性别、族群、宗教与文学
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摘要
五四女性文学是现代文学的重要组成部分,也是现代意义上的中国女性文学的开端。五四女性文学的研究进路主要有两条:一是从性别角度对五四女性文学做内部研究,这种研究忽视了五四女性文学的外部联系——基督教文化;二是将五四女性文学从属于现代文学,整体研究现代文学与基督教文化的关系,这种研究忽视了五四女性文学的性别主体特征。为准确而深入把握五四女性文学的特质,必须将内部研究与外部研究结合起来。
就外部而言,五四女作家深受基督教文化的影响。从传播学角度看,在基督教文化传播的链条上,作为传播者的西方传教士对于基督教文化在中国的传播起着重要作用。一方面,他们为吸取广大中国妇女入教,抨击中国陋习、在中国办教育、兴女学,并对基督教进行了适应性调整,突出尊重妇女、民主平等的思想,对中国妇女走出家庭、接受教育、反抗父权压迫起了一定的促进作用;另一方面,他们又具有一定的西方文化优越感,其居高临下的启蒙者姿态使中国妇女在欲迎还拒的心态下接受基督教文化。基督教文化经传教士的传播,最终到达了接受者的头脑中,而基督教文化能否被接受者接受以及接受的程度,还取决于接受者及其所受到的多种影响。就五四女作家而言,她们大都接受过基督教文化教育和影响,同时又深受中国传统文化和五四新文化的影响,加上个体独特的经历和情感体验,因此,五四女作家尽管在理智上对基督教文化欲迎还拒,但内在情感上对基督教文化抱有好感,并有一定的依赖性,有的还皈依了基督教。因此,五四女作家和基督教文化具有密切关系,基督教文化深深影响了五四女作家的创作。
但是,五四女作家对基督教文化的体验既具有鲜明的民族特色,又具有鲜明的性别特征。五四女作家身份上的这一特点和第三世界的妇女主义者极为相似,五四女作家对基督教文化的接受和表现与第三世界的妇女主义者对圣经的批评具有内在的关联。她们对圣经和基督教文化的认识基于相似的经验——本土妇女经验,包括民族经验,本土宗教、神话、文化遗产,女性的经验三个方面。她们都关注相似的主题,如以上帝的性别问题为核心的“上帝论”,以耶稣的性别问题、耶稣与妇女的关系为核心的“基督论”,以两个与“罪”相关联的女性夏娃、马利亚为中心的“罪论”,以男女关系、人类关系为中心的“人性论”等。因此,妇女主义圣经批评为研究五四女性文学与基督教文化的关系,提供了理论依据和方法论支撑。由此,转入内部研究,探讨五四女作家接受和表现西方基督教文化的独特性。
关于“上帝论”,尽管中国自古就有“上帝”这一观念,但五四女作家笔下的“上帝”观念和“上帝”形象却具有基督教的文化因子。在时代影响下,五四女作家舍弃了基督教上帝学说中不合中国观念且不合常理的神秘部分,在创作中表现了更具情感色彩、人格色彩、性别色彩的上帝形象,主要有造物者、母性或女性的上帝、圣言的倾听者、精神寄托的对象等上帝形象。关于“基督论”,五四女作家和中国男性知识分子一样,并不认为耶稣具有神性,而将耶稣看作一个有着伟大人格的人。但和中国男性知识分子不同的是,女作家从本土妇女经验出发,看到了男性耶稣身上所具有的女性品质,如自我牺牲、受难、宽恕、博爱等,所以,她们更愿意把耶稣当作一个女性基督。五四女性文学中出现了一系列女性基督形象,其意义在于:以耶稣的男女平等思想和女性基督形象对抗父权等级思想,并最大限度地肯定女性的传统价值。和耶稣关系最密切的女性是耶稣的母亲马利亚,传统父权制社会却将马利亚打造成一个谦卑、顺服、自我牺牲的母亲典范。五四女作家从自身处境出发,将马利亚看做一个世俗的、现实中的母亲,对母爱进行了不遗余力地歌颂,创作了一系列具有光辉色彩的母亲形象。这表明,五四女作家受中国传统文化和基督教传统文化影响,观念比较保守,缺乏审母意识。与圣母马利亚相对立的基督教女性是夏娃,在父权制思想下,夏娃集邪恶、软弱、欲望、无知等特征于一身,但在五四女性文学中,夏娃成为反叛封建大家庭、追求爱情和个人意识的新女性的同义语。五四女作家笔下的夏娃舍弃了传统社会“女子无才便是德”的愚民思想,大胆而执着地追求知识,探索人生意义,追求个体价值,积极而不激进。这一形象特征反映了中国女性温柔而敦厚的品质以及中国女性和男性之间的同盟关系,独具中国特色。五四女作家还对基督教的人性论、人与人的关系进行了独特理解和表现。在基督教博爱思想影响下,五四女作家表达了建立超越性别、种族、阶级和不同见解的姐妹情谊的理想。她们描写了多种形态的姐妹情谊,但无论哪一种姐妹情谊,都是现代女性实现自我意识觉醒与寻求自我解放的一种途径,也是现代女性用以对抗男权专制而建构的一种女性文化理想,既有现实的积极意义,也有幻想的乌托邦色彩,尤其其中的女性同性之爱,透露出女性性别建构的迷离。但是,五四女作家最终超越了性别建构的迷离,将关注范围投向更为广泛的男人与女人、人与人的关系。受基督教文化影响,五四女作家对妇女解放运动大都持温和态度,没有将批判矛头直接指向中国男性,而是将男性看做妇女解放的同盟军。她们试图通过有效地处理好家庭与事业的矛盾,与中国男性一起建造一个男人与女人、人与人和谐的伊甸园。
以妇女主义圣经批评理论研究五四女性文学,最终揭示了性别、族群、宗教与文学之间的张力关系。五四女作家和中国现代男性知识分子一样,在中国文化语境中认识、诠释和接受基督教文化,使基督教具有了中国特色。但是,五四女作家受自身性别的影响,对基督教文化的接受明显又不同于男性作家。她们对基督教的一些教义和意象不自觉地做了调整,以适应自身情感的需要和女性的性别体验,使基督教具有了中国妇女的特色。这一特点在她们的文学作品中得到了最好体现。
May 4th female literature is not only one important part of Chinese modern literature, but the beginning of modern Chinese female literature. There are generally two ways in the study of May 4th female literature. One is from the point of view of gender, which neglects its connection with the outside world, especially that of Christian culture, while the other, though takes the latter into consideration, affiliates it with modern literature, thus overlooks its gender features. In order to see the whole picture and the unique features of May 4th female literature, it is necessary to have the two approaches united.
The May 4th female writers are profoundly influenced by Christian culture. And western missionaries played an important role in its transmission in China. On the one hand, in order to exert influence on Chinese women, while criticizing the corrupt customs of China, they built up schools, including schools for women. They also adapted their religion to the Chinese needs, paying special attention to women’s rights and equality between men and women. Thus encourage them to go out, receive education, and show defiance to the oppression from their male counterparts. On the other hand, many missionaries see themselves as enlighteners, and with a sense of superiority of their western culture, they also aroused a kind of hostility from them and make them hesitate to accept. Through the work of missionaries, Christian culture reached China. However, whether it was accepted or to what extent it was accepted by its recipients, was determined by the recipients and the different influences exerted on them. As far as May 4th female writers are concerned, though most of them were educated or influenced by Christian culture, yet they were still part of Chinese traditional culture and affected by May 4th New Culture. And they also have their own individual and emotional experiences. So their attitudes to Christian culture are complex. Intellectually, they may hesitate. Emotionally they are in favor of and rely on it. And some of them are even converted. In this sense, May 4th female writers have much to do with and are profoundly influenced by Christian culture.
However, the influence of Christian culture on May 4th female writers in China took on both national characteristics and specific gender features, which resembled those features of womanists from other third world countries. Their exposure to and acceptance of Christian culture had a close relationship with those counterparts of the third world countries. Their understanding and cognition are based on similar experiences: national experiences, their own religion, myths, cultural heritage and female experiences. They are concerned about similar things, such as Godology which centers around the sex of God; Christology that focuses on the sex of Jesus, and the relationship between Jesus and women; Sin and Salvation surrounding Eve and Mary; and anthropology concerning the relationship between men and women, and human relations, etc. Therefore, womanist criticism on the Bible provides theoretical bases and methodology for the study of the relation between May 4th female literature and Christian culture. The dissertation discusses how May 4th female writers accept and display western Christian culture and its characteristics.
As to Godology, though China has had a“god”ever since ancient times, the concept and figure of God comes from Christian culture in May 4th female literature. Tintered with the color of the times, May 4th female writers abandoned the mysteriousness of Godology which goes against Chinese ideology, and created different images of God with strong emotions, personality, even female features. They include the Creator, God as Mother or Woman, audient to the holy words, and the target of spiritual reliance, etc.
As far as Christology is concerned, May 4th female writers, like their male counterparts, do not consider Jesus divine. Instead, they think him as a great man with strong personalities. But unlike male intellectuals, women writers, conscious of their own female experiences, find in him some similar qualities, such as self- sacrifice, suffering, forgiveness, philanthropism etc. Because of this, they are more willing to consider him as a female. Therefore, they create many female Christ in their works. With Jesus’equality between the two sexes, and the female Christ images created they hope to show their resistance to traditional hierarchical patriarchal ideology, and also exhibit a strong confirmation of women’s traditional values.
The most closely related female character to Jesus is his mother, Mary. Traditionally, she was described as a humble, obedient, and sacrificial mother in the patriarchal society. May 4th female writers, however, consider her a secular and real mother, and spare no efforts in praising the great mother’s selfless love, thus created many great mothers in their writings, which not only implicates their Chinese roots and the influence of Christian culture, but also proves that they tend to be more conservative, and lack a sense of criticism concerning the images of mothers.
On the opposite side of Mary stands the figure of Eve, who is the embodiment of evil, feebleness, desire, and ignorance in patriarchal ideology. But in the May 4th female literary context, Eve is a synonym of the New Woman who revolts against feudalistic family and pursues love and personal independence. Their Eve, active but not radical, refuses to be fooled by the long-standing concept of“virtue women need no talents”, and bravely and persistently pursues knowledge, explores meaning of life, and stresses personal value. Their image shows the gentle and honest qualities of Chinese women, and also their alliance with their male counterparts, which is a unique feature.
In their works, May 4th female writers exhibit their unique understanding and representation of the humanity of Christianity and the relationship between humans. Under the influence of philanthropist ideas, they express a kind of ideal of sisterhood that goes beyond gender, race, class and different biases. Their works create different kinds of sisterly friendship, all of which are approaches of women’s awakening of self-consciousness and their pursuits of self-liberation. These approaches represent an ideal, indicating their resistance to patriarchal despotism. Especially, the love between women themselves reveals the mystery of their construction of the female self. Here, their realistic significance goes hand in hand with a kind of utopianism. Yet, May 4th female writers go further, and expand their focus to the relationship between man and women, and between human beings in general. Influenced by Christian culture, most of them have a modest attitude to the woman liberation movement. Instead of criticizing their male counterparts, they consider men as their alliances. In their attempts to find a balance between their career and family life, they hope, together with men, they can create an Eden, where men and women, all human beings can live happily and harmoniously.
As a study of May 4th female literature from the perspective of womanist criticism on the Bible, the dissertation reveals the tensions on gender, community, religion and literature. Like their male counterparts, May 4th female writers learn, understand, and accept Christian culture in the Chinese cultural context, and thus endow Christianity with a Chinese feature. Yet, restricted by their own gender, their actual acceptance is different from male writers. Unconsciously, they adjusted the Christian teachings and images to their own emotional needs and their specific experiences, thus endows it with a feature of their own. This feature is well represented in their literary works.
就外部而言,五四女作家深受基督教文化的影响。从传播学角度看,在基督教文化传播的链条上,作为传播者的西方传教士对于基督教文化在中国的传播起着重要作用。一方面,他们为吸取广大中国妇女入教,抨击中国陋习、在中国办教育、兴女学,并对基督教进行了适应性调整,突出尊重妇女、民主平等的思想,对中国妇女走出家庭、接受教育、反抗父权压迫起了一定的促进作用;另一方面,他们又具有一定的西方文化优越感,其居高临下的启蒙者姿态使中国妇女在欲迎还拒的心态下接受基督教文化。基督教文化经传教士的传播,最终到达了接受者的头脑中,而基督教文化能否被接受者接受以及接受的程度,还取决于接受者及其所受到的多种影响。就五四女作家而言,她们大都接受过基督教文化教育和影响,同时又深受中国传统文化和五四新文化的影响,加上个体独特的经历和情感体验,因此,五四女作家尽管在理智上对基督教文化欲迎还拒,但内在情感上对基督教文化抱有好感,并有一定的依赖性,有的还皈依了基督教。因此,五四女作家和基督教文化具有密切关系,基督教文化深深影响了五四女作家的创作。
但是,五四女作家对基督教文化的体验既具有鲜明的民族特色,又具有鲜明的性别特征。五四女作家身份上的这一特点和第三世界的妇女主义者极为相似,五四女作家对基督教文化的接受和表现与第三世界的妇女主义者对圣经的批评具有内在的关联。她们对圣经和基督教文化的认识基于相似的经验——本土妇女经验,包括民族经验,本土宗教、神话、文化遗产,女性的经验三个方面。她们都关注相似的主题,如以上帝的性别问题为核心的“上帝论”,以耶稣的性别问题、耶稣与妇女的关系为核心的“基督论”,以两个与“罪”相关联的女性夏娃、马利亚为中心的“罪论”,以男女关系、人类关系为中心的“人性论”等。因此,妇女主义圣经批评为研究五四女性文学与基督教文化的关系,提供了理论依据和方法论支撑。由此,转入内部研究,探讨五四女作家接受和表现西方基督教文化的独特性。
关于“上帝论”,尽管中国自古就有“上帝”这一观念,但五四女作家笔下的“上帝”观念和“上帝”形象却具有基督教的文化因子。在时代影响下,五四女作家舍弃了基督教上帝学说中不合中国观念且不合常理的神秘部分,在创作中表现了更具情感色彩、人格色彩、性别色彩的上帝形象,主要有造物者、母性或女性的上帝、圣言的倾听者、精神寄托的对象等上帝形象。关于“基督论”,五四女作家和中国男性知识分子一样,并不认为耶稣具有神性,而将耶稣看作一个有着伟大人格的人。但和中国男性知识分子不同的是,女作家从本土妇女经验出发,看到了男性耶稣身上所具有的女性品质,如自我牺牲、受难、宽恕、博爱等,所以,她们更愿意把耶稣当作一个女性基督。五四女性文学中出现了一系列女性基督形象,其意义在于:以耶稣的男女平等思想和女性基督形象对抗父权等级思想,并最大限度地肯定女性的传统价值。和耶稣关系最密切的女性是耶稣的母亲马利亚,传统父权制社会却将马利亚打造成一个谦卑、顺服、自我牺牲的母亲典范。五四女作家从自身处境出发,将马利亚看做一个世俗的、现实中的母亲,对母爱进行了不遗余力地歌颂,创作了一系列具有光辉色彩的母亲形象。这表明,五四女作家受中国传统文化和基督教传统文化影响,观念比较保守,缺乏审母意识。与圣母马利亚相对立的基督教女性是夏娃,在父权制思想下,夏娃集邪恶、软弱、欲望、无知等特征于一身,但在五四女性文学中,夏娃成为反叛封建大家庭、追求爱情和个人意识的新女性的同义语。五四女作家笔下的夏娃舍弃了传统社会“女子无才便是德”的愚民思想,大胆而执着地追求知识,探索人生意义,追求个体价值,积极而不激进。这一形象特征反映了中国女性温柔而敦厚的品质以及中国女性和男性之间的同盟关系,独具中国特色。五四女作家还对基督教的人性论、人与人的关系进行了独特理解和表现。在基督教博爱思想影响下,五四女作家表达了建立超越性别、种族、阶级和不同见解的姐妹情谊的理想。她们描写了多种形态的姐妹情谊,但无论哪一种姐妹情谊,都是现代女性实现自我意识觉醒与寻求自我解放的一种途径,也是现代女性用以对抗男权专制而建构的一种女性文化理想,既有现实的积极意义,也有幻想的乌托邦色彩,尤其其中的女性同性之爱,透露出女性性别建构的迷离。但是,五四女作家最终超越了性别建构的迷离,将关注范围投向更为广泛的男人与女人、人与人的关系。受基督教文化影响,五四女作家对妇女解放运动大都持温和态度,没有将批判矛头直接指向中国男性,而是将男性看做妇女解放的同盟军。她们试图通过有效地处理好家庭与事业的矛盾,与中国男性一起建造一个男人与女人、人与人和谐的伊甸园。
以妇女主义圣经批评理论研究五四女性文学,最终揭示了性别、族群、宗教与文学之间的张力关系。五四女作家和中国现代男性知识分子一样,在中国文化语境中认识、诠释和接受基督教文化,使基督教具有了中国特色。但是,五四女作家受自身性别的影响,对基督教文化的接受明显又不同于男性作家。她们对基督教的一些教义和意象不自觉地做了调整,以适应自身情感的需要和女性的性别体验,使基督教具有了中国妇女的特色。这一特点在她们的文学作品中得到了最好体现。
May 4th female literature is not only one important part of Chinese modern literature, but the beginning of modern Chinese female literature. There are generally two ways in the study of May 4th female literature. One is from the point of view of gender, which neglects its connection with the outside world, especially that of Christian culture, while the other, though takes the latter into consideration, affiliates it with modern literature, thus overlooks its gender features. In order to see the whole picture and the unique features of May 4th female literature, it is necessary to have the two approaches united.
The May 4th female writers are profoundly influenced by Christian culture. And western missionaries played an important role in its transmission in China. On the one hand, in order to exert influence on Chinese women, while criticizing the corrupt customs of China, they built up schools, including schools for women. They also adapted their religion to the Chinese needs, paying special attention to women’s rights and equality between men and women. Thus encourage them to go out, receive education, and show defiance to the oppression from their male counterparts. On the other hand, many missionaries see themselves as enlighteners, and with a sense of superiority of their western culture, they also aroused a kind of hostility from them and make them hesitate to accept. Through the work of missionaries, Christian culture reached China. However, whether it was accepted or to what extent it was accepted by its recipients, was determined by the recipients and the different influences exerted on them. As far as May 4th female writers are concerned, though most of them were educated or influenced by Christian culture, yet they were still part of Chinese traditional culture and affected by May 4th New Culture. And they also have their own individual and emotional experiences. So their attitudes to Christian culture are complex. Intellectually, they may hesitate. Emotionally they are in favor of and rely on it. And some of them are even converted. In this sense, May 4th female writers have much to do with and are profoundly influenced by Christian culture.
However, the influence of Christian culture on May 4th female writers in China took on both national characteristics and specific gender features, which resembled those features of womanists from other third world countries. Their exposure to and acceptance of Christian culture had a close relationship with those counterparts of the third world countries. Their understanding and cognition are based on similar experiences: national experiences, their own religion, myths, cultural heritage and female experiences. They are concerned about similar things, such as Godology which centers around the sex of God; Christology that focuses on the sex of Jesus, and the relationship between Jesus and women; Sin and Salvation surrounding Eve and Mary; and anthropology concerning the relationship between men and women, and human relations, etc. Therefore, womanist criticism on the Bible provides theoretical bases and methodology for the study of the relation between May 4th female literature and Christian culture. The dissertation discusses how May 4th female writers accept and display western Christian culture and its characteristics.
As to Godology, though China has had a“god”ever since ancient times, the concept and figure of God comes from Christian culture in May 4th female literature. Tintered with the color of the times, May 4th female writers abandoned the mysteriousness of Godology which goes against Chinese ideology, and created different images of God with strong emotions, personality, even female features. They include the Creator, God as Mother or Woman, audient to the holy words, and the target of spiritual reliance, etc.
As far as Christology is concerned, May 4th female writers, like their male counterparts, do not consider Jesus divine. Instead, they think him as a great man with strong personalities. But unlike male intellectuals, women writers, conscious of their own female experiences, find in him some similar qualities, such as self- sacrifice, suffering, forgiveness, philanthropism etc. Because of this, they are more willing to consider him as a female. Therefore, they create many female Christ in their works. With Jesus’equality between the two sexes, and the female Christ images created they hope to show their resistance to traditional hierarchical patriarchal ideology, and also exhibit a strong confirmation of women’s traditional values.
The most closely related female character to Jesus is his mother, Mary. Traditionally, she was described as a humble, obedient, and sacrificial mother in the patriarchal society. May 4th female writers, however, consider her a secular and real mother, and spare no efforts in praising the great mother’s selfless love, thus created many great mothers in their writings, which not only implicates their Chinese roots and the influence of Christian culture, but also proves that they tend to be more conservative, and lack a sense of criticism concerning the images of mothers.
On the opposite side of Mary stands the figure of Eve, who is the embodiment of evil, feebleness, desire, and ignorance in patriarchal ideology. But in the May 4th female literary context, Eve is a synonym of the New Woman who revolts against feudalistic family and pursues love and personal independence. Their Eve, active but not radical, refuses to be fooled by the long-standing concept of“virtue women need no talents”, and bravely and persistently pursues knowledge, explores meaning of life, and stresses personal value. Their image shows the gentle and honest qualities of Chinese women, and also their alliance with their male counterparts, which is a unique feature.
In their works, May 4th female writers exhibit their unique understanding and representation of the humanity of Christianity and the relationship between humans. Under the influence of philanthropist ideas, they express a kind of ideal of sisterhood that goes beyond gender, race, class and different biases. Their works create different kinds of sisterly friendship, all of which are approaches of women’s awakening of self-consciousness and their pursuits of self-liberation. These approaches represent an ideal, indicating their resistance to patriarchal despotism. Especially, the love between women themselves reveals the mystery of their construction of the female self. Here, their realistic significance goes hand in hand with a kind of utopianism. Yet, May 4th female writers go further, and expand their focus to the relationship between man and women, and between human beings in general. Influenced by Christian culture, most of them have a modest attitude to the woman liberation movement. Instead of criticizing their male counterparts, they consider men as their alliances. In their attempts to find a balance between their career and family life, they hope, together with men, they can create an Eden, where men and women, all human beings can live happily and harmoniously.
As a study of May 4th female literature from the perspective of womanist criticism on the Bible, the dissertation reveals the tensions on gender, community, religion and literature. Like their male counterparts, May 4th female writers learn, understand, and accept Christian culture in the Chinese cultural context, and thus endow Christianity with a Chinese feature. Yet, restricted by their own gender, their actual acceptance is different from male writers. Unconsciously, they adjusted the Christian teachings and images to their own emotional needs and their specific experiences, thus endows it with a feature of their own. This feature is well represented in their literary works.
引文
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1梁实秋:《“繁星”与“春水”》,黄人影编:《当代中国女作家论》,上海:光华书局,1933年,上海书店1985年影印,第213-214页。
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8许正林:《中国现代文学与基督教》,上海:上海大学出版社,2003年。
9唐小林:《看不见的签名——现代汉语诗学与基督教》,北京:中国社会科学出版社、华龄出版社,2004年。
10刘丽霞:《中国基督教文学的历史存在》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006年。
11陈伟华:《基督教文化与中国小说叙事新质》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年。
1王珊:《论基督教文化与五四女作家研究的视角与走向》,载《邵阳学院学报》2003年第3期,99页。
1戴懿华(Melissa Dale):《从近年英文学术著作看妇女与基督教在近代中国的研究现状》,陶飞亚编:《性别与历史:近代中国妇女与基督教》,上海:上海人民出版社,2006年,第1-21页。
1 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992).
1英国20世纪小说家乔治·奥维尔的反乌托邦小说。
2 Cynthia Scheinberg, Women's poetry and religion in Victorian England: Jewish identity and Christian culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
3 Ingrid Hotz-Davies, The creation of religious by English women poets from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century: soulscapes (Lewiston·Queenston·Lampeter, 2001).
4 Marianne Thorm?hlen, the Brontёs and Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
5 Shirley A. Stave, Toni Morrison and the Bible: Contested Intertextualities (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2006).
6 Wai-Ching Angela Wong, the Poor Woman: A Critical Analysis of Asian Theology and Contemporary Chinese Fiction by Women (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2002).
7刘思谦:《“女性主义”与“神学”》,《读书》,1999年第9期,第80页。
1李玲:《中国现代文学的性别意识》,北京:人民文学出版社,2002年,第121页。
1历史上基督教共四次来华:1、唐代的景教是基督教在中国的第一次传播;2、元朝的“也里可温教”是基督教在中国的第二次传播;3、基督教第三次来华是明末清初,主要是天主教的传教活动;4、基督教第四次来华是清末民初,以新教传教士马里逊1807年抵达广州为起点。
2王本朝:《20世纪中国文学与基督教文化》,合肥:安徽教育出版社,2000年,第9页。
3张爱玲:《中国人的宗教》,金宏达、于青编:《张爱玲文集》(4),合肥:安徽文艺出版社,1992年,第123页。
1茅盾《冰心论》,原载1934年8月《文学》3卷2号,转引自范伯群编《冰心研究资料》,北京:北京出版社,1984年,第244页。
2胡适:《中国传统与将来》,欧阳哲生编:《胡适文集》(12),北京:北京大学出版社,1998年,第202-204页。
3王富仁在《中国的文艺复兴》一书中,第一讲即提出“我们正处在中国文艺复兴运动的历史长河中”。见王富仁:《中国的文艺复兴》,桂林:广西师范大学出版社,2003年,第1-51页。
4王富仁:《中国的文艺复兴》,第3、43页。
1统计数据来自王林《西学与变法——<万国公报>研究》附表:《万国公报》有关妇女文章一览表,见王林:《西学与变法——<万国公报>研究》,济南:齐鲁书社,2004年,第329页。
2康有为:《请禁妇女裹足折》,此奏折出自康有为:《戊戌奏稿》第43-45页,参见李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,台北:传记文学出版社,1975年,第508-510页。
3熊月之:《西学东渐与晚清社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,1994年,第285-287页。
4数据来自Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 17.
1王忠欣:《基督教与中国近现代教育》,武汉:湖北教育出版社,2000年,第80页。
2何凯立:《基督教在华出版事业(1912-1949)》,陈建明、王再兴译,成都:四川大学出版社,2004年,第70页。
1转引自何凯立著,陈建明、王再兴译《基督教在华出版事业(1912-1949)》,成都:四川大学出版社,2004年,第151-152页。
2熊月之:《西学东渐与晚清社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,1994年,第416页。
3何凯立:《基督教在华出版事业(1912-1949)》,陈建明、王再兴译,第90页。
1 Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002), 3-4.
2伊瓦—戴维斯:《性别和民族的理论》,载陈顺馨、戴锦华编:《妇女、民族与女性主义》,北京:中央瑞华出版社,2004年,第15页。
3梁启超:《变法通议》,载《饮冰室文集》(1),转引自李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,台北:传记文学出版社,1975年,第549-556页。
4梁启超:《倡设女学堂启》,载《饮冰室文集》(2),转引自李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,第561页。
5康有为:《请禁妇女裹足折》,出自《戊戌奏稿》,参见李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,第508-510页。
1被学者公认为对中国妇女运动产生重要影响的作品《女界钟》开篇,作者金天翮开宗明义表白自己的写作目的:“梦想欧洲白色子,当此时日,口烟卷,手榔杖,肩随细君,挈带稚子,昂头掉臂于伦敦、巴黎、华盛顿之大道间,何等快乐,何等自在!吾恨不能往,吾惟以间接法知之。”参见金天翮著、陈雁编校:《女界钟》,上海:上海古籍出版社,2003年,第1页。
2王政、高彦颐、刘禾:《从<女界钟>到“男界钟”:男性主体、国家主义与现代性》,王政、陈雁主编:《百年中国女权思潮研究》,上海:复旦大学出版社,2005年,第2页。
3王本朝:《20世纪中国文学与基督教文化》,合肥:安徽教育出版社,2000年,第5页。
1从基督教在中国的四次传播来看,前三次,中国国力强盛,文化发达,传教士无霸主心态,中西文化的交流和碰撞处于平等地位。第四次则不然,传教士具有文化优越感,在中西文化的交流和碰撞中,基督教文化处于强势。
2熊月之:《西学东渐和晚清社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,1994年,第97页。
3据顾长声统计,到1920年,全国教堂总数已多达1万余所。参见顾长声:《传教士与近代中国》,上海:上海人民出版社,1981年,第261页。
4杨天宏:《基督教与民国知识分子:1922年—1927年中国非基督教运动研究》,北京:人民文学出版社,2005年,第7页。
1关于帝国主义和父权主义之间的复杂关系可参见Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-Lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002).
2 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Nineteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited, Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 117.
3林美玫:《妇女与差传:十九世纪美国圣公会女传教士在华差传研究》,台北:里仁书局,2005年,第113页。
1 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Nineteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited, Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 117.
2这个事例《教务杂志》1934年曾有记载,亦参见Kwok Pui-Lan,“Unbinding Our Feet: Saving Brown Women and Feminist Religious Discourse”, in Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-Lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002), 63.
3林美玫:《妇女与差传:十九世纪美国圣公会女传教士在华差传研究》,台北:里仁书局,2005年,第114页。
4 Leslie A. Flemming edited, Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, SanFrancisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 3.
1《马太福音》28:19-20:“所以,你们要去使万民作我的门徒,奉父子圣灵的名,给他们施洗。凡我所吩咐你们的,都教训他们遵守,我就常与你们同在,直到世界的末了。”《马可福音》16:15:“他又对他们说:‘你们往普天下去,传福音给万民听。’”《约翰福音》20:21:“耶稣又对他们说:‘愿你们平安。父怎样差遣了我,我也照样差遣你们。’”本文所引圣经引文均出自和合本《圣经》。
2王晓朝:《基督教与帝国文化》,北京:东方出版社,1997年,第98-99页。
1 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 29-64.以下讨论主要来自该书的研究。
2关于这方面的研究,可参见河南大学年程小娟的博士论文《圣经汉译中“God”的翻译讨论及接受》(2007年),未刊。
1 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, 41.
2 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 56.
1学者吕美颐的《基督教在中国近代妇女中的传播及其影响》、段琦的《清末民初美国女传教士在华的传教活动及影响》、丛曙光、邱兴旺的《基督教传教士与近代中国妇女》等都充分肯定了基督教对中国妇女的进步影响。可参见吕美颐:《佛教与基督教在中国近代女性中影响之比较》,《佛学研究》1996年;段琦:《清末民初美国女传教士在华的传教活动及影响》,《世界宗教研究》,1994年第3期;丛曙光、邱兴旺:《基督教传教士与近代中国妇女,载《中共济南市委党校学报》,2006年第2期。
2 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 21.持这种观点的还有卡尔·斯密斯,他在《十九世纪基督新教教会与中国妇女地位改进关系研究》一文中认为,19世纪基督新教在华的教会对中国妇女地位的提升有着不可磨灭的贡献,同时,女传教士成为她们所接触之中国妇女的性别典范,女传教士的言行为20世纪的中国妇运——中国妇女争取参政、担任政府官职,并要求和男性竞争工作平等权等奠下基础。可参见Carl T. Smith,“The Protestant Church and the Improvement of Women’s Status in Nineteenth-Century China”,in Ching Feng(景风),v.20, n.2 (1977), 105-115.
3 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Niniteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited: Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 117-135.
4 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, 23;Kwok Pui-Lan,“Unbinding Our Feet: Saving Brown Women and Feminist Religious Discourse”, in Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-Lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002), 64.
1所谓“纯正妇女意识”是指一种出现在19世纪美国的妇女意识,为当时的妇女杂志、宗教文艺、礼品刊物所广传和倡导。……所谓纯正妇女意识应该包括4个部分,即是虔诚(piety)、纯洁(purity)、服从(submissiveness)和爱家(domesticity)。虔诚应是妇女最重要的品格,是她生命的源头。纯洁的形象、服从父权的领导和爱护家庭是虔诚品格的外在表现。参见林美玫:《妇女与差传:十九世纪美国圣公会女传教士在华差传研究》,台北:里仁书局,2005年,第26页。
2 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Niniteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited: Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 118.
3女传教士的“恐惧”包括三个方面:1、政治激进主义,包括社会主义、普世主义、自由恋爱等。2、传教士的性别思想要么被忽视,要么被误解。3、中国女性完全西方化(20世纪以前,传教士将基督教和西方文化联系起来,20世纪以后开始强调二者之间的区别)。参见Gael Norma Graham, Gender, Culture, and Christianity: American Protestant Mission Schools in China,1880-1930 (Michigan: A Bell&Howell Company,1991), 298-300.
1王珊:《文化碰撞与精神遇合——论五四女作家接受基督教文化的历史语境》,载《宁夏大学学报》(人文社科版),2003年第2期,第65页。
2张爱玲:《中国人的宗教》,金宏达、于青编:《张爱玲文集》(4),合肥:安徽文艺出版社,1992年,第123页。
1冰心:《我的中学时代》,卓如编:《冰心全集》(7),福州:海峡文艺出版社,1994年,第380页。
2冰心:《我入了贝满中斋》,卓如编:《冰心全集》(7),第471页。
1【英】T.S.艾略特:《基督教与文化》,杨民生、陈堂锦译,成都:四川人民出版社,1989年,第205页。
2 [英]阿伦·布洛克:《西方人文主义传统》,董乐山译,北京:三联书店,1997年,第12页。
3学者高力克对此总结为5种形式的个人主义:自由主义的个人主义、尼采式的贵族个人主义、易卜生主义的个人主义、泡尔生式精神个人主义、中国式个人主义。详细论述参见高力克:《五四的思想世界》,上海:学林出版社,2003年,第1-25页。
4表格来自须藤瑞代:《近代中国的女权概念》,王政、陈雁主编:《百年中国女权思潮研究》,上海:复旦大学出版社,2005年,第43-44页。
1冰心丈夫吴文藻语。转引自卓如:《冰心全传》(上),石家庄:河北教育出版社,2002年,第272页。
2鲁迅:《随感录四十》,原载《新青年》6卷1期。转引自中华全国妇女联合会妇女运动历史研究室编:《五四时期妇女问题文选》,北京:三联书店,1982年,第201页。
3在苏雪林看来,正是她对自己娘家的接济造成了夫妻关系最终破裂。在《浮生九四——雪林回忆录》中,苏雪林分析说:“他为什么这样恨我?最大原因,我把钱却津贴姊和嫂”。见苏雪林:《浮生九四——雪林回忆录》,台北:三民书局股份有限公司,1991年,第97页。
4杨剑龙:《基督教文化与中国现代知识分子:对“五四”时期一个角度的回溯与思考》,香港:香港中文大学崇基学院宗教与中国社会研究中心,2004年,第41页。
2毅真:《几位当代中国女小说家》,黄人影编:《当代中国女作家论》,上海:光华书局,1933年,上海书店1985年影印,第1-36页。
1梁实秋:《“繁星”与“春水”》,黄人影编:《当代中国女作家论》,上海:光华书局,1933年,上海书店1985年影印,第213-214页。
2孟悦、戴锦华:《浮出历史地表:现代妇女文学研究》,郑州:河南人民出版,1989年。
3刘思谦:《“娜拉”言说——中国现代女作家心路纪程》,上海:上海文艺出版社,1993年版,2007年河南大学出版社再版。
4乐铄:《中国现代女性创作及其社会性别》,郑州:郑州大学出版社,2002。
5李玲:《中国现代文学的性别意识》,北京:人民文学出版社,2002。
6常彬的《中国女性文学话语流变:1898-1949》北京:人民出版社,2007年。
1马佳:《摇曳的上帝的面影——基督教文化和五四文学》,《中国现代文学研究丛刊》,1988年第1期。
2【美】路易斯·罗宾逊:《两刃之剑——基督教文化与二十世纪中国小说》,傅光明、梁刚译,台北:业强出版社,1992年。
3马佳:《十字架下的徘徊——基督宗教文化和中国现代文学》,上海:学林出版社,1995年。
4王列耀:《基督教与中国现代文学》,广州:暨南大学出版社,1998年。
5杨剑龙:《旷野的呼声——中国现代作家与基督教文化》,上海:上海教育出版社,1998年。
6王本朝:《20世纪中国文学与基督教文化》,合肥:安徽教育出版社,2000年。
7王列耀:《基督教文化与中国现代戏剧的悲剧意识》,上海:三联书店,2002年。
8许正林:《中国现代文学与基督教》,上海:上海大学出版社,2003年。
9唐小林:《看不见的签名——现代汉语诗学与基督教》,北京:中国社会科学出版社、华龄出版社,2004年。
10刘丽霞:《中国基督教文学的历史存在》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2006年。
11陈伟华:《基督教文化与中国小说叙事新质》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007年。
1王珊:《论基督教文化与五四女作家研究的视角与走向》,载《邵阳学院学报》2003年第3期,99页。
1戴懿华(Melissa Dale):《从近年英文学术著作看妇女与基督教在近代中国的研究现状》,陶飞亚编:《性别与历史:近代中国妇女与基督教》,上海:上海人民出版社,2006年,第1-21页。
1 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992).
1英国20世纪小说家乔治·奥维尔的反乌托邦小说。
2 Cynthia Scheinberg, Women's poetry and religion in Victorian England: Jewish identity and Christian culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
3 Ingrid Hotz-Davies, The creation of religious by English women poets from the seventeenth to the early twentieth century: soulscapes (Lewiston·Queenston·Lampeter, 2001).
4 Marianne Thorm?hlen, the Brontёs and Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
5 Shirley A. Stave, Toni Morrison and the Bible: Contested Intertextualities (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2006).
6 Wai-Ching Angela Wong, the Poor Woman: A Critical Analysis of Asian Theology and Contemporary Chinese Fiction by Women (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2002).
7刘思谦:《“女性主义”与“神学”》,《读书》,1999年第9期,第80页。
1李玲:《中国现代文学的性别意识》,北京:人民文学出版社,2002年,第121页。
1历史上基督教共四次来华:1、唐代的景教是基督教在中国的第一次传播;2、元朝的“也里可温教”是基督教在中国的第二次传播;3、基督教第三次来华是明末清初,主要是天主教的传教活动;4、基督教第四次来华是清末民初,以新教传教士马里逊1807年抵达广州为起点。
2王本朝:《20世纪中国文学与基督教文化》,合肥:安徽教育出版社,2000年,第9页。
3张爱玲:《中国人的宗教》,金宏达、于青编:《张爱玲文集》(4),合肥:安徽文艺出版社,1992年,第123页。
1茅盾《冰心论》,原载1934年8月《文学》3卷2号,转引自范伯群编《冰心研究资料》,北京:北京出版社,1984年,第244页。
2胡适:《中国传统与将来》,欧阳哲生编:《胡适文集》(12),北京:北京大学出版社,1998年,第202-204页。
3王富仁在《中国的文艺复兴》一书中,第一讲即提出“我们正处在中国文艺复兴运动的历史长河中”。见王富仁:《中国的文艺复兴》,桂林:广西师范大学出版社,2003年,第1-51页。
4王富仁:《中国的文艺复兴》,第3、43页。
1统计数据来自王林《西学与变法——<万国公报>研究》附表:《万国公报》有关妇女文章一览表,见王林:《西学与变法——<万国公报>研究》,济南:齐鲁书社,2004年,第329页。
2康有为:《请禁妇女裹足折》,此奏折出自康有为:《戊戌奏稿》第43-45页,参见李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,台北:传记文学出版社,1975年,第508-510页。
3熊月之:《西学东渐与晚清社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,1994年,第285-287页。
4数据来自Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 17.
1王忠欣:《基督教与中国近现代教育》,武汉:湖北教育出版社,2000年,第80页。
2何凯立:《基督教在华出版事业(1912-1949)》,陈建明、王再兴译,成都:四川大学出版社,2004年,第70页。
1转引自何凯立著,陈建明、王再兴译《基督教在华出版事业(1912-1949)》,成都:四川大学出版社,2004年,第151-152页。
2熊月之:《西学东渐与晚清社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,1994年,第416页。
3何凯立:《基督教在华出版事业(1912-1949)》,陈建明、王再兴译,第90页。
1 Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002), 3-4.
2伊瓦—戴维斯:《性别和民族的理论》,载陈顺馨、戴锦华编:《妇女、民族与女性主义》,北京:中央瑞华出版社,2004年,第15页。
3梁启超:《变法通议》,载《饮冰室文集》(1),转引自李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,台北:传记文学出版社,1975年,第549-556页。
4梁启超:《倡设女学堂启》,载《饮冰室文集》(2),转引自李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,第561页。
5康有为:《请禁妇女裹足折》,出自《戊戌奏稿》,参见李又宁、张玉法编:《近代中国女权运动史料,1842-1911》,第508-510页。
1被学者公认为对中国妇女运动产生重要影响的作品《女界钟》开篇,作者金天翮开宗明义表白自己的写作目的:“梦想欧洲白色子,当此时日,口烟卷,手榔杖,肩随细君,挈带稚子,昂头掉臂于伦敦、巴黎、华盛顿之大道间,何等快乐,何等自在!吾恨不能往,吾惟以间接法知之。”参见金天翮著、陈雁编校:《女界钟》,上海:上海古籍出版社,2003年,第1页。
2王政、高彦颐、刘禾:《从<女界钟>到“男界钟”:男性主体、国家主义与现代性》,王政、陈雁主编:《百年中国女权思潮研究》,上海:复旦大学出版社,2005年,第2页。
3王本朝:《20世纪中国文学与基督教文化》,合肥:安徽教育出版社,2000年,第5页。
1从基督教在中国的四次传播来看,前三次,中国国力强盛,文化发达,传教士无霸主心态,中西文化的交流和碰撞处于平等地位。第四次则不然,传教士具有文化优越感,在中西文化的交流和碰撞中,基督教文化处于强势。
2熊月之:《西学东渐和晚清社会》,上海:上海人民出版社,1994年,第97页。
3据顾长声统计,到1920年,全国教堂总数已多达1万余所。参见顾长声:《传教士与近代中国》,上海:上海人民出版社,1981年,第261页。
4杨天宏:《基督教与民国知识分子:1922年—1927年中国非基督教运动研究》,北京:人民文学出版社,2005年,第7页。
1关于帝国主义和父权主义之间的复杂关系可参见Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-Lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002).
2 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Nineteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited, Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 117.
3林美玫:《妇女与差传:十九世纪美国圣公会女传教士在华差传研究》,台北:里仁书局,2005年,第113页。
1 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Nineteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited, Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 117.
2这个事例《教务杂志》1934年曾有记载,亦参见Kwok Pui-Lan,“Unbinding Our Feet: Saving Brown Women and Feminist Religious Discourse”, in Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-Lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002), 63.
3林美玫:《妇女与差传:十九世纪美国圣公会女传教士在华差传研究》,台北:里仁书局,2005年,第114页。
4 Leslie A. Flemming edited, Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, SanFrancisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 3.
1《马太福音》28:19-20:“所以,你们要去使万民作我的门徒,奉父子圣灵的名,给他们施洗。凡我所吩咐你们的,都教训他们遵守,我就常与你们同在,直到世界的末了。”《马可福音》16:15:“他又对他们说:‘你们往普天下去,传福音给万民听。’”《约翰福音》20:21:“耶稣又对他们说:‘愿你们平安。父怎样差遣了我,我也照样差遣你们。’”本文所引圣经引文均出自和合本《圣经》。
2王晓朝:《基督教与帝国文化》,北京:东方出版社,1997年,第98-99页。
1 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 29-64.以下讨论主要来自该书的研究。
2关于这方面的研究,可参见河南大学年程小娟的博士论文《圣经汉译中“God”的翻译讨论及接受》(2007年),未刊。
1 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, 41.
2 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 56.
1学者吕美颐的《基督教在中国近代妇女中的传播及其影响》、段琦的《清末民初美国女传教士在华的传教活动及影响》、丛曙光、邱兴旺的《基督教传教士与近代中国妇女》等都充分肯定了基督教对中国妇女的进步影响。可参见吕美颐:《佛教与基督教在中国近代女性中影响之比较》,《佛学研究》1996年;段琦:《清末民初美国女传教士在华的传教活动及影响》,《世界宗教研究》,1994年第3期;丛曙光、邱兴旺:《基督教传教士与近代中国妇女,载《中共济南市委党校学报》,2006年第2期。
2 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, (Atlanta: Scholar Press, 1992), 21.持这种观点的还有卡尔·斯密斯,他在《十九世纪基督新教教会与中国妇女地位改进关系研究》一文中认为,19世纪基督新教在华的教会对中国妇女地位的提升有着不可磨灭的贡献,同时,女传教士成为她们所接触之中国妇女的性别典范,女传教士的言行为20世纪的中国妇运——中国妇女争取参政、担任政府官职,并要求和男性竞争工作平等权等奠下基础。可参见Carl T. Smith,“The Protestant Church and the Improvement of Women’s Status in Nineteenth-Century China”,in Ching Feng(景风),v.20, n.2 (1977), 105-115.
3 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Niniteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited: Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 117-135.
4 Kwok Pui-Lan, Chinese Women and Christianity: 1860-1927, 23;Kwok Pui-Lan,“Unbinding Our Feet: Saving Brown Women and Feminist Religious Discourse”, in Laura E. Donaldson and Kwok Pui-Lan edit, Postcolonialism, Feminism, and Religious Discourse (New York, London: Routledge, 2002), 64.
1所谓“纯正妇女意识”是指一种出现在19世纪美国的妇女意识,为当时的妇女杂志、宗教文艺、礼品刊物所广传和倡导。……所谓纯正妇女意识应该包括4个部分,即是虔诚(piety)、纯洁(purity)、服从(submissiveness)和爱家(domesticity)。虔诚应是妇女最重要的品格,是她生命的源头。纯洁的形象、服从父权的领导和爱护家庭是虔诚品格的外在表现。参见林美玫:《妇女与差传:十九世纪美国圣公会女传教士在华差传研究》,台北:里仁书局,2005年,第26页。
2 Marjorie King,“Exporting Femininity, Not Feminism: Niniteenth-Century U.S. Missionary Women’s Efforts to Emancipate”, in Leslie A. Flemming edited: Women’s Work for Women: Missionaries and Social Change in Asia (Boulder, San Francisco&London: Westview Press, 1989), 118.
3女传教士的“恐惧”包括三个方面:1、政治激进主义,包括社会主义、普世主义、自由恋爱等。2、传教士的性别思想要么被忽视,要么被误解。3、中国女性完全西方化(20世纪以前,传教士将基督教和西方文化联系起来,20世纪以后开始强调二者之间的区别)。参见Gael Norma Graham, Gender, Culture, and Christianity: American Protestant Mission Schools in China,1880-1930 (Michigan: A Bell&Howell Company,1991), 298-300.
1王珊:《文化碰撞与精神遇合——论五四女作家接受基督教文化的历史语境》,载《宁夏大学学报》(人文社科版),2003年第2期,第65页。
2张爱玲:《中国人的宗教》,金宏达、于青编:《张爱玲文集》(4),合肥:安徽文艺出版社,1992年,第123页。
1冰心:《我的中学时代》,卓如编:《冰心全集》(7),福州:海峡文艺出版社,1994年,第380页。
2冰心:《我入了贝满中斋》,卓如编:《冰心全集》(7),第471页。
1【英】T.S.艾略特:《基督教与文化》,杨民生、陈堂锦译,成都:四川人民出版社,1989年,第205页。
2 [英]阿伦·布洛克:《西方人文主义传统》,董乐山译,北京:三联书店,1997年,第12页。
3学者高力克对此总结为5种形式的个人主义:自由主义的个人主义、尼采式的贵族个人主义、易卜生主义的个人主义、泡尔生式精神个人主义、中国式个人主义。详细论述参见高力克:《五四的思想世界》,上海:学林出版社,2003年,第1-25页。
4表格来自须藤瑞代:《近代中国的女权概念》,王政、陈雁主编:《百年中国女权思潮研究》,上海:复旦大学出版社,2005年,第43-44页。
1冰心丈夫吴文藻语。转引自卓如:《冰心全传》(上),石家庄:河北教育出版社,2002年,第272页。
2鲁迅:《随感录四十》,原载《新青年》6卷1期。转引自中华全国妇女联合会妇女运动历史研究室编:《五四时期妇女问题文选》,北京:三联书店,1982年,第201页。
3在苏雪林看来,正是她对自己娘家的接济造成了夫妻关系最终破裂。在《浮生九四——雪林回忆录》中,苏雪林分析说:“他为什么这样恨我?最大原因,我把钱却津贴姊和嫂”。见苏雪林:《浮生九四——雪林回忆录》,台北:三民书局股份有限公司,1991年,第97页。
4杨剑龙:《基督教文化与中国现代知识分子:对“五四”时期一个角度的回溯与思考》,香港:香港中文大学崇基学院宗教与中国社会研究中心,2004年,第41页。
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