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对外负债在美国金融霸权维系中的作用
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摘要
美国的金融霸权始于“黄金-美元”双挂钩的布雷顿森林体系,但该体系的瓦解却并未终结美国的金融霸权。相反,在后布雷顿森林体系时代,美国通过修改国际经济运行秩序构造出美元债务循环体系,利用对外负债巩固并强化了美国的金融霸权地位。人们很难想象一个国家能够兼具金融霸权国与债务帝国两种身份,更难理解金融霸权与对外负债的共生关系。那么,美国对外负债与金融霸权之间的共生关系是如何产生又是如何维持的?美国政府部门、私人部门和美联储是如何利用这种关联机制去维系甚至是强化金融霸权的?而这种维系作用又能持续多长时间?本文将通过大量的理论与经验研究去分析对外负债在维系美国金融霸权过程中所发挥的作用,找出隐藏在上述问题背后的答案。
     本文先是在理论分析的基础上探究了对外负债与金融霸权的关联机理。根据霸权稳定论中的成本收益分析法,本文认为,金融霸权的长期平稳运行固然离不开霸权国家自身在经济增长率和金融实力方面的相对优势,但最关键的还是尽可能地扩大金融霸权收益,同时控制维系金融霸权的成本。因此,以对外负债维系金融霸权就需要三个前提条件:一是外部债务以本币标价,二是霸权国家对国际信贷资金流动具有控制权,三是具备控制和化解金融危机的能力。满足前提条件一,金融霸权国家通过通货膨胀和汇率调整等手段控制负债成本;满足前提条件二,金融霸权国对债权国的挑选空间会增大;满足前提条件三,金融霸权国家不但可以提高在国际金融领域的威望,更有利于作为债务国的金融霸权国转嫁负债风险。随后,本文分别就美国政府部门、私人部门和美联储如何帮助美国满足这三个前提条件并各司其能地保证对外负债维系美国金融霸权模式的平稳运行。
     美国政府部门在支持对外负债维系金融霸权的过程中主要依靠的是金融外交。财政部所发行的本币计价的政府债券则在美国金融外交中充当利益交换的载体性工具。根据不同的国际情势,购买美国国债在金融外交中时而被用作手段时而被作为目的。在布雷顿森林体系崩溃前美国通过金融外交使主要工业国家接受将美国国债作为黄金的替代品,在美国主动关闭黄金兑换窗口后,美国国债就顺理成章地成为美元回流的载体。为强化新生的美元债务循环体系,美国凭借其军事实力迫使中东地区接受石油美元定价,该金融外交的一项重要意义在于石油输出国的贸易盈余最终会通过投资美元金融资产的方式回流美国。为将新兴市场国家纳入美元债务循环体系,美国积极推动全球金融自由化和一体化进程。美国通过向新兴国家提供出口市场和信贷资金与它们形成经济利益关联,并在此基础上开展金融外交说服新兴国家开放资本账户和国内金融市场,以便于高经济增长所创造的财富以金融资本的形式向美国转移。
     美国私人部门在支持对外负债维系金融霸权的过程中主要通过营造美国金融比较优势吸引国际资本流入。美国金融比较优势得力于多层次的金融市场深度、较强的金融市场稳定性和高效的资金配置效率。本文通过指数构建初步对美国的金融优势进行了量化,横向比较出美国在金融方面较其他主要国家的优越程度。随后,本文将私人部门分为银行部门、非银行金融部门和跨国公司分别进行了研究。美国商业银行在国际金融市场中主要处于融资方地位,以充足的流动性和低风险性吸引国际资本流入。以影子银行体系为主的美国非银行金融部门因大量使用金融创新工具而在从事信用、期限和流动性转换业务上具有极强的灵活性,因此美国私人投资组合净头寸往往呈现负值。正向增长的对外投资净收益为缩窄负的美国私人投资净头寸贡献良多,以跨国公司为代表的私人部门对外直接投资是美国国际投资净收益增长的主要动力来源。因此,以市场力量形成的美国私人部门的对外净负债规模的增长速度一直较为温和。
     美联储在支持对外负债维系金融霸权的过程中主要体现为对美元霸权的维护。美元霸权是美国金融霸权的重要组成部分,由于全球金融资产多以美元计价,因此美元汇率的波动会影响到美国对负债规模的变动。一战与一战后重建时期,美联储配合美国政府所施行的金融扩张主义对美元国际货币地位的提升起到了积极作用。在布雷顿森林体系时期,美联储在多数时间内都践行着低利率政策来维持美元升值幅度会超过其他货币的市场预期,以此通过国际货币互换市场所形成的金融网络,使美元向世界各国更深入地渗透、更持久地在海外留存。布雷顿森林体系崩溃后,美联储通过扮演最后贷款人和最后交易商,确保美国金融市场在特殊情况下一日具有充足的流动性,锁定国际资本对美投资风险,为债务美元的顺利回流保驾护航。在维护美元霸权的同时,美联储也在借助美元霸权,配合财政部的汇率调整政策调控国际收支、调节美国对外负债规模,增强以对外负债维系金融霸权的可持续性。
     通过上述对美国以对外负债维系金融霸权作用机理的分析,本文对美国金融霸权的可持续性和未来发展趋势进行了探讨。整体来看,美国的金融霸权尚处于壮年时期,以对外负债维系金融霸权的运行模式在中短期内难有改变。只要美国的金融霸权的主要构成因素(即美元霸权、绝对占优的金融实力、制定国际金融秩序的主导权、对金融危机的裁处权)不出现病变,这种负债式金融霸权的运行就不会出现根本动摇。因此,仅根据美国对外负债规模及其未来变化趋势判断美国金融霸权强弱或是可持续性是有失偏颇的。鉴于美国负债式金融霸权的运行机理,美国对外负债规模的发展趋势实际上更多地依赖于全球经济走势。美国除了利用估值效应在账面上对国际投资头寸进行调整外,很难单方面地调控对外负债的变化。
     本文总体结论如下:
     第一,无论从主权国家层面还是金融机构层面,美国的金融霸权都符合学者们的界定,具备应有的霸权构成要素。因此,美国是真正意义上的金融霸权国家,也因此完全符合以对外负债维系美国金融霸权运行的前提条件。
     第二,在以对外负债维系美国金融霸权的过程中,美国私人部门以金融优势凭借市场力量吸引国际资本流入;美国政府部门以国家信用和金融外交手段将市场力量难以左右的外国美元储备和美元贸易盈余引渡至美国境内;美联储的国内货币政策与财政部的国际货币政策相配合,通过美元霸权平抑债权国对美国对外负债规模的非议,缓解因对外负债而被动调整国内货币与财政政策的国际压力。
     第三,美国对外净负债主要助推力量是外国对美国政府债券的投资,美国私人部门的对外净负债因市场力量主导而总体表现平稳。因此,美国对外负债的持续增长更多地是国际社会对美国国家信用的肯定,是对美国金融霸权的承认。也就是说,以对外负债维持美国金融霸权的持续时间与对外负债规模的并无根本联系,而与支撑美国金融霸权要素的寿命直接相关,这些支撑要素不仅包括美元霸权、绝对占优的金融实力、制定国际金融秩序的主导权、对金融危机的裁处权,还涉及美国在军事与政治等国际领域的霸权。
United States established its financial hegemony in the period of Bretton WoodsSystem, but the financial hegemony didn’t disappear with the collapse of BrettonWoods System. In contrast, during Post-Brettton Woods System, United States hasbeen still the dominator of international monetary system by modifying the order ofinternational finance, in which U.S. Treasury has been the standard of internationalmonetary system instead of gold. The U.S. financial hegemony has been strengthenedand the number of external debt has been increasing as well in the new style ofinternational capital cycle system. It seems unbelievable that United States has beenso deep in external debt as a financial hegemony country. It is also hard to understandthe symbiotic relationship of financial hegemony and external debt. Then, how doesU.S. sustain the financial hegemony with external debt? Does external debt havepositive effects on strengthening the financial hegemony? If so, which part does U.S.government take in in the process of external debt sustaining or strengtheningfinancial hegemony? What about private sector or Federal Reserve System? Howlong could this kind of U.S. financial hegemony stand? This paper would try to findout answers to these questions by using logic and history analysis research methodson the basis of international political theory.
     This paper begins with exploring the mechanism of external debt related tofinancial hegemony by theoretical analysis. According to the cost-benefit analysis inHegemonic Stability Theory, though it is important to have comparative advantagesof economy, the key to hold financial hegemony is increasing the benefits fromfinancial hegemony as much as possible and controlling the cost of sustaininghegemony at the same time. There are three preconditions for sustaining financialhegemony by external debt. If it could make its external debt denominated bydomestic currency, the financial hegemony country can control the cost of debt byinflation or exchange rate adjustment. If it could induce or even dominate the flow ofinternational capital, there may be more choice of creditor for the financial hegemony country. If it could handle and overcome the crisis, the financial hegemony countrycan not only improve its status in the international finance system, but also impute therisk of debt to other creditors.
     Subsequently, this paper study on how three sectors, namely the U.S. government,the private sector and the Federal Reserve, help the United States meet the threepreconditions and ensure financial hegemony to be strengthened by external debt.
     The U.S. government mainly depends on financial diplomacy to exert its effort inthe process of external debt sustaining financial hegemony. Treasury bondsdenominated by domestic currency play as an interest’s instrument for exchange inUS financial diplomacy. The purchase of US Treasury bonds can be used as means orobjective according to the need of financial diplomacy in some international situation.After the collapse of the Bretton Woods System,US persuaded industry countries toagree that US Treasury bonds could be used as a substitute for gold. US succeeded infinancial diplomacy and Treasury bonds have naturally been the dollar carrier as soonas the closure of dollar-gold exchange window. To strengthen the newborn dollar-debtcycle system, US forced Middle East to price oil in dollars by its military strength. Itmeans that the trade surpluses of the oil exporting countries would eventually flowinto United States by investing financial assets which are denominated by dollars.Subsequently, US has been actively promoting global financial liberalization andeconomic integration process to bring emerging countries into the dollar-debt cyclesystem. Moreover, U.S. has established the benefits association with emergingcountries by importing and lending. Most emerging countries opened their capital andfinancial account and allow international capital to invest in domestic financialmarket. In that case, increasing incomes accumulated by economic growth are morelikely to flow to U.S.
     The U.S. private sector exerts its effort in the process of external debt sustainingfinancial hegemony by creating and maintaining financial comparative advantage.The financial comparative advantage of the U.S. is thanks to the depth, efficiency andstability of financial market. In this paper, the author makes the financial comparativeadvantage of the U.S. quantified by building an index. It is easier to comparefinancial strength among these countries. Then, the author breaks the private sector into the banking sector, non-bank financial sector and multinational companies, andstudy how their external debts effect on sustaining financial hegemony, respectively.U.S. commercial banks are mainly the debtor in international financial markets. Thehigher liquidity and lower risk of them make the U.S. commercial banks moreattractive to international capital. Shadow banking is representative in U.S. non-bankfinancial sector. Thanks to financial innovations, it can be more effective andflexibility in credit, term and liquidity transformation. Thus, the net position of theU.S. private portfolio is negative most time. The negative net position of U.S. privateinvestment is much narrowed by the increasing profits of U.S. foreign directinvestment. The profits of foreign direct investment by Multinational corporations arethe main resource of U.S.net international investment income. Thus, the growth of netexternal debt in private sector is always mildness due to market forces.
     Fed exerts its effort in the process of external debt sustaining financialhegemony by maintaining dollar hegemony. Dollar hegemony is a quiet importantpart of U.S. financial hegemony. Because the most external debt is denominated bydollar, the fluctuation of dollar exchange rate could affect the U.S. external debt.During the First World War and post-First World War reconstruction, the Fed hadplayed a positive role in the international finance expansion to enhance the status ofdollar in international monetary system. During the Bretton Woods System, the Fedhad been practicing with a low interest rate monetary policy to maintain anexpectation that dollar would appreciate more than other currencies in the most time.The expectation of dollar appreciation was helpful to keep dollar in overseas for alonger time. After the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, Fed has to keep thesufficient liquidity and lock the risk of financial market by acting as the last lender orlast dealer to ensure dollar overseas return. Fed has also cooperated with Treasury inexchange rate adjustment in virtue of dollar hegemony to rebalance the internationalpayments and lower the external debt, which may enhance the sustainability ofexternal liabilities to maintain U.S. financial hegemony.
     This paper also discusses that the duration of U.S. financial hegemony withincreasing external debt and the trend of the number of external debt. In author’sopinion, U.S. financial hegemony is still full of powerful and the effect of external debt on sustaining U.S. financial hegemony would not change in medium term, aslong as the components (ie, dollar hegemony, the dominance in finance, order theinternational financial, handle financial crisis) of U.S. financial hegemony still workwell. Therefore, it might be biased to judge the sustainability of the U.S. financialhegemony only based on analyzing the size and the trend of U.S. external debt. Dueto the mechanism of U.S. financial hegemony, the trend of U.S. external debt is morelikely to depend on global economic trends. Though U.S. might adjust the size ofexternal debt by the valuation effect and exchange rate, it is difficult for U.S. todominate the trend of external debt alone.
     The conclusions of this paper are as follow:
     First, the U.S. financial hegemony is line with the academic definition both onthe level of financial institutions and the level of sovereign state. The threepreconditions for financial hegemony being sustained by external debt are allsatisfied.
     Second, in the process of external debt sustaining U.S. financial hegemony, U.S.private sector attracts international capital inflows with financial advantage by virtueof market forces; U.S. government induces foreign exchange reserves and tradesurplus into U.S. financial markets by the national credit and financial diplomacy. Fedmaintains dollar hegemony by cooperating with the international monetary policy ofTreasury.
     Third, the investment on Treasury bonds is the main resource of net external debtgrowth. Therefore, the growth of U.S. external debt is due to the U.S. financialhegemony and suggests the high national credit of the United States. In other words,U.S. financial hegemony has weakly related to the duration of external debt. It ismore likely to depend on dollar hegemony, financial comparative advantage, thepower of ordering international finance, and the ability of handling financial crisis.Additionally, the hegemony on international military and politics is also in favor offinancial hegemony.
引文
2[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):15。
    4[英]苏珊·斯特兰奇(2000):174。
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    2更多有关国际货币基金组织政策的批判请参见Louis W.Pauly(1999),Cheryl Payer(1974).转引自[英]苏珊·斯特兰奇(2000):149-150。
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    1[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):4。
    2[英]彼得·高恩(2003):27-28,46。
    3学者们曾一度认为布雷顿森林体系是迫使各国持有美元为美国海外帝国融资并使美国获益的霸权体系的一部分。对此方面详细描述的研究文献可参见[美]弗朗西斯·加文(2011)第11页的注释1、2,以及第69页的注释2。
    4如陈宝森(1988);[美]菲利普·L·茨威格(1999);[美]保罗·沃尔克和[日]行天丰雄(1996),保罗·沃尔克于1979-1987年任美联储主席,行天丰雄曾任日本大藏省入则国际事务的次官;[美]罗伯特·鲁宾(2004);[美]赫伯特·斯坦(2003)。
    4Carmen M. Reinhart and M. Belen Sbrancia(2011):11.
    5更多关于外部债务与经济增长关系的研究可以参见:SaintPaul.G(1992),Patillo C, D Romer, D N Well(2002,2004),PresbiteroA(2005);SchclarekA(2001).
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    4Lucas, Robert E. Jr and Nancy L. Stokey.1983. Optimal Fiscal and Monetary Policyin an Economy withoutCapital Journal of Monetary Economics12,55-93.Lucas, Robert E. Jr.1986Principles of Fiscal and Monetary Policy Journal of Monetary Economics17,1:117-134
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    1[英]苏珊·斯特兰奇(2012)。
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    1详见Michael D.Bordo,Angela Redish,and Hugh Rockoff(2011).
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    1Eswar Prasad and Shang-Jin Wei(2005),Barry Eichengreen(2005).
    3[英]苏珊·斯特兰奇(2000):174。
    4例如,1929-1933的大萧条、60年代的大衰退、70年代的大通胀、20世纪末至21世纪初的网络泡沫、以及2007年次贷危机所引发的全球金融危机。具体可参见以下研究文献及其对以往研究文献的回顾:Michael D.Bordo,and John Landon-Lane(2010),Michael D.Bordo,Angela Redish and Hugh Rockoff(2011),拉古拉迈·拉詹(2011):129-149。
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    2[英]苏珊·斯特兰奇(2012):90,26.
    3李晓、丁一兵(2006):14-16.
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    3[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格(2007)。“起死回生”的最后一招的基本任务是向破产企业提供清偿手段或金钱,从而使他们有时间解决困难。这种防范金融危机的责任通常由一个国家的国民银行来承担。转引自[美]罗伯特·吉尔平(2011):312。
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    1[美]卡门·莱因哈特,肯尼斯·罗格夫(2010)。
    1[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2003):125。
    2在1797年英国发明所得税之前,英国更多地是依靠对外借贷为战争融资,而随着英国经济实力的增长,自1797年之后,英国政府减少了对外支出,开始通过提高税收来资助战争。参见Elise S.Brezis. ForeignCapital Flows in the Century of Britain’s Industrial Revolution:New Estimates, Controlled Conjectures[J]. TheEconomics History Review,Vol.48, No.1.1995:55.英国对海外殖民地财富的掠夺主要来源于印度,Davis(1979)中提到,从印度所攫取的巨额财富使英国能够从荷兰和其他债权国手中购回国家债务。参见Davis,R.The Industrial Revolution and British Overseas Trade[M].Leicester University Press,1979:55.
    1[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2010):235。
    2莱维-勒博伊尔(1977,第184页),转引自[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格:(2010):239。
    3[英]梅德利科特(1990):81.
    1[英]安格斯·麦迪逊(2003):95。
    1数据来自宿景祥(1995):12..
    2Vincent P.Barabba(Director).Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to1970[M]. BicentennialEdition,Part2.Washington,D.C.,1975. Chapter U:International Transaction and Foreign Commerce.
    3Vincent P.Barabba(Director).Historical Statistics of the United States:Colonial Times to1970[M]. BicentennialEdition,Part2.Washington,D.C.,1975. Chapter U:International Transaction and Foreign Commerce:869.
    4[美]杰弗里·弗里登(2009):126-127.
    1宿景祥(1995):20.
    2Mira Wilkins.The History of Foreign Investment in the United States,1914-1945[M],Harvard University Press,2004.Table7.2
    3United States Census Bureau“Statistical Abstract of the United States”,1950:829.
    1[英]彼得·马赛厄斯(2004):628.
    3英国对金本位制的偏爱贯穿于英国的整个霸权时期,在爆发短期商业危机时,英国可能会暂时放弃金本位,但在危机过后会马上将其恢复。更多相关历史可参见[英]彼得·马赛厄斯(2004):540-571.
    4奥德尔曾在《美国国际货币政策》一书中提到一种观点,即“一个前霸权国家只有在失去它与具体问题有关的相对力量地位并因而失去它在支持某一特定体系方面的利益时,才会放弃其支持该体系的政策”,并认为这种观点通过阐述储备中心国际保持或停止对黄金的可兑换性而适用于国际货币问题。[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):25.
    5在关于是否要恢复金本位的辩论中,凯恩斯反对按1914年汇率让英镑恢复金平价,呼吁执行积极的货币政策,维持就业和经济稳定,反对政府原封不动地用战前的观点和思想来抨击业已变化的战后世界问题。然而凯恩斯的观点在当时的英国并非主流。引自[美]杰弗里·弗里登(2009):138-139.
    1在牺牲国内经济以捍卫本币的国际储备货币地位方面,美国的意愿就要比英国小很多。参见Joanne Gowa,Closing the Gold Window:Domestic Politics and the End of Bretton Woods[M].Ithaca: Cornell UniversityPress,1983:110.
    2[英]彼得·马赛厄斯(2004):630.
    3[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2003):61.
    2[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2003):62.
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):284
    3莱因哈特和罗格夫搜集了大量的历史资料与数据发现,在高通胀与货币危机的过程中,美元化程度会不断提高,而危机过后美元化程度却难以下降。[美]卡门·莱因哈特和肯尼斯·罗格夫(2010):174.
    5[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2010):274.
    6Brezis(1995)研究发现,18世纪后半夜,英国国内储蓄资助的投资占2/3,而经常账户赤字资助了剩余的1/3.Brezis, Elise S., Foreign Capital Flows in the Century of Britain’s Industrial Revolution: New Estimates,Controlled Conjectures[J]. The Economic History Review,1995,48(1).
    1[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2010):179-180.
    2[美]弗朗西斯·加文(2011):10.
    1英国的这种实用主义传统既可见于对金本位制的执着,也可见于对自由贸易的坚持。此外,英国在经济和社会两者之间的公共政策也具有非协调的实用主义特征,对试图根据普遍而全部的联系来解决重要问题非常反感。[英]彼得·马赛厄斯(2004):629,570。
    2R·G·霍特里.中央银行艺术[M].伦敦:朗曼格林,1932:220-224。转引自查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格(2007):264.
    3相关争论观点和论据可参见[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格,罗伯特·Z.阿利伯(2011):260-261.以及[美]查尔斯·P.金德尔伯格(2010):282-286.
    1参见Vivian Anthony. Banks and Markets(3d ed)[M].London:Heinemann,1979:35.转引自[美]约翰·齐斯曼(2009):192.
    2[美]约翰·齐斯曼(2009):193.
    1[英]彼得·马赛厄斯(2004):570.
    2参见Dow, The Management, pp6-11;Richard N.Cooper,“The Balance of Payments”, in Richard Caves et al.,eds.,Britain’s Economic Prospects; J.H.B. Tew,“Policies Aimed at Improving the Balance of Payments,” inF.T.Blackaby, ed., British Economic Policy,1960-1974: Demand Management(New York: Cambridge UniversityPress:978).转引自[美]约翰·齐斯曼(2009):220.
    3[美]约翰·齐斯曼(2009):221-222.
    4Jagdish Bhaagwati,“The Capital Myth:the Difference Between Trade in Widgets and Dollars”,ForeignAffairs,1998,77(3):7-12.
    1详细案例可参见[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格,罗伯特·Z.阿利伯(2011):255-260.
    4[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格,罗伯特·Z.阿利伯(2011):263.
    6苏珊·豪森和唐纳德·文奇,《1930-1939年经济顾问委员会:大萧条与复苏期间的经济顾问研究》(剑桥:剑桥大学出版社,1977)第272-281页)转引自[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格(2007):265
    7[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格,罗伯特·Z.阿利伯(2011):265
    1[美]罗伯特·基欧汉,约瑟夫·奈(2012):75.
    1陈乐民(1995):2.
    2鲁毅、黄金祺等(1997):5.
    3[英]巴斯顿(2002):1.
    1Glen O’Hara, The Limits of US Power: Transatlantic Financial Diplomacy under the Johnson and WilsonAdministrations, October1964-November1968[J].Contemporary European History,2003,12(3):1-22.
    2Kosmas Tsokhas.Anglo-American Economic Entente and Australian Financial Diplomacy [J].Diplomacy&Statecraft,1994,5(3):620-641.
    3Kooker,Judith Lee., French Financial Diplomacy: The Interwar Years[D]. Johns Hopkins University,1974.
    4Nicholas Bayne., Financial Diplomacy and the Credit Crunch: the Rise of Central Banks[J].Journal ofInternational Affairs,2009,62(1):1-16.
    5Daphne Josselin, Between Europe and a Hard Place: French Financial Diplomacy from1995to2002[J].FrenchPolitics, Culture and Society,2004,.22(1):57-75.
    6Jacob J.Kaplan and Schleiminger Gunther, The European Payments Union: Financial Diplomacy in the1950s[M].Oxford: Clarendon Press,1989.
    7S.Endicott, British Financial Diplomacy in China: The Leith-Ross Mission,1935-1937[J]. Pacific Affairs,Winter1973/74,46(4):481-501.
    8Jay Sexton.,“Debtor Diplomacy: Finance and American Foreign Relations in the Civil War Era1837-1873”[eb/ol],Oxford Scholarship Online, January2010.http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199281039.001.0001/acprof-9780199281039
    1陆钢(2000):3.
    1[美]彼得·古勒维奇(2009):46。
    1Evenly B.Davidheiser, Strong States, Weak States: The Role of State in Revolution [J]ComparativePolitics,1992,24(4):463-475.
    2Stephen D.Krasner,“United States Commercial and Monetary Policy: Unraveling the Paradox of ExternalStrength and Internal Weakness,”[J] International Organization,Vol.31,No.4,Autumn1977:637.
    3关于此方面的详细论述请参见Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: the Unusual Origins ofAmerica’sWorld Role[M].Princeton,N.J.: Princeton University Press,1998:13-43.
    4早期的美国大众传媒主要是帮助选民理解政府及其领导人的行为与动机,同时也代表民众对政府进行监督,促使领导人保持诚实。而当今的美国大众传媒会在一定程度上受到利益集团的影响,利益集团通过通过媒体将自身的利益议题延伸为公众议题,以此向决策层制造舆论压力。对这一过程的理论探讨可参见Nyada Terkildsen,Frauke I. Schnell and Cristina Ling,”Interest Group, the Media, and Policy Debate Formation:An Analysis of Message Structure, Rhetoric and Source Cues”, Political Communications, Vol.15,1998:45-61.张春在《美国思想库与一个中国政策》一书中提到,思想库是美国外交政策走势的风向标。(张春(2007):13。)
    5Stephen D.Cohen, The Making of United States International Economic Policy: Principles, Problems, andProposals for Reform [M]. New York: Praeger,2000:97-98.
    1王勇(2007):353。
    2美国国会也正是通过对“财权”的把持来对国际组织施加影响的。
    3[美]罗伯特·鲁宾(2004):5-30。
    1Stephen D.Cohen, The Making of United States International Economic Policy: Principles, Problems, andProposals for Reform [M]. New York: Praeger,2000:47
    2Stephen D. Kransner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. ForeignPolicy[M].Princeton: Princeton University Press,1978:86.
    3在IMF和世界银行,美国财政部所占份额最大,从而具有最大的决策权。
    4孙哲、李巍(2008):316-336。
    5Stephen D.Cohen, The Making of United States International Economic Policy: Principles, Problems, andProposals for Reform [M]. New York: Praeger,2000:49.
    1美元的货币供给完全由美联储自行决定,无需国会或任何行政机构的批准;美联储的运营经费不受国会预算审批权的控制;美联储成员的任期独立于总统和国会,由总统提名的美联储主席任期须与该总统任期相错。参见:李巍(2010):110-111。
    3参见Benn Steil&Robert E. Litan, Financial Statecraft: The Role of Financial Markets inAmerican ForeignPolicy[M]. New Haven and London: Yale University Press,2006:58-66.
    11944年,美国财政部长亨利·摩根索领导筹划了旨在重建全球金融秩序和货币体系的布雷顿森林会议,财政部在制定美国国际经济政策中的地位日益重要。参见John S. Odell, From London to Bretton Woods:Sources of Change in Bargaining Strategies and Outcomes[J]. Journal of Public Policy, Vol.8, No.3/4, Jul.-Dec.1988:287-316.
    2李巍(2010):105。
    1Alfred E. Eckes., Jr., A Search for Solvency [M]. Austin: University of Texas Press,1975:42.
    3李巍(2010):104。
    1[美]罗伯特·基欧汉,约瑟夫·奈(2012):第二章。
    2[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):172.
    3[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):201
    4清偿能力比率指的是霸权国黄金储备与外国拥有的短期债务比率,该指标反映的是金融霸权国的净储备状况。在布雷顿森林体系下,当外国积累的美元增加时,这一比率就会下降,美元持有国会因怀疑美国是否有足够的黄金满足他们未来的债务需求而对美元的信心下降。详细参见Fred C. Bergsten,Dilemmas ofDollar[M]. New York: New York University Press,1975.
    1在固定汇率体制下,这些账户的总和是盈余或赤字需要用短期的官方资本转移或官方储备的转移来弥补。如黄金、储备或“关键”通货。然而,平衡交易在布雷顿森林体系中并不会自动发生。引自弗朗西斯·加文.黄金、美元与权力——国际货币关系的政治(1958~1971)[M].严荣译.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2011:258.
    1还有一种可能的原因是国际收支的记账方法问题。美国银行和公司在海外进行的长期贷款和投资要被记为赤字,而外国持有的美元账户投资于美国短期金融工具也要被记为赤字,这意味着这些美元在赤字上被重复计算了。弗朗西斯·加文.黄金、美元与权力——国际货币关系的政治(1958~1971)[M].严荣译.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2011:259.
    1基欧汉和奈《权力与相互依赖》中曾指出,世界储备比重表明了在布雷顿森林体系下的相对货币实力。[美]罗伯特·基欧汉,约瑟夫·奈(2012):136-140.
    2陈宝森(1988):918.
    1因为外国中央银行对“鲁萨债券”的购买会作为外国长期资本流入记入美国的国际收支平衡表。参见[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):267.
    3美国政府是用借债而非税收为越战融资的,因此,美国国际收支的恶化实际是产生于美国私人部门在对外投资和进口账户上对欧洲资产和工业产品的需求,这也加强了欧洲经济增长与美国国际收支赤字扩大的相关性。参见[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):第十一章.
    4[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):285.
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):320.
    2[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):3.
    3《史密森协议》是“十国集团”(比利时、加拿大、法国、德国、意大利、日本、荷兰、瑞典、英国和美国)经秘密谈判而达成的货币比价调整协议,协议主要内容是美元贬值7.89%,其他国际货币对美元不同程度升值。作为交换,美国取消进口附加税和投资税。关于《史密森协议》的详细论述可参见:John S. Odell,Negotiating the World Economy[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press,2000:75-80.
    4[美]罗伯特·吉尔平(2010):128。
    5李巍(2010):190。
    6此次美国国际金融政策调整措施主要有:美元贬值10%,且开始使用特别提款权来度量贬值的幅度,以削弱黄金作为国际储备资产的象征性角色;逐步取消限制资本流动的利息平衡税、商务部对直接投资的控制以及联邦储备系统的自愿对外信贷限制计划。参见[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):237.
    2[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):201.
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):16.
    1[英]苏珊·斯特兰奇(2012).
    2[英]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):181-189.
    1管清友(2010):80。
    1谭雅玲(2008)
    4Richard P. Mattione,OPEC’s Investments and the International Financial System, Washington D.C.: TheBrookings Instituion,1985:12-14.转引自梁亚滨(2012):182.
    1[英]彼得·高恩(2003):216.
    2“Slow-to-Emerge U.S. Oil Plan,Shaped by Kissinger,Gathers Force,”New York Times,November20,1974;“Treasury Weighs Saudi Investing Talks with Nation Cited on Possible Purchases of Special Issues,”New YorkTimes,June19,1974;“Saudi Reply to Simon Likely Soon,”Journal of Commerce,July31,1974;“Simon UrgesArab Switch to Longer-Term Holdings,”New York Times,June20,1974;“International Banks Shun Oil Dollars,”Journal of Commerce,September12,1974.转引自[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):82.
    1管清友(2010):43.
    1[英]彼得·高恩(2003):217.
    2[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):6.
    1[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):186.
    2[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):198.
    3Nye, Joseph S.,1981. Energy and Security [M]. In Deese&Nye,1981:8.转引自[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):198.。
    1基欧汉认为,将石油政治变化归因于美国军事力量的相对下降的分析在石油领域比在货币和贸易领域更为适用。参见[美]罗伯特·基欧汉(2006):197.
    21974年,欧洲国家和日本对石油输出国组织的国际收支赤字为400亿美元,1975年和1976年均为200亿美元。转引自[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):80.
    4梁亚滨(2012):173.
    1“United States and Saudi Arabia to Expand Cooperation,” State Department Press Release,No.133,5April1974.转引自梁亚滨(2012):172.
    2David E. Spiro, The Hidden Hand of American Hegemony: Petrodollar Recycling and International Markets[M],Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press,1999:107.
    4U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Government Operations, Federal Response to OPEC, Part1, WashingtonD.C.: U.S.G.P.O.:467-68.转引自梁亚滨(2012):173.
    5Department of Treasury,“Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, Joint Statement: US-Saudi Arabian Economic Dialogue”, pressrelease,6March2002,www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/po1074.htm.
    6Richard P. Mattione. OPEC’s Investments and the International Financial System [M]. Washington D.C.:TheBrookings Instituion,1985:12-14.转引自梁亚滨(2012):182.
    1David E. Spiro, The Hidden Hand of American Hegemony: Petrodollar Recycling and International Markets[M].Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press,1999:123.
    2Richard P. Mattione. OPEC’s Investments and the International Financial System [M]. Washington D.C.:TheBrookings Instituion,1985,pp.12-14.转引自梁亚滨(2012):182.
    4[英]彼得·高恩(2003):218.
    5[日]岩本沙弓(2011):123-124.
    6[日]岩本沙弓(2011):127-129.
    1参见Amano和Norden对1972-1993年美元汇率与国际石油价格关系的实证分析研究结果。Amano RA,Norden S. Oil Prices and the Rise and Fall of the US Real Exchange Rate[J].Journal of International Money andFinance.1998,17(2):299-316.
    1详细参见[美]赫伯特·斯坦(2003):第7-9章。
    2[英]彼得·高恩(2003):55.
    3高恩指出,美国政府欲纳入美元债务循环体系的新兴国家共有十个,其中六个亚洲国家(中国、印尼、
    韩国、泰国、马来西亚和印度),拉丁美洲三个(墨西哥、阿根廷、巴西),还有一个东欧国家(波兰)。[英]
    彼得·高恩(2003):108.
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):4.
    2Andrews, David M. Capital Mobility and State Autonomy: Toward a Structural Theory of InternationalMonetary Relations[J]. International Studies Quarterly1994.38,2(June):193-218.
    3Alesina, Alberto, and Guido Tabellini. External Debt, Capital Flight, and Political Risk[J]. Journal ofDevelopment Economics1989,27:199-221.
    4Frieden, Jeffry. Invested Interests: The Politics of National Economic Policies in a World of Global Finance[J].International Organization,1991,45,4(Autumn):425-51.
    1[美]罗伯特·基欧汉,海伦·米尔纳(2003):225.
    2如果国内各社会阶层力量较为均衡,国内调整的速度将较为缓慢。拉美和东欧国家选择借款是为了避免国内社会冲突,在当时的情形下该政策是符合政治和经济理性的,但这些国家疏于考虑债务关系的建立将使本国未来的经济决策受制于美元汇率和美国利率的调整。而东亚国家内部社会阶层力量相差较为悬殊,调整的代价可以向工人阶层转移,因此选择紧缩国内经济进行调整更为便捷有效。[英]彼得·高恩(2003):66-67.
    4[美]卡门·莱因哈特和肯尼斯·罗格夫(2010):第5、6、10、11、12章。
    1[美]查尔斯·P·金德尔伯格,罗伯特·Z.阿利伯.(2011):287.
    2[英]彼得·高恩(2003):130-131.
    1强势美元政策在当时不仅可以抑制国内通货膨胀、树立美元国际货币权威,而且有助于财富从实物拥有着向货币拥有者转移。里根政府前期的强势美元政策向“社会主义法国”施加了强大压力,挫败了法国以扩大工业资本促进经济增长的凯恩斯主义资本积累方式,而这又促使除德国之外的欧洲将货币政策的绝大部分控制权让渡给了欧洲私人金融市场,为美国进一步增加对欧洲金融活动的控制权。[英]彼得·高恩(2003):61-62,131
    2Kahler, Miles. Politics and International Debt: Explaining the Debt Crisis [J]. International Organization,1985,39:357-382.转引自罗伯特·吉尔平.国际关系政治经济学[M].杨宇光译.上海人民出版社,2012:293.
    1C. Randall Henning, Currencies and Politics in the United States, Germany, and Japan[M]. Washington,D.C.:Institute for International Economics,1994:285.
    1[英]彼得·高恩(2003):122.
    1[英]彼得·高恩(2003):147.
    2如果日本执着与承担领导整个地区摆脱危机的责任,就意味着日本向IMF的权威性和美国的战略性运动挑战。但日本的金融体系在当时也处于严重的危机之中,承担起救助地区危机的重任很可能会由于体系本身在地区的过度暴露而被拖垮。[英]彼得·高恩.(2003):146.
    1[日]竹内宏.日本金融败战[M].北京:中国发展出版社,1999:43.
    1Kletzer, Bardhan, Credit Markets and Patterns of International Trade[J]. Journal of Development Economics21987,27(1-2):57-70.
    2Antras, Caballero, Trade and Capital Flows[R]. NBER Working Paper No.13241,2007.
    1Kroszner, Laeven, and Klingebiel, Banking Crisis, Financial Dependence, and Growth[J]. Journal of FinancialEconomics2007(84):187-228.
    2Angeletos,G.M.,Panousi,V.,Financial Integration and Capital Accumulation[R]. MPRA Paper No.24238,2009.
    1White, Eugene N. To Establish a More Effective Supervision of Banking: How the Birth of the Fed AlteredBank Supervision[R]. NBER Working Paper No.16825.
    2应展宇(2007):32-41.
    3[美]杰弗里·弗里登(2009):118.
    1陈宝森(1988):224.
    2关于美国政府在这段时期的具体泛国际路线的国际金融政策请参见陈宝森(1988):888-891.
    1余开祥(1980):50-57.
    1Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission. Shadow Banking and the Financial Crisis[R].www.fcic.bov. May2010.
    2FSB. Shadow Banking: Scoping theIssues[EB/OL].www.financialstabilityboard.org/list/fsb_publications/index.htm, April12,2011.
    3Pozsar, Zoltan, Tobias Adrian, Adam Asheraft, and Hayley Boesky. Shadow Banking[R]. Federal Reserve Bankof New York Staff Report No.458, July,2010.
    1Pozsar, Zoltan, Tobias Adrian, Adam Asheraft, and Hayley Boesky. Shadow Banking[R]. Federal Reserve Bankof New York Staff Report No.458, July,2010.De Rezende, Felipe Carvalho.“The Structure and the Evolution of the U.S. Financial System,1945-1986[J].International Journal of Political Economy,2011(2):21-44.
    2Gorton, Gary and Andrew Metrick. Regulating the Shadow Banking System[J].Brookings Papers on EconomicActivity,2010(2):261-312.
    1如德隆(De Long,1995),波尔都(Bordo,2011)De Long, J.Bradford.“America’s Only Peacetime Inflation: The1970s.”[R].1995.http://econ161.berkeley.edu/pdf_files/peacetime_inflation.pdf.Michael D.Bordo,Angela Redish and Hugh Rockoff.,“Why Didn’t Canada Have a Banking Crisis in2008(or in1930,or1907,or……)”[R]. NBER Working Paper,No.17312,August2011.
    2De Rezende, Felipe Carvalho.“The Structure and the Evolution of the U.S. Financial Sysytem,1945-1986”[J].International Journal of Political Economy,2011(2):21-44.
    3Pozsar(2011)对美国商业银行体系和短期政府担保投资工具难以满足机构投资者对安全性资产需求的问题有详尽的阐述,并提供了具体的数据和图表,本文在此就不做逐一引用。Pozsar, Zoltan. Institutional CashPools and the Triffin Dilemma of the U.S. Banking System[R]. IMF Working Paper, No.WP/11/190, August,2011.
    1Margaret Blair. Financial Innovation and the Distribution of Wealth and Income[R].Law&Economics WorkingPaper,No.10-22.2010:7.
    1Keogh,Bryan.,Junk Bonds Capture Record Share of Sales as Yields Decline:CreditMarkets[N].Bloomberg,2010,4(9).
    2Schwartz, Nelson D. Junk Bond Avalanche Looms for Credit Markets[N].New York Times, March16,2010.
    1Kaplan,Steven N. and Joshau Rauh. Wall Street and Main Street:What Contributes to the Rise of the HighestIncomes?[R].CPSP Working Paper No.615.2007.
    2Brunnermeier, Markus K. Deciphering the Liquidity and Credit Crunch2007-2008[J]. Journal of EconomicPerspectives,23(1):77-100.
    1由于CDS的发行者并没有被要求对他们潜在的债务持有相应数量的抵押品,因此,CDS的发行者依然可以以较高的有效杠杆率进行投资操作。此外,在《多德-弗兰克法》颁布前,掉期并不在交易所进行交易,即使《多德-弗兰克法》后,美国设立了交易标准化掉期产品的交易所,但该法案并没有影响到客户化掉期(customized swaps),而多数应用于金融动荡的掉期均为客户化掉期。Margaret Blair. Financial Innovationand the Distribution of Wealth and Income[R].Law&Economics Working Paper,No.10-22.2010:7.
    2美联储资金流动账户表L.100显示,2007年美国金融部门信贷市场资产总计36.535万亿美元。(Board ofGovernors,2012)。Board of Governors, Federal Reserve System. Statistical Release Z.1: Flow of Funds Accountsof the United States:2005-2011.[R]. Washington D.C.2010.
    1Johnson, Fawn. UPDATE: SEC Queries Large Institutions on Repurchase Agreements.Dow Jones Newswire,March29,2010. http://foxbusiness. com/story/markets/industries/finance/update-sec-queries-large-institutions.
    2Kelly, Kate, Tom McGinty and Dan Fitzpatrick. Big Banks Mask Risk Levels[N]. Wall Street Journal, April8,2010. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304830104575172280848939898.html?m.
    1Adrian, Tobias and Hyun Song Shin. Financial Intermediaries, Financial Stability and Monetary Policy[R].Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports, No.346,Sep2008.
    1Hyun Song Shin. Financial Intermediation and the Post-Crisis Financial System[R]. BIS Working PapersNo.304, March2010.
    1Zoltan Pozsar and Manmohan Singh. The Nonbank-Bank Nexus and the Shadow Banking System[R].IMFWP//11//289, December2011. Box.1.
    1投资机构的现金池规模日益庞大,2010年底,其资产规模为3.5万亿美元,其中,用于进行反向期限转换的短期资产占四分之三。详见Pozsar(2011)。
    2这部分可详细参见Acharya和Schnabl(2010),以及Ricks(2011)对由公共和私人担保的M2属性的短期资产替代品的阐释。
    1关于金融比较优势促进国际分工新形态形成的理论研究可参见Beck(2001)、Antras和Caballero(2007)、Ju和We(i2005),实证研究可参见Becker和Greenberg(2003)、Svaleryd和Vlacho(s2004)、Zhang等(2007)、Li和Yu(2009)。
    2Gertler M, Rogoff K. North-south Lending and Endogenous Domestic Capital Market Inefficiencies[J]. Journalof Monetary Economics1990,26(2):245—66.
    3Ju Jiandong, Wei Shangjin. A Solution to Two Paradoxes of International Capital Flows[R]. Paper Presented atthe7th Jacques Polak Annual Research Conference,2006.
    1Michael P.Dooley, David Folkerts-Landau, Peter M.Garber.“Bretton Woods II Still Defines the InternationalMonetary System”[R]. NBER Working Paper No.14731, February2009.
    1Grubert(1998), Landefeld et al(1992), Laster and McCauley(1994), Mataloni(2000), McGrattan andPrescott(2010).
    1Hausmann and Sturzenegger(2006), Gros(2006).
    1[美]布卢姆(1988):244。
    2[美]罗伯特·蒙代尔(2003):133。
    3李巍(2010):140.
    4C.Randall Henning, Currencies and Politics in the United States, Germany, and Japan[M].Washington, D.C.:Institute for International Economics,1994:107.
    1李巍(2010):110.
    2Joanne Gowa. Closing the Gold Window: Domestic Politics and the End of Bretton Woods[M].Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press,1983:162.
    4[美]劳埃德·B.托马斯(2012):35-36。
    5John T. Wooley, Monetary Politics: The Federal Reserve and the Politics of Monetary Policy[M]. Cambridge,U.K.: Cambridge University Press,1984:44-46; Thomas Havrilesky, The Pressure on American MonetaryPolicy[M]. Boston/Dordrecht: Kluwer,1993:52-53,104-106.
    6[美]郝伯特·斯坦(1997):299.
    7[美]尤斯塔斯·穆林斯(2011).
    1“政府内独立”的提法源于1951-1970年担任美联储主席的威廉·麦克切斯尼·马丁(William McChesneyMartin)。引自[美]艾西罗德(2010):9.
    2历史上,美联储曾多次拒绝过总统的请求,如:约翰逊政府时期,为缓解国内社会项目膨胀和越南战争导致的财政压力,总统曾请求增加货币供给,被美联储主席威廉·马丁拒绝;老布什政府时期,美联储拒绝了总统以最低程度增加税收来应对持续赤字的要求;克林顿政府时期,格林斯潘拒绝了总统以最快速度恢复经济增长的要求。[美]盖依·彼得斯.美国的公共政策(2008):259.
    3[美]艾西罗德(2010):8.
    4[美]艾西罗德(2010):7.
    2[美]劳埃德·B.托马斯(2012):35-36。
    1法定存款准备金率本质上与税收类似。美联储的收入主要来自持有国债的利息,而其年收入的85%要返还给财政部。因此,存款准备金率越高,货币乘数就越低,同等规模的货币供应量就需要更多的基础货币,这也意味着美联储持有国债数量越大,利息收入越多,纳税人就会从中获益;而存款准备金率较低时,法定存款准备金缕的税收效应较低,商业银行相对于纳税人的获益更大。参见[美]劳埃德·B.托马斯(2012):113,115.
    1[美]杰弗里·弗里登(2009):127.
    2[美]杰弗里·弗里登(2009):126-127.
    11870年,美国占世界工业生产比重为23%,而到1914年时,这一比重增长到38%。美国将其生产的大量工业产品推向世界市场,并于1876年扭转了长期以来的贸易逆差国地位,步入了贸易顺差国行列。(MiraWilkins,The History of Foreign Investment in the United States,1914-1945[M],Harvard University Press,2004:6)
    2[美]巴里·艾肯格林(2011):28.
    3[美]巴里·艾肯格林(2011):30.
    1[美]巴里·艾肯格林(2011):25-26.
    2在1914到1917年期间,JP摩根公司代表协约国投资者每年购入的美国证券平均在10亿美元左右,占美国出口总额的四分之一。协约国在向美国私人银行家申请贷款时需要以债券等金融资产作为抵押,而美国私人银行家承诺未来会将这部分抵押返还给贷款国,如1919年,银行家信托公司(Bankers Trust Company)就将曾作为法国贷款抵押的法国证券返还给法国。而JP摩根向协约国提供贷款的条件是贷款国要接受贷款抵押在未来以美国政府债券的形式返还。[美]杰弗里·弗里登(2009):118.
    3Harris G.Warren. Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression[M]. New York: Oxford University Press,1959:27.
    4黄金的可兑换性将保证新的美联储券的价值。只要具有自动清偿功能的短期商业贷款能约束对应的资产,那么单个联邦储备银行在扩张存款债务时便都是安全的。[美]佩里·梅林(2011):38.
    1虽然美联储在整个20世纪20年代维持稳定的低利率货币政策通常被认为是美国在客观上帮助世界其他国家(尤其是英国)恢复金本位制度的一种努力。Barry Eichengreen. Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and theGreat Depression,1919-1939[M]. New York: Oxford University Press.1992:Chapter7.
    2[美]巴里·艾肯格林(2011):32.
    3具体可参见[美]米尔顿·弗里德曼,安娜·J·施瓦茨(2009):第7-9章。
    1吴敬琏(主编)(2011):211.
    1[美]巴里·艾肯格林(2011):37-38.
    2[美]米尔顿·弗里德曼,安娜·J·施瓦茨(2009)。
    3[美]佩里·梅林(2011):47-48.
    5[美]劳埃德·B.托马斯(2012):133.
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):105.
    2[美]默里·罗斯巴德(2011):248.
    41953年,“单一国库券”政策备受联邦储备银行(尤其是纽约银行)的反对。1953年3月,该政策条款写入美联储公开市场操作程序,6月,这项条款从操作准则中剔除,9月又被重新纳入操作准则,并一直持续到1961年。参见[美]米尔顿·弗里德曼,安娜·J·施瓦茨(2009):451.
    1[美]佩里·梅林(2011):第四章。
    2[美]米尔顿·弗里德曼,安娜·J·施瓦茨(2009):72.
    3[美]米尔顿·弗里德曼,安娜·J·施瓦茨(2009):76.
    2[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):104.
    3[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):298.
    4[美]罗伯特·吉尔平(2011):129.
    5[美]罗伯特·吉尔平(2011):131.
    6在法国运用“黄金杠杆”攻击美元后,美国驻IMF的执行董事威廉·戴尔向负责国际事务的财政部助理部长提及了一份备忘录,指出美国最终将不得不关闭黄金窗口。[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):118.
    7美联储的国际交易和技术性谈判都是由纽约联邦储备银行进行的。[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):105.
    8[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):107.
    1[美]约翰·奥德尔(1991):129.
    1国库券回购利率与银行同业拆借利率对应,银行向交易商所提供的贷款利率通常都会比实际联邦基金利率高一些。参见[美]佩里·梅林(2011):29,109.9巴底街
    11971年6月,国际汇率和支付国会小组委员会(Congressional Subcommittee on International Exchange andPayments)向国会建议美元浮动。8月6日,该小组委员会在一份报告中要求美元贬值,否则就停止黄金的国际兑换。详见Joanne Gowa. Closing the Gold Window: Domestic Politics and the End of BrettonWoods[M].Ithaca: Cornell University Press,1983:133-134,149.
    2[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):19.
    1[美]马丁·费尔德斯坦(主编)(2000):306.
    2I.M. Destler&C. Randall Henning, Dollar Politics: Exchange Rate Policymaking in the United States [M].Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics,1989:22-25.转引自李巍(2010):218。
    1Arthur F. Burns. The American Trade Deficit[J].Foreign Affairs,1984,62(5):1068.
    2[美]马丁·费尔德斯坦主编(2000):300.
    2[美]马丁·费尔德斯坦主编(2000):126.
    3对于广场协定的详细描述参见[美]约翰·奥德尔(2003):85-88.
    4C. Randall Henning. Currencies and Politics in the United States, Germany, and Japan[M]. Washington D.C.:Institute for International Economics,1994:281-282,145-147.
    11986年3月,在东京的发达国家首脑峰会上,美国就劝说其他国家采用“目标指示器”的国际政策协调体系,这一目标指示器体系包括GNP增长率、利率、通货膨胀率、失业率、财政赤字与GNP比率、经常项目与贸易平衡、货币增长率、外汇储备和汇率。只要各国实际经济指标偏离了目标指标时,他们就要尽最大努力采取措施予以修正,以达到目标指标。这相当于在筹建一个以美国经济政策为中心的国际政策协调体系。[美]马丁·费尔德斯坦主编.(2000):265-266.
    2[美]马丁·费尔德斯坦主编(2000):266.
    3陈宝森(1988):930.
    4陈宝森(1988):931.
    1[美]马丁·费尔德斯坦主编(2000):266-267.
    1Toyoo Gyohter, The United States in the Global Financial Arena, In David M. Malone, Yuen Foong Khong, eds.,Unilateralism and U.S. Foreign Policy: International Perspectives[M].2003:293.
    2这一时期金融自由化改革措施的对内措施包括外国对本国直接投资自由化、外国进入国内股票市场和不动产市场自由化、国内企业向国外借贷自由化、外国购买国内短期债务自由化、准许外国金融机构进入和经营;对外自由化措施包括解除国民对外直接投资或证券投资管制、解除外国资本回流本国的限制、解除对包括利润和红利等无形支付的限制、解除在本国持有外币账户的限制、准许国内金融机构在境外设立分支结构和经营网络。引自:International Monetary Fund, Developments in International Exchange and PaymentsSystems[R].Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund,1992:29-31.
    1湛柏明(2003):229-230.
    2[日]岩本沙弓(2011):148.
    3劳森原理由昔日的英国财政大臣奈杰尔·劳森(Nigel Lawson)提出,即如果经常项目赤字反映了投资的吸引力,那么它就不成问题。参见[美]杰弗里·法兰克尔,彼得·奥萨格主编(2004):184,148.
    1[美]弗雷德·伯格斯坦主编(2005):23.
    2克林顿政府时期第一任财政部长鲁宾出身于华尔街,曾担任高盛集团董事长;第二任财政部长萨默斯在入驻财政部之前是经济领域的著名学者,师从前任部长鲁宾。保罗·奥尼尔曾任美国匹兹堡美国铝业公司行政总监和董事会主席长达十余年的时间;而约翰·斯诺曾供职于美国交通部,后长期担任美国铁路巨头切西公司的总裁与CEO,且兼任由全美250家大型企业总裁组成的企业圆桌会议的主席。参见李巍(2010):275.
    2关于各学者关于汇率调整对美国对外负债规模影响问题的讨论详见李晓、周学智(2012)。
    3按照泰勒规则,美联储早在2002年年初便该调高短期利率,但产出增长并不是美联储的货币政策目标,在就业率未呈现上升趋势前,美联储不会调转降低短期利率的货币政策。引自[美]拉古拉迈·拉詹(2011):135。
    1[美]巴里·艾肯格林(2009):226-227.
    1陈宝森、王荣军、罗振兴主编(2011):405.
    2陈宝森、王荣军、罗振兴主编(2011):406.
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):134.
    2[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2008):262.
    1陈宝森、王荣军、罗振兴主编(2011):309.
    1详细参见Obstfeld和Rogoff(2001,2005,2007,2009)以及Roubini和Setser(2004)、Krugman(2007),Wolf(2008)。
    1[美]迈克尔·赫德森(2010):206.
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