试论石化现象的成因及应对策略
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摘要
石化现象是指外语学习者的中介语中一些语言项目、语法规则和系统性知识趋向于固定下来的状态，年龄的增长和学习量的变化对改变这种固定状态不起作用。由于石化的特殊性，它成为外语学习者中介语发展的巨大障碍，也使研究者在建立有关石化现象的理论框架上遭遇重重阻碍。因此本文从分析石化的定义入手，在明确石化的复杂性和多变性的基础上，将研究目标确立在探讨暂时性石化的成因及应对策略上。
针对已有的石化研究成果中存在的主要缺陷，本文首先通过跟踪调查收集大量反映学习者中介语发展过程的第一手材料，从中分别归纳出发生暂时性石化的语音错误和语法错误，并选择其中已具有向永久性石化发展趋势的三类错误作为主要研究对象。在此基础上，本文从符号学和心理语言学的角度分析导致这三类错误出现石化趋势的原因，提出缺乏动机和自我监控策略的失败是形成暂时性石化错误的重要原因之一。其中语音石化错误是由缺乏工具性动机和综合性动机共同造成的，语法石化错误主要由缺乏综合性动机造成。学习者在制造二语输出的过程中明显使用了自我监控的策略以求减少错误，但学习者无法成功使用这种策略以克服石化错误。
最后，本文作者根据Selinker的多重效应原则提出了克服石化的方法。如何克服石化，笔者认为需要针对导致石化的主要因素加以综合考虑，同时兼顾其它隐蔽性因素，并通过实验证明在不能有效提高学习者动机的情况下，使用错误改正法可以帮助学习者增强监控策略的使用效果，降低石化错误的程度，尽管已形成的石化错误无法彻底根除。
Fossilization is the phenomenon that linguistic items, rules, and subsystems of speakers of a particular NL tend to persist in their IL relative to a particular TL. The age of the learners and the amount of input they are exposed to have no defossilizing effect. Fossilization is a vital obstacle for L2 learners' development of their IL due to its special persisting nature, and causes the ambiguity in the theoretical framework due to its complexity and variability. Therefore, this paper begins with the evaluation of various definitions of fossilization, and shifts its focus from general fossilization to stabilization (temporary fossilization) after the introduction of Selinker's two classifications of this phenomenon.
The main purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to clarify the causes of fossilization; second, to put forward some destabilizing strategies and verify their effectiveness. In order to avoid all the deficiencies of the previous fossilization studies, this paper bases its theoretical discussion on a longitudinal case study, through which the author identifies three types of temporarily fossilized errors of leading to permanent fossilization and some potentially stabilized errors. After the identification of these errors, the author reveals their causal factors through a discussion mainly from the semiotic and psychological perspectives: the lack of motivation and the failure in carrying out self-monitor strategy work in tandem to cause the temporary fossilization.
After clarifying the causes of stabilization of the three types of errors, the author puts forward the destabilizing strategies according to Multiple Effect Principles (Selinker, 1992). The author suggests that an effective destabilizing strategy should aim at all the causal factors that work in tandem, otherwise it
cannot overcome fossilization completely. This hypothesis is examined through an empirical study in the last chapter of this paper. Error correction, which is applied to help learners exercise the function of monitor strategy, only leads to a sharp reduction of some fossilized syntactic errors in participants' output, but it doesn't eliminate all of such errors.
针对已有的石化研究成果中存在的主要缺陷，本文首先通过跟踪调查收集大量反映学习者中介语发展过程的第一手材料，从中分别归纳出发生暂时性石化的语音错误和语法错误，并选择其中已具有向永久性石化发展趋势的三类错误作为主要研究对象。在此基础上，本文从符号学和心理语言学的角度分析导致这三类错误出现石化趋势的原因，提出缺乏动机和自我监控策略的失败是形成暂时性石化错误的重要原因之一。其中语音石化错误是由缺乏工具性动机和综合性动机共同造成的，语法石化错误主要由缺乏综合性动机造成。学习者在制造二语输出的过程中明显使用了自我监控的策略以求减少错误，但学习者无法成功使用这种策略以克服石化错误。
最后，本文作者根据Selinker的多重效应原则提出了克服石化的方法。如何克服石化，笔者认为需要针对导致石化的主要因素加以综合考虑，同时兼顾其它隐蔽性因素，并通过实验证明在不能有效提高学习者动机的情况下，使用错误改正法可以帮助学习者增强监控策略的使用效果，降低石化错误的程度，尽管已形成的石化错误无法彻底根除。
Fossilization is the phenomenon that linguistic items, rules, and subsystems of speakers of a particular NL tend to persist in their IL relative to a particular TL. The age of the learners and the amount of input they are exposed to have no defossilizing effect. Fossilization is a vital obstacle for L2 learners' development of their IL due to its special persisting nature, and causes the ambiguity in the theoretical framework due to its complexity and variability. Therefore, this paper begins with the evaluation of various definitions of fossilization, and shifts its focus from general fossilization to stabilization (temporary fossilization) after the introduction of Selinker's two classifications of this phenomenon.
The main purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to clarify the causes of fossilization; second, to put forward some destabilizing strategies and verify their effectiveness. In order to avoid all the deficiencies of the previous fossilization studies, this paper bases its theoretical discussion on a longitudinal case study, through which the author identifies three types of temporarily fossilized errors of leading to permanent fossilization and some potentially stabilized errors. After the identification of these errors, the author reveals their causal factors through a discussion mainly from the semiotic and psychological perspectives: the lack of motivation and the failure in carrying out self-monitor strategy work in tandem to cause the temporary fossilization.
After clarifying the causes of stabilization of the three types of errors, the author puts forward the destabilizing strategies according to Multiple Effect Principles (Selinker, 1992). The author suggests that an effective destabilizing strategy should aim at all the causal factors that work in tandem, otherwise it
cannot overcome fossilization completely. This hypothesis is examined through an empirical study in the last chapter of this paper. Error correction, which is applied to help learners exercise the function of monitor strategy, only leads to a sharp reduction of some fossilized syntactic errors in participants' output, but it doesn't eliminate all of such errors.
引文
1． Catherine Doughty, Jessica Williams. 1998． Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press
2． Chardron, C. 1986． "teachers priorities in correcting learning errors in French immersion classes" in Day (ed.) 1986 Talking to Learn: Conversation in Second Language Acquisition, Rowley, Mass. : Newbury House.
3． Corder, S.P. 1971． "Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis", in Richards. J. (ed.) 1974． Error analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Learning. London: Longman.
4． Elaine Tarone. 1988． Variation in Interlanguage. Edward Arnold.
5． Ellis, R. 1994． The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
6． Ellis, R. 1997． Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
7． Eubank. L , Selinker. L. 1995． The current state of interlanguage. Internet
8． Gardner, R. and W. Lambert. 1972． Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House
9． Herbert W. Seliger & E Shohamy. 1999． Second Language Research Methods. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
10． Hewings, M. 1988． The Individualization of Pronunciation Improvement. In Brooks. A (eds): \individualization and Autonomy in Language Learning. ELT Documents 131． Modern English Publications and the British Council, p. 143
11． Jack C. Richards and Theordor S. Rodgers. 2000． Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
12． Jean Stilwell Peccei. 1999． Pragmatics. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press / Routledge.
13． Krashen, S.D. 1982． Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd.
14． Lakshmanan, U. 1989． Accessibility to Universal Grammar in Child Second Language Acquisition. Internet.
15． Liu ShaoLong, 2000． A case Study of Acquisition Errors of "Be" and Its Dynamic Patterns in Modern foreign Language Vol.23 No. 4 2000:77-88．
16． Longsing Wei. 2000． Unequal Election of Morphemes in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics 21/1 :106-140．
17． Maley, A. 1986． "A Rose in a Rose, or is it?: Can Communicative Competence be Taught? In The Practice of communicative Teaching, Brumfit (ed.) ELLT documents 124． the British Council.
18． Nan Jiang. 2000． "Lexical Representation and Development in a Second Language." Applied Lingustics. 21/1:47-77．
19． Nemser, W. 1971． "Approximative systems of foreign language learners." Internatioal Review of Applied Linguistics Ⅸ: 115-23．
20． Romaine, S. 1988． Pidgin and Creole Language. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell)
21． Rutherford, W. R. 1983． "Language Typology & Language Transfer." Language Transfer in Language Learning ed. by S. Gass & L. Selinker 358-370/ Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
22． Schumann, J. 1975． Affective Variables and the Problem of Age in Second Language Acquisition. Language Learning,25:209-35．
23． Schumann, J. 1978a. The Pidginization Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
24． Schumann, J. 1986． "Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7:379-92．
25． Selinker, L. 1972． Interlanguage. IRAL, 10 (3)
26. Selinker, L. & J. Lamendella. 1978a. "Fossilization in interlanguage" in C. Blatchford and J. Schachter (eds). On TESOL 78: EFL Policies, Programs,Practices. Washington D.C. TESOL.
27. Selinker, L. & Lakshmanan, U. 1992. Language Transfer and fossilization: The Multiple Effects Principle. In Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker 1992 language transfer in language learning. Newbury House, Rowley.Massachusetts.
28. Selinker, L. & ZhaoHong Han, 1996. Fossilization: What We Think We Know.Internet.
29. ZhaoHong Han & Larry Seinker. 1996. "Multiple Effects and Error Resistance: A Longitudinal Case Study" Internet
30. Truscott, J. 1996. The Case Against Grammar Correction in Second Language Writing Classes. In Guiora, A.Z. (eds): Language Learning 46/2. The University of Michigan. pp. 327-369.
31. Vivian Cook. 2000. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
32．戴曼纯，1998，UG理论与第二语言习得研究，《外语与外语教学》1998年第2期 pp．22-25。
33．戴曼纯，1999，中介语可变性之争及其意义，《外语与外语教学》1999年第1期 pp．15-17。
34．戴炜栋、牛强，1999，过渡语的石化现象及其教学启示，《外语研究》1999年第2期 pp．10-15。
35．丁信善，1995，烟台方言声调系统对学习英语语调影响的声学研究，《烟台师范学院学报》1995．12(2)。
36．费南迪南．德．索绪尔，1999，《普通语言学教程》(高名凯译)，北京：商务印书馆。
37．韩宝成，2000，《外语教学科研中的统计方法》，外语教学与研究出版社。
38．胡荣，1998，中介语与外语教学，《外语教学》1998年第3期 pp．21-25。
39．蒋祖康，1999，《第二语言习得研究》，外语教学与研究出版社。
40．靳洪刚，1997，《语言获得理论研究》，中国社科学出版社。
41．乐眉云，1997，再论索绪尔的符号学语言观，《外国语》1997年第4期 pp．5-10。
42．李幼蒸，1999，《理论符号学导轮》，社会科学文献出版社。
43．刘润清等，1988，《现代语言学名著选读》上、下册，测绘出版社。
44．马川冬、 潭伦华，1996，四川方言区英语语音教学的初步研究，《川东学刊》1996．6(3)。
45．皮埃尔．吉罗，1988，《符号学概论》，四川人民出版社。
46．司联合，1998，过渡语与外语教学，《外语与外语教学》1998年第12期 pp．16-18。
47．吴宗济、林茂灿，1989，《实验语音学概要》，高等教育出版社。
48．伍谦光，1988，《语义学导论》，湖南教育出版社。
49．杨连瑞，1996，试论中介语理论与外语教学，《外语与外语教学》1996年第6期 pp．28-33。
50．杨汝均，1995，江苏地区的方言对学生英语语音的影响，《江苏外语教学研究》1995(2)。
51．祝畹瑾，1992，《社会语言学概论》，湖南教育出版社。
2． Chardron, C. 1986． "teachers priorities in correcting learning errors in French immersion classes" in Day (ed.) 1986 Talking to Learn: Conversation in Second Language Acquisition, Rowley, Mass. : Newbury House.
3． Corder, S.P. 1971． "Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis", in Richards. J. (ed.) 1974． Error analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Learning. London: Longman.
4． Elaine Tarone. 1988． Variation in Interlanguage. Edward Arnold.
5． Ellis, R. 1994． The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
6． Ellis, R. 1997． Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
7． Eubank. L , Selinker. L. 1995． The current state of interlanguage. Internet
8． Gardner, R. and W. Lambert. 1972． Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House
9． Herbert W. Seliger & E Shohamy. 1999． Second Language Research Methods. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
10． Hewings, M. 1988． The Individualization of Pronunciation Improvement. In Brooks. A (eds): \individualization and Autonomy in Language Learning. ELT Documents 131． Modern English Publications and the British Council, p. 143
11． Jack C. Richards and Theordor S. Rodgers. 2000． Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
12． Jean Stilwell Peccei. 1999． Pragmatics. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press / Routledge.
13． Krashen, S.D. 1982． Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd.
14． Lakshmanan, U. 1989． Accessibility to Universal Grammar in Child Second Language Acquisition. Internet.
15． Liu ShaoLong, 2000． A case Study of Acquisition Errors of "Be" and Its Dynamic Patterns in Modern foreign Language Vol.23 No. 4 2000:77-88．
16． Longsing Wei. 2000． Unequal Election of Morphemes in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics 21/1 :106-140．
17． Maley, A. 1986． "A Rose in a Rose, or is it?: Can Communicative Competence be Taught? In The Practice of communicative Teaching, Brumfit (ed.) ELLT documents 124． the British Council.
18． Nan Jiang. 2000． "Lexical Representation and Development in a Second Language." Applied Lingustics. 21/1:47-77．
19． Nemser, W. 1971． "Approximative systems of foreign language learners." Internatioal Review of Applied Linguistics Ⅸ: 115-23．
20． Romaine, S. 1988． Pidgin and Creole Language. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell)
21． Rutherford, W. R. 1983． "Language Typology & Language Transfer." Language Transfer in Language Learning ed. by S. Gass & L. Selinker 358-370/ Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
22． Schumann, J. 1975． Affective Variables and the Problem of Age in Second Language Acquisition. Language Learning,25:209-35．
23． Schumann, J. 1978a. The Pidginization Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
24． Schumann, J. 1986． "Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7:379-92．
25． Selinker, L. 1972． Interlanguage. IRAL, 10 (3)
26. Selinker, L. & J. Lamendella. 1978a. "Fossilization in interlanguage" in C. Blatchford and J. Schachter (eds). On TESOL 78: EFL Policies, Programs,Practices. Washington D.C. TESOL.
27. Selinker, L. & Lakshmanan, U. 1992. Language Transfer and fossilization: The Multiple Effects Principle. In Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker 1992 language transfer in language learning. Newbury House, Rowley.Massachusetts.
28. Selinker, L. & ZhaoHong Han, 1996. Fossilization: What We Think We Know.Internet.
29. ZhaoHong Han & Larry Seinker. 1996. "Multiple Effects and Error Resistance: A Longitudinal Case Study" Internet
30. Truscott, J. 1996. The Case Against Grammar Correction in Second Language Writing Classes. In Guiora, A.Z. (eds): Language Learning 46/2. The University of Michigan. pp. 327-369.
31. Vivian Cook. 2000. Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
32．戴曼纯，1998，UG理论与第二语言习得研究，《外语与外语教学》1998年第2期 pp．22-25。
33．戴曼纯，1999，中介语可变性之争及其意义，《外语与外语教学》1999年第1期 pp．15-17。
34．戴炜栋、牛强，1999，过渡语的石化现象及其教学启示，《外语研究》1999年第2期 pp．10-15。
35．丁信善，1995，烟台方言声调系统对学习英语语调影响的声学研究，《烟台师范学院学报》1995．12(2)。
36．费南迪南．德．索绪尔，1999，《普通语言学教程》(高名凯译)，北京：商务印书馆。
37．韩宝成，2000，《外语教学科研中的统计方法》，外语教学与研究出版社。
38．胡荣，1998，中介语与外语教学，《外语教学》1998年第3期 pp．21-25。
39．蒋祖康，1999，《第二语言习得研究》，外语教学与研究出版社。
40．靳洪刚，1997，《语言获得理论研究》，中国社科学出版社。
41．乐眉云，1997，再论索绪尔的符号学语言观，《外国语》1997年第4期 pp．5-10。
42．李幼蒸，1999，《理论符号学导轮》，社会科学文献出版社。
43．刘润清等，1988，《现代语言学名著选读》上、下册，测绘出版社。
44．马川冬、 潭伦华，1996，四川方言区英语语音教学的初步研究，《川东学刊》1996．6(3)。
45．皮埃尔．吉罗，1988，《符号学概论》，四川人民出版社。
46．司联合，1998，过渡语与外语教学，《外语与外语教学》1998年第12期 pp．16-18。
47．吴宗济、林茂灿，1989，《实验语音学概要》，高等教育出版社。
48．伍谦光，1988，《语义学导论》，湖南教育出版社。
49．杨连瑞，1996，试论中介语理论与外语教学，《外语与外语教学》1996年第6期 pp．28-33。
50．杨汝均，1995，江苏地区的方言对学生英语语音的影响，《江苏外语教学研究》1995(2)。
51．祝畹瑾，1992，《社会语言学概论》，湖南教育出版社。