.
①劳伦斯·卡弘.哲学的终结.冯克利译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2001：256&259.
②David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein, rules and institutions.London:Routlcdge,1997:pp31-32.
③汉斯·斯鲁格,大卫·G·斯特恩编.维特根斯坦The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein.北京：生活读书新知三联书店,2006：370.
④维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：304§26.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§198.§206,§219.
①Ludwig Wittgenstein(1967).Philosophical Investigation.Translate by G·E·M Anscombe.Oxford:Basil Blackwell Ltd: §33.
②David Bloor(1997). Wittgenstein, Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp44&67.
①刑冬梅.有限论与强纲领SSK.南京社会科学,2004(12)：68.
②巴里·巴恩斯,大卫·布鲁尔,约翰·亨利.科学知识：一种社会学的分析.邢冬梅,蔡仲译.南京：南京大学出 版社,2003：45.
③格雷林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：91.
④维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社：p267§45.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§206.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：37§49.
②樊岳红,魏屹东.鲁滨逊能遵守规则吗?—关于个体论与集体论之争的解决.自然辩证法通讯,2011(2)：6670.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮,张金言译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：246§567.
②格雷林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：92.
③Elke Brendel, Christoph Jager(2004). Contextualist Approaches to Epistemology:Problems and prospects.Erkenntnis, (61):pp43&159.
④Stalnaker Robert(1999).Context and Content:Essays on Intentionality in Speech and Thought.Oxford:University Press:p97.
①G·P·Baker,P·M·S·Haker(2005).Wittgenstein:Understanding and Meaning.Oxford:blackwell Publishing:p160.
②王娜.论科学知识社会学的认识论抱负.云南社会科学,2009(3)：117.
②巴里·巴恩斯科学知识与社会学理论.鲁旭东,译.北京：东方出版社,2001：5.
④维特根斯坦.游戏规则：维特根斯坦神秘之物沉默集.唐少杰等.译.天津：天津人民出版社,2007：236.
David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein:A social theory if knowledge.London:Macmillan education LTD:p65.
①Patricia H·Werhane(1992). Skepticism, Rules and Private Languages. London:Humanities Press International, Inc.:p290.
②唐热风.个体论与反个体论.哲学动态,2000(12).37.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp91-92.
② Meredith Williams(1999). Wittgenstein, Mind and Meaning:Toward a Social Conception of Mind.New York: Routledge:p172.
③Patricia H·Werhane(1992). Skepticism, Rules and Private Languages. London:Humanities Press International. Inc.:p98.
'David Pears(2006).Paradox and Platitude in Wittgenstein's Philosophy.New York:Oxford university Press:pp61-63.
③格雷林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：122-123.
①汉斯·斯鲁格.大卫·G斯特恩编.维特根斯坦=The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein北京：生活读书新知三联书店.2006：p361
①Colin McGinn(1984). Wittgenstein on Meaning:An Interpretation and Evaluation.Oxford:Basil Blackwell publisher Ltd:pp193-194.
②David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp106-108.
①刘晓力.科学知识社会学的集体认识论和社会认识论.哲学研究.2004(11)：64.
②Colin McGinn(1984). Wittgenstein on Meaning:An Interpretation and Evaluation.Oxford:Basil Blackwell publisher Ltd:p195.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp.246-248.
②Ibid.P97.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第十卷关于心理学哲学的最后著作,论确定性.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮,张金言译.石家
①安德鲁·皮克林编著.作为实践和文化的科学.柯文,伊梅.译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：218.
②江怡.维特根斯坦传.石家庄：河北人民出版社,1998：177-178.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§202.
④Ibid, §202.
①黄敏.作为先验论证的私人语言论证.哲学研究.2004(2)：73.
②Patricia H·Werhane(1992).Skepticism,Rules and Private Languages.London:Humanities Press International Inc.:pp94-95.
③Saul Kripke(1982).Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language.Oxford:Basil Blackwell:p74.
④David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p59.
①David Bloor(1997). Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions. London:Routledge:pp61-76.
②Saul Kripke(1982). Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language.Oxford:Basil Blackwell:p101.
③郭贵春,赵晓聃.规则遵循中的语言共同体和规范性.山西大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2009(32)：1-7.
①Marie McGinn(1997). Wittgenstein and the Philosophical Investigations.London:Routledge:pp74-77.
①M·麦金.维特根斯坦与《哲学研究》.李国山译.桂林：广西师范大学出版社,2007：93.
②Colin McGinn(1984). Wittgenstein on Meaning:An Interpretation and Evaluation.Oxford:Basil Blackwell publisher Ltd:pp90-91.
③David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p83.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§219.
①David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein:A social theory of knowledge.London:Macmillan Education Ltd.. p3.
②Meredith Williams(1999). Wittgenstein,Mind and Meaning:Toward a social conception of mind.New York:Routledge:pp 157-187.
③David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein:A social theory of knowledge.London:Macmillan Education Ltd.:pp115-132.
①安德鲁·皮克林编著.作为实践和文化的科学.柯文,伊梅,译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006：277.
②汉斯·斯鲁格,大卫·G·斯特恩编.维特根斯坦=The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein北京：生活读书新知三联书店(2006年影印本)：357-360.
①涂纪亮.维特根斯坦后期哲学思想研究：英美语音哲学概论.武汉：武汉大学出版社,2007：283.
①袁海军,郭敏.爱丁堡学派的歧途：从强纲领到社会学有限主义.内蒙古大学学报(人文社会科学版).2007(06)：54-57.
②巴里·巴恩斯,大卫·布鲁尔,约翰·亨利.邢冬梅、蔡仲译.科学知识：一种社会学的分析.南京：南京大学出版社,2003.65-71.
①安德鲁·皮克林编著.作为实践和文化的科学.柯文,伊梅译.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2006;12.
② Jussi Haukioja(2005). A Middle Position between Meaning Finitism and Meaning Platonism. International Journal of Philosophical Studies.Vol.13(1).pp35-51.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：§24.
①David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein-A Social Theory of Knowledge.London:Macmillan education Itd:p3.
②理查德·罗蒂.真理与进步.杨玉成译,北京：华夏出版社,2003：20.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003.§188.
④Dean Proessel(2005).Phiosophical Investigations.New York:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:p332.
①巴里·巴恩斯.科学知识与社会学理论.鲁旭东译.北京：东方出版社,2001：116-117.
②巴里·巴恩斯,大卫·布鲁尔,约翰·亨利.科学知识：一种社会学的分析.邢冬梅,蔡仲译.南京：南京大学出版社,2003：6.
③雷格林.维特根斯坦与哲学：英汉对照.张金言译.南京：译林出版社,2008：89-92.
①Jussi Haukioja(2005). A Middle Position between Meaning Finitism and Meaning Platonism.International Journal of Philosophical Studies.Vol.13(1).pp35-51.
①Dean Proessel(2005).Phiosophical Investigations.New York:Blackwell Publishing Ltd:pp330-331.
②David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein,Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:p27.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§1.
①David Bloor(1997).Wittgenstein.Rules and Institutions.London:Routledge:pp 17-20.
①Ibid,pp.75-77.
②张志林,程志敏选编.多维视界中的维特根斯坦.郝亿春、李云飞等译.上海：华东师范出版社,2005：284-285.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p141§72.
② Sal P·Restivo(1985).The Social Relations of Physics,Mysticism and Mathematics.Holland:D.Reidal Publishing Company:pp161-163.
③ Richard Tieszen(2005),Phenomenology,Logic, and the Philosophy of Mathematics.New York:Cambridge university press:p277.
Ibid.1 §1.
①彭孟尧.知识论.台北：三民书局,2009：230.
②Ibid.p233-234.
③Ibid.p229.
④Ibid.p244.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版 社,2003.：p59§165.
①Ibid. §166.
②Ibid.p113§28.
③David Bloor(1983).Wittgenstein——A Social Theory of Knowledge,London:Maemillan education Itd:p83.
④James Robert Brown(2008),Philosophy of Mathematics:A Contemporary Introduction to the World of Proofs and Pictures(2nd ed.). New York:Routledge:pp12-15.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p1-2§3&p181§44.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p118§217-§238.
②Paul Ernest(1998).Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. New York:State University of New York Press:p75.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p186§52.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：§106,§108,§109,§110.
①bid.p241-242§16-17.
②Pasquale Frdscolla(1994),Wittgenstein's philosophy of mathematics New York:Routledge:pp128-131.
③江怡,后期维特根斯坦论逻辑和数学的基础.中国社会科学院研究生院学报,2003(5)：1-7.
①Michael Dummett(1959),Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Mathematics.The Philosophical Review, Vol.68(3):pp324-348.
②Sal P·Restivo(1985).The Social Relations of Physics,Mysticism and Mathematics.Holland:D.Reidal Publishing Company:p163.
③Paul Emest(1998).Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. New York:State University of New York Press:pp76-78.
④维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：p112§26.
①Ibid.p190§1.
②Ibid.p115§30.
③Paul Emest(1998).Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics,New York:State University of New York Press. Albany:pp71-79.
①Mary Leng, Alexander Paseau and Michael Potter(2007).Mathematical Knowledge,NewYork:Oxford University Press: p23.
②维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003,p181.§45.
③Pasquale Frascolla(1994),Wittgenstin's philosophy of mathemutics.New York:Routledge:p111.
①James Robert Brown(2008), Philosophy of Mathematics:A Contemporary Introduction to the World of Proofs and Pictures(2nd ed.), New York:Routledge:p140.
②Ludwig Wittgenstein(2005).Th Big Typescript TS 213 (German-English Scholars'Edition), Grant Luckhardt and Maximilian A. E. Aue ed.and trans.Malden:Blackwell Publishing:pp231-233.
③维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p164§5.p315§39.p324§47.
④Jose Medina(2002),The Unity of Wittgenstein's Philosophy, Necessity, Intelligibility, and Normativity,New York: University of Nes York Press:pp101&156.
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第七卷论数学的基础.涂纪亮主编.徐友渔、涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社.2003：p315§39
②Ibid,p324§47.
③Ibid,p60§168.
④Ibid.p69附录2§2.
①张庆熊.维特根斯坦的后期哲学和20世纪西方社会科学方法论的发展.外国哲学研究：11-18.
②David Francis(2005). Using Wittgenstein to Respecify Constitructivism. Human Studies(28):pp251-290.
①维特根斯坦.哲学研究.汤潮等译,北京：三联书店.1992：109.
②李醒民.从理论整体论到意义整体论.湖南社会科学.2003(5)：103.
③蒯因.从逻辑的观点看.江天骥等译.上海：上海译文出版社,1987：21.
④Ibid.p26
①维特根斯坦.维特根斯坦全集第八卷哲学研究.涂纪亮主编.涂纪亮译.石家庄：河北教育出版社,2003：p123§241.
①彭孟尧.知识论.北：三民书局,2009：p285
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