中间组织价值创造机制研究
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摘要
知识经济时代的来临催生了组织结构和经营模式的变革,要适应未来竞争的需要,必须打破原有严格层级制组织结构模式并重建组织概念、边界和运行机制。在这种情况下,一种界于市场与科层制组织之间的组织形态——中间组织成为了组织理论研究的热点问题。
组织的价值创造问题一直以来都是经济学和管理学研究的重点问题。经济学对价值的研究主要是劳动价值理论和边际效用价值论,亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)在《国富论》中提出的劳动分工理论被认为是价值创造的起源,其后的“斯密—杨格定理”说明经济增长中的递增报酬并非来源于规模经济,而是来自于分工和专业化经济。事实上,随着新交易和通讯工具的发展和产权制度的演进,分工的加深不是在企业内发展,而是在越来越专业化和越来越小的企业之间发展。另一方面,早期管理学对价值创造的研究主要集中在组织内部,研究组织内部的资源和能力的配置,研究组织内部不同部门间的知识共享,以及通过优化组织内部的业务流程来达到为顾客创造更多价值的目的。然而,随着竞争越来越激烈,单个企业要在竞争中取胜的难度越来越大,因此,当前研究的重点逐步转向了组织之间通过某种合作共同创造价值,也就是说,战略联盟和网络组织等中间组织形态的价值创造机制逐渐成为研究的重点。
本文的主要内容和观点如下：
第一部分,中间组织与价值创造理论综述
本文通过对交易成本经济学的“企业—市场”二分法存在的局限性的分析,得出需要一种介于市场与企业之间的资源配置机制——中间组织,来说明处于市场与企业之间的多种制度安排和组织形式。中间组织实际上是多个企业形成的动态联盟和网络结构,其实质是强调组织间的合作关系。新近发展的企业集群、战略联盟、虚拟企业、网络组织等都是中间组织的具体形态。
经济学在价值理论方面的研究主要形成了两大体系,即劳动价值论和效用价值论。亚当·斯密提出的劳动分工理论的主要观点“通过分工促进经济增长”被称为“斯密定理”。美国经济学家阿林·杨格(Allyn Young)将“斯密定理”发展成为“杨格定理”,认为劳动分工的主要经济性表现为劳动的迂回生产经济性,劳动分工依赖于市场广狭,同时市场广狭又依赖于劳动分工。“斯密—杨格定理”说明经济增长中的递增报酬并非来源于规模经济,而是来自于分工和专业化经济。由于分工必然导致合作,因此有必要研究中间组织成员企业间共同创造价值的机制。
第二部分,中间组织价值创造的维度
本文认为中间组织价值创造的维度可以分为结构性维度和关联性维度。结构性维度是描述中间组织价值创造的内部特征,包括：①资源。由于资源的异质性以及资源是组织从事生产经营活动的基础,所以应该整合各企业的资源以追求共同利益的最大化。②能力。组织间能力的差异导致跨组织能力的整合成为中间组织价值创造的关键。③知识。知识的不完备性和知识的互补性,使得组织间的知识分工与协作成为合作创新的关键。
关联性维度是描述组织与外部环境的联系,包括：①社会网络关系。由于经济活动是嵌入社会结构之中的,所以社会关系对组织的经济活动具有一定的影响。也就是说,中间组织成员企业间的关系会对合作绩效产生影响。②组织生态系统。组织生态系统是由与组织的生产经营活动相关的原料供应商、分销商、外包公司、技术提供商以及许多其他组织构成,这样的系统影响着企业创造价值和获取竞争优势的能力。
第三部分,中间组织的资源与能力整合机制
借鉴动态能力观的思想,本文认为,任何企业都很难将价值链的所有环节做到最优,由此必然导致传统价值链的解构。价值链的解构指将企业“供”、“产”、“销”链条上的活动分解开来,从中选择那些本企业具有竞争优势的环节加以保留,把其它不具备竞争优势的环节交给最佳的合作伙伴,或通过市场交易获得该种活动。基于这种思想,本文认为重构价值链可以采取：①价值链分析思路的转变。传统的价值链分析开始于公司的资产和核心能力,然后逐步转向投入要素、产品生产、销售渠道,最后才是客户。新的分析思路应该采取以满足顾客的需要为出发点,在此基础上考虑如何组织生产,如何选择分销渠道,并最终确定应该配备的资产特征和核心能力。值得注意的是,资源和能力的配置不应局限于企业内部。②价值链管理重心的改变。竞争的激烈导致对企业各项能力的要求越来越高,在这种情况下企业很难完全依靠自身将整个价值链的各个环节都做到最优。因此,对价值链的管理也就逐步由企业内部价值链延伸至企业外部价值链,通过依靠与其他企业的合作来获得竞争优势。事实上,价值链的分解过程,就是价值链节点的模块化过程。价值链的某些环节经过价值链的分解形成价值模块后,为了保证整个价值创造系统的有效性,各模块之间的耦合问题就显得尤为重要。
第四部分,中间组织知识转移和创新机制
本文在研究知识转移理论的基础上,构建了“知识搜寻—知识转移—知识吸收”的中间组织知识转移分析框架。①并不是所有的组织都具有知识搜寻的强烈愿望,知识搜寻的有效性和强度往往取决于组织的学习愿望和市场导向。②知识在组织间的转移需要跨越组织边界,因此,知识转移会受到合作伙伴之间的关系品质的影响；另一方面,由于传输知识是有成本的,所以必须建立合适的激励机制以促进知识共享。③对知识转移路径的识别有利于采取适当的组织形式。供应链的成员企业之间不仅存在着物流和资金流,而且存在着大量与生产技术相关的信息流和知识流。因此,在供应链中进行知识转移和共享一般更加容易；在战略联盟中,成员企业间的互动有利于形成相互信任的机制,从而增加成员企业间的边界渗透力,将模仿由组织外部转移到内部,使学习和模仿变得更加容易；跨国公司出于提高生产效率的考虑,旗舰公司往往需向地方性供应商转移相关的技术及管理知识,从而导致跨国知识流动。④知识转移的最终效果取决于组织对知识的吸收能力,而吸收能力又与组织的学习投入、知识基础、组织文化密切相关。
与知识转移密切相关的另一个问题是组织间的合作创新。本文认为,专业化分工的深化必将导致企业之间合作创新的必要性大大增强。然而,在合作创新的过程中,通常会出现对知识的滥用等机会主义问题,以及合作中组织间的公平性等问题,从而导致合作创新的组织障碍。为了促进组织间的合作创新,在组织形式的选择上应当考虑：知识的复杂性与组织一体化程度之间的匹配、网络的中心性、正式治理机制与非正式治理机制的关系、组织间资源分配的公平性等问题。
第五部分,中间组织的嵌入关系与信任机制
嵌入关系与信任机制是社会网络理论研究的重要问题。本文首先借用格兰诺维特将嵌入关系分成关系性嵌入和结构性嵌入的观点,研究了这二种嵌入对于中间组织成员企业间合作绩效的影响。本文认为：①组织间的关系性嵌入有利于传递专业性的信息、增加组织间的互利行为、有助于促进对专用性资产的投资、增加组织间对市场变化的适应性,但不利于组织合作范围的扩大。②结构性嵌入有利于获取经济的外部性、降低内生交易费用、提供重复嵌入的治理机制。
信任机制对于中间组织成员企业间的合作成功具有关键性的作用。本文研究了中间组织的典型形态--战略联盟中信任机制的作用。由于战略联盟常常会面对两种类型的不确定性：一是未来未知事件的不确定性；二是成员伙伴对这些未来事件可能作出的反应的不确定性。在这种双重不确定的环境下,相互信任就成为战略联盟成功的关键。相互信任比能事先预测、依靠权威或进行谈判等手段更快、更经济地减少联盟内部的复杂性与不确定性,并能够有利于联盟成员企业间的合作、有利于改善联盟冲突管理、有利于联盟成员企业间知识共享和互相学习、有利于联盟成员企业的创新。
第六部分,中间组织的生态系统与协同机制
产业中的分工协作和进一步挖掘利润潜力的需要,要求企业在组织形式的选择上要便于相互沟通,以适应必要的知识共享、信息流动和技术扩散过程的需要。加入供应链有利于组织间的知识转移,从而给单个企业提供了更多的生存与发展机会。然而,随着供应链节点的增加,传统简单形式的供应链难以满足企业对价值创造的需要。因此,供应链从形态上逐渐通过流程整合、同步化等改进方式,开始向着宽度方面拓展主体间的关系。也就是说,供给链的形态不再局限于线性的“链”,而发展成为“价值网”,即组织生态系统。
另一方面,产业组织理论开始引入协同演进思想来解释企业与环境相互推动的组织发展问题。本文通过分析协同演进的机理,提出了实现中间组织成员企业间协同效应应该注意的几个方面：①由于跨组织信息系统有利于支持或实现两个以上组织的活动,因此创建跨组织信息系统是中间组织成员企业间协同的前提。②尽管供应链中存在主体利益的矛盾性、信息难以共享的普遍性、供应链环节的不确定性等问题,然而供应链协同有利于提升整个供应链价值网络的竞争力,因此是组织间协同的重点。③跨组织协作通常涉及价值链中多个层面的众多企业,需要对它们的资源进行统筹调度,而共享资产需要跨组织间的流程能实现无缝运作。然而,尽管很多公司在内部流程优化方面确实做得卓有成效,但在公司之间的“共用流程”上却还是一团糟。因此,跨组织流程协同是组织间协同的难点。
第七部分,实证研究——香港利丰公司
本文通过分析香港利丰公司的发展历程,验证了组织间合作进行价值创造的途径：价值链的解构与资源能力的整合、合作关系的建立与价值网络的形成。
本论文的主要创新之处在于：
1、明确提出了中间组织价值创造的结构性维度和关联性维度。本文认为,结构性维度是描述中间组织价值创造的内部特征,它们既是单个组织价值创造的基础,也是中间组织成员企业间通过合作共同创造价值的基础。关联性维度是描述组织与外部环境和其他企业的联系,它们是中间组织价值创造区别于单个组织的不同之处,也是研究中间组织价值创造机制的主要内容。
2、对中间组织价值创造的资源和能力整合机制进行了研究,提出了基于能力要素的价值链重构的思路。本文认为,传统价值链的解构将导致企业价值创造方式的转变、价值链的分层、基于核心能力的价值链重构、价值链节点的模块化等问题。
3、构建了“知识搜寻—知识转移—知识吸收”的中间组织知识转移分析框架。本文认为知识搜寻的效果取决于学习愿望和市场导向,组织间的关系品质和激励机制是影响知识转移的主要因素,供应链、战略联盟和跨国公司是中间组织知识转移的主要路径,知识吸收则是价值创造的最终体现。
4、综合运用经济学、管理学和社会学的相关理论,研究了嵌入关系对组织间合作绩效的影响。本文认为,关系性嵌入有利于组织间传递专业性的信息、增加组织间的互利行为、促进专用性资产的投资、增加对市场变化的适应性,但不利于合作范围的扩大。结构性嵌入会产生经济的外部性,并将企业间的关系从“个人实施”的、“一次性”的信任博弈转变为“社会实施”的、“多次性”的信任博弈,从而降低内生交易费用。另外,结构性嵌入还通过制造出重复嵌入的关系,达到对组织间关系的有效治理。
The age of knowledge-based economy urges the innovation of organizational structure and its managing mode, In order to adapt to the future competition, the original strict-layer organizational model needs to be changed for rebuilding the concept of organization and the boundary and operational mechanism. Under this condition, a new organizational structure that exists between market and bureaucracy has emerged, which becomes the hot topic of organizational theory researches.
Value-creation issue has always been the important point in the fields of economics and management research. Most of researches in economics are concerned about labor value and marginal utility theory of value, Theory of Labor Division is considered as the source of value creation in the Wealth of Nations written by Adam Smith, the following theory of Smith-Young Theorem indicates that the increasing return in the rise of economy does not originate from Economics of Scale, but from division of labor and specialized economy. In fact, with the development of communication skills and Property Rights system, division of labor is not only happened inside the enterprises, but among small and more specialized companies. On the other hand, the early researches of value creation in management mainly focused on issues inside organization which investigated the resource and capacity allocation, the knowledge sharing of different department in an organization, and customer value creation through optimizing business processes inside organization. But with more intense competition, to be successful in the fierce competition for an individual firm becomes more difficult. So nowadays, the focal point of current research shifts to the value creation through coordination among different firms, that is to say, the value creation of inter-organizations such as strategic alliance and network organization becomes more important in the current research.
The main contents and viewpoint of this paper are as follows:
Part one reviews the literatures of Inter-organizations and value creation system.
This paper first analyzes the limitation of dichotomy theory of enterprise and market, and comes to the conclusion that resource allocation mechanism between market and enterprises is needed, which is inter-organization, this inter-organization is used to explain the multi-system arrangement and organization forms. Actually, inter-organization is dynamic alliance and network framework which formed by many firms, the essential is cooperation among organizations. The newly developed forms such as enterprises cluster, strategic alliance, virtual enterprise and network organization all belong to inter-organizations.
There are two systems in the research of value creation in economics which are theories of labor value and utility value. The main viewpoint of labor division theory of Adam Smith which is promoting the increase of economy through division goes by the name of Smith theorem. The famous American economist Allyn Young developed Smith theorem into Young theorem, this theorem thought the division of labor was mainly represented as devious economic ability, labor division relied on the limitation of market boundary and at the same time, limitation of market boundary also depended on labor division. Smith-Young Theorem indicates that the increasing return in the rise of economy does not originate from Economics of Scale, but from division of labor and specialized economy. Because division inevitably leads to cooperation, so it is necessary to investigate the value creation mechanism among inter-organizations.
Part two explains in detail dimensions of inter-organization's value creation.
In this part, we think two dimensions exist in inter-organization value creation which are structural and relevancy dimensions. Structural dimension describes the interior characteristics of value creation in inter-organizations. This dimension includes the following three parts:the first part is resource, because of the heterogeneity of resource and because resource is the basis to take organizational activities. In order to maximize the common interest, it is necessary to integrate all recourses. Second is ability. Differences in ability between organizations have become the key point to integrate value creation of inter-organizations; third is knowledge, the inadequate and complementarily of knowledge has lead the division and collaboration of knowledge becoming the focal point among organizations.
Relevant dimension describes the relationship between organization and external environment. It includes social-network relationship, organization ecosystem. First, social-network relationship points out that because economic activities are embedded in social structure, it has some influence on economic activities, that is to say, the relationship among inter-organizations gives influence to the performance of coordination. Second, organization ecosystem consists of material suppliers, distributors, outsource firms, technology providers and other organizations which are relevant to organizational operating activity, this ecosystem largely influences the ability of organization to create value and obtain competitive advantages.
Part three mainly discusses resource and ability integrating mechanism of inter-organizations.
Use the dynamic capability idea for reference, this paper thinks that there doesn't have any company who can optimize all links in value chain, so the conventional value chain must be deconstructed. The deconstruction of value chain separates supply, production and sale, just selects the links that relevant to organization competitive advantage, left other links that they are not good at to the best-fit collaborator or obtain this activity through business in market. Based on this idea, this paper proposes the following two methods to restructure value chain: The first is to change the analysis approach. The tradition analyses of value chain begin with analyzing the asset and core ability of organization, and then shift to the analysis of input elements, production, distribution channel and then customers. New analyses should begin with the demand of customers, and then consider how to satisfy customers, how to organize production, select distribution channel and so on, and at last rigid characters of asset and core capability needed, something noticeable is that the allocation of resources and capability should not be limited inside the organization. The second method is to change the management focal point of value chain. The intense competition leads to higher requirement of organization capability, so under this condition companies are hard to optimize all links in the whole value chain. Within this problem, the management of supply chain extends from internal to external value chain which obtains competitive advantage through the coordination with other enterprises. In fact, the process of value chain deconstruction is indeed the process of modularization of value chain's node. After the value modularization by the deconstruction of value chain, coupling between modules becomes more and more important in order to guarantee the whole system's efficiency.
Part four studies knowledge transfer and innovation mechanism of inter-organizations
Based on the knowledge transfer theory, the paper has built analyzing framework of knowledge transfer which is knowledge searching, knowledge transfer and knowledge absorbing. The framework includes the following points: First, not all the organizations have intense desire for knowledge searching, the effectiveness and intension of knowledge searching just rests on the learning desire and market-orientation of an organization. Second, on one hand, the knowledge transfer among organizations needs to span the boundary of each firm, so the performance of knowledge transfer largely depends on the relationship among the partners; on the other hand, because costs are needed when transferring knowledge, so a motivation mechanism should be established in order to promote knowledge sharing. Third, the reorganization of knowledge transferring path is propitious to establish proper organization form. There not only exists flows of logistics and capital, but lots of information and knowledge flow that relevant to production technology in supply chain. So it is easier to transfer and share knowledge; in strategic alliances, the interact among organizations is in favor of establishing trust mechanism, so it can increase the ability of boundary penetration among enterprises, shift imitation from outside organization to inside, make studying and imitation more easier. Admirals of multinational companies need to transfer relevant technology and management knowledge to local supplier out of consideration for improving productivity effect, so it leads to transnational knowledge flow. Fourth, the final performance of knowledge transfer depends on the knowledge absorption ability of organization which is consanguineous relevant to learning input, knowledge basis and organization culture.
Another topic that is consanguineous to knowledge transfer is cooperative innovation among organizations. This article holds the viewpoint that it increases the possibility of cooperative innovation by deepening in specialization. However, in the process of cooperative innovation, it often emerges the problems that are knowledge abusing and equity problem among collaboration organization which lead the cooperative innovation obstacles. In order to promote the cooperative innovation among organizations, more considerations should be given when selecting organization form, which include the matching between complexity of knowledge and integration among organizations, network centrality, the relationship between formal and informal mechanism, the justification of resource allocation, etc.
Part five discusses the embedding relation and trust mechanism of inter-organization.
Embedding relation and trust mechanism are important issues in social network theory research. According to Granovetter, the embedding relation is divided into relational embeddedness and structural embeddedness. This paper studies the influences that the two kinds of embedding relations have on the enterprise performance between inter-organizations. We have two main viewpoints:①Relational embeddedness can help transfer professional information, increase mutually beneficial behavior among organizations, promote investment towards special assets and enhance the adaptability in face of market change, but it is not beneficial to the expansion of cooperation scale;②Structural embeddedness can help gain external economy, reduce endogenetic transaction expense, and afford multi-embedding administering mechanism.
Trust mechanism plays a key role in successful cooperation between inter-organizational member enterprises. This paper studies the role of trust mechanism in typical form of inter-organizations, which means strategic alliance. A strategic alliance always meets with two kinds of uncertainty, that is, the uncertainty about future unknowns and the uncertain reaction of organization members towards these unknowns. Because of the two uncertainties, mutual trust becomes the key factor for successful strategic alliance. Mutual trust can reduce the complexity and uncertainty within an alliance more quickly and economically than using such means as forecast, authority and negotiation. It can also help the alliance members cooperate with each other, improve the administration of alliance conflicts, share knowledge and study mutually among alliance members, and promote company innovation.
Part six studies the ecosystem and synergy mechanism of inter-organization.
Considering co-operation based on division of labor and the need of further exploiting potential profit, a corporation should employ right organization form, which is easy for people to communicate with each other, so that the corporation can fit the needs of knowledge share, information transfer and technical diffusion. Supply chain makes for knowledge transfer among organizations, which affords a single corporation more chance of survival and development. However, with the increase of supply chain nodes, it's difficult for traditional simple supply chain to meet the need of value creation. Therefore, through some improvement measure such as reengineering and synchronization, the traditional supply chain inclines to extend, that is to say, the form of supply chain is not limited to be linear any more, but become a value-net, which is so called organizational ecosystem.
On the other hand, industrial organization theory starts to introduce co-evolution thought to explain the mutual promotion between corporations and environment. Through analysis about co-evolution mechanism, this paper gives some suggestions about how to realize the synergy effect among member corporations of inter-organization:①Inter-organizational information system is useful to support or realize two or more organization activities, so the synergy among member corporations is based on the premise that inter-organizational information system is set up.②There are many problems in supply chain, such as the contradiction among entity interests, the universality that the information is difficult to share, the uncertainty in supply chain, and so on. However, supply chain synergy can help improve the competitiveness of the whole supply chain value network. Therefore, supply chain synergy is the keystone of organization synergy.③Inter-organizational cooperation usually involved many enterprises of various aspects in the value chain, their resources need centralized dispatcher, and shared resources need inter-organizational processes to realize seamless operation. Many corporations are highly effective as a result of internal process optimization, but they can't do well in shared process. Therefore, inter-organizational synergy is a difficulty of organization synergy.
Part seven performs an empirical study——Lifeng Corporation of HongKong
Thorough the analysis about the development history of Lifeng, this part validates the approach with which organizations carry out value creation:value chain deconstruction and the integration of resources and capacity, the construction of symbiosis and the emergence of value network.
Main innovation of the dissertation were placed in follows:
First, this paper definitely puts forward structural dimension and relevant dimension in inter-organizational value creation. Structural dimension describes the internal character of inter-organizational value creation, which is not only the foundation of value creation of single organization, but also the base for inter-organizational member enterprises to create value together. Relevant dimension describes the relationship among the organizations, external environments and other enterprises, which tells the difference between inter-organizational value creation and single organization, it's also the main content of inter-organizational value creation mechanism.
Second, this paper studies the resource and capacity integration mechanism of inter-organizational value creation and suggests value chain reconstruction based on capacity elements. Traditional value chain deconstruction can lead to the change of enterprise value creation, delamination of value chain, value chain reconstruction based on core ability, and modularization of value chain node.
Third, the paper has built analyzing framework of inter-organization of knowledge transfer which is knowledge searching, knowledge transfer and knowledge absorbing. The effectiveness of knowledge searching rests on the learning desire and market-orientation of an organization, the relationship of organizations and motivation mechanism are the main factors that influence knowledge transfer. Supply chain, multinational and strategic alliance are the main path for knowledge transfer, and knowledge absorption is the ultimate expression of value creation.
Last, but by no means the least, on the bases of related theory of economics, management and sociology, this paper studies the influence that embedding relation have on organizational cooperation performance. We think that relational embeddedness can help organization to transfer professional information, increase mutually beneficial behavior among organizations, promote investment towards special assets and enhance the adaptability in face of market change, but it is not good for the expansion of cooperation scale. Structural embeddedness can bring external economy, make the relationship between corporations transfer to social, time after time trust game from individual, one-off trust game, and reduce endogenetic transaction expense. Besides, structural embeddedness leads to effective management among organizations by producing the relationship of repeated enbeddedness.
组织的价值创造问题一直以来都是经济学和管理学研究的重点问题。经济学对价值的研究主要是劳动价值理论和边际效用价值论,亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)在《国富论》中提出的劳动分工理论被认为是价值创造的起源,其后的“斯密—杨格定理”说明经济增长中的递增报酬并非来源于规模经济,而是来自于分工和专业化经济。事实上,随着新交易和通讯工具的发展和产权制度的演进,分工的加深不是在企业内发展,而是在越来越专业化和越来越小的企业之间发展。另一方面,早期管理学对价值创造的研究主要集中在组织内部,研究组织内部的资源和能力的配置,研究组织内部不同部门间的知识共享,以及通过优化组织内部的业务流程来达到为顾客创造更多价值的目的。然而,随着竞争越来越激烈,单个企业要在竞争中取胜的难度越来越大,因此,当前研究的重点逐步转向了组织之间通过某种合作共同创造价值,也就是说,战略联盟和网络组织等中间组织形态的价值创造机制逐渐成为研究的重点。
本文的主要内容和观点如下：
第一部分,中间组织与价值创造理论综述
本文通过对交易成本经济学的“企业—市场”二分法存在的局限性的分析,得出需要一种介于市场与企业之间的资源配置机制——中间组织,来说明处于市场与企业之间的多种制度安排和组织形式。中间组织实际上是多个企业形成的动态联盟和网络结构,其实质是强调组织间的合作关系。新近发展的企业集群、战略联盟、虚拟企业、网络组织等都是中间组织的具体形态。
经济学在价值理论方面的研究主要形成了两大体系,即劳动价值论和效用价值论。亚当·斯密提出的劳动分工理论的主要观点“通过分工促进经济增长”被称为“斯密定理”。美国经济学家阿林·杨格(Allyn Young)将“斯密定理”发展成为“杨格定理”,认为劳动分工的主要经济性表现为劳动的迂回生产经济性,劳动分工依赖于市场广狭,同时市场广狭又依赖于劳动分工。“斯密—杨格定理”说明经济增长中的递增报酬并非来源于规模经济,而是来自于分工和专业化经济。由于分工必然导致合作,因此有必要研究中间组织成员企业间共同创造价值的机制。
第二部分,中间组织价值创造的维度
本文认为中间组织价值创造的维度可以分为结构性维度和关联性维度。结构性维度是描述中间组织价值创造的内部特征,包括：①资源。由于资源的异质性以及资源是组织从事生产经营活动的基础,所以应该整合各企业的资源以追求共同利益的最大化。②能力。组织间能力的差异导致跨组织能力的整合成为中间组织价值创造的关键。③知识。知识的不完备性和知识的互补性,使得组织间的知识分工与协作成为合作创新的关键。
关联性维度是描述组织与外部环境的联系,包括：①社会网络关系。由于经济活动是嵌入社会结构之中的,所以社会关系对组织的经济活动具有一定的影响。也就是说,中间组织成员企业间的关系会对合作绩效产生影响。②组织生态系统。组织生态系统是由与组织的生产经营活动相关的原料供应商、分销商、外包公司、技术提供商以及许多其他组织构成,这样的系统影响着企业创造价值和获取竞争优势的能力。
第三部分,中间组织的资源与能力整合机制
借鉴动态能力观的思想,本文认为,任何企业都很难将价值链的所有环节做到最优,由此必然导致传统价值链的解构。价值链的解构指将企业“供”、“产”、“销”链条上的活动分解开来,从中选择那些本企业具有竞争优势的环节加以保留,把其它不具备竞争优势的环节交给最佳的合作伙伴,或通过市场交易获得该种活动。基于这种思想,本文认为重构价值链可以采取：①价值链分析思路的转变。传统的价值链分析开始于公司的资产和核心能力,然后逐步转向投入要素、产品生产、销售渠道,最后才是客户。新的分析思路应该采取以满足顾客的需要为出发点,在此基础上考虑如何组织生产,如何选择分销渠道,并最终确定应该配备的资产特征和核心能力。值得注意的是,资源和能力的配置不应局限于企业内部。②价值链管理重心的改变。竞争的激烈导致对企业各项能力的要求越来越高,在这种情况下企业很难完全依靠自身将整个价值链的各个环节都做到最优。因此,对价值链的管理也就逐步由企业内部价值链延伸至企业外部价值链,通过依靠与其他企业的合作来获得竞争优势。事实上,价值链的分解过程,就是价值链节点的模块化过程。价值链的某些环节经过价值链的分解形成价值模块后,为了保证整个价值创造系统的有效性,各模块之间的耦合问题就显得尤为重要。
第四部分,中间组织知识转移和创新机制
本文在研究知识转移理论的基础上,构建了“知识搜寻—知识转移—知识吸收”的中间组织知识转移分析框架。①并不是所有的组织都具有知识搜寻的强烈愿望,知识搜寻的有效性和强度往往取决于组织的学习愿望和市场导向。②知识在组织间的转移需要跨越组织边界,因此,知识转移会受到合作伙伴之间的关系品质的影响；另一方面,由于传输知识是有成本的,所以必须建立合适的激励机制以促进知识共享。③对知识转移路径的识别有利于采取适当的组织形式。供应链的成员企业之间不仅存在着物流和资金流,而且存在着大量与生产技术相关的信息流和知识流。因此,在供应链中进行知识转移和共享一般更加容易；在战略联盟中,成员企业间的互动有利于形成相互信任的机制,从而增加成员企业间的边界渗透力,将模仿由组织外部转移到内部,使学习和模仿变得更加容易；跨国公司出于提高生产效率的考虑,旗舰公司往往需向地方性供应商转移相关的技术及管理知识,从而导致跨国知识流动。④知识转移的最终效果取决于组织对知识的吸收能力,而吸收能力又与组织的学习投入、知识基础、组织文化密切相关。
与知识转移密切相关的另一个问题是组织间的合作创新。本文认为,专业化分工的深化必将导致企业之间合作创新的必要性大大增强。然而,在合作创新的过程中,通常会出现对知识的滥用等机会主义问题,以及合作中组织间的公平性等问题,从而导致合作创新的组织障碍。为了促进组织间的合作创新,在组织形式的选择上应当考虑：知识的复杂性与组织一体化程度之间的匹配、网络的中心性、正式治理机制与非正式治理机制的关系、组织间资源分配的公平性等问题。
第五部分,中间组织的嵌入关系与信任机制
嵌入关系与信任机制是社会网络理论研究的重要问题。本文首先借用格兰诺维特将嵌入关系分成关系性嵌入和结构性嵌入的观点,研究了这二种嵌入对于中间组织成员企业间合作绩效的影响。本文认为：①组织间的关系性嵌入有利于传递专业性的信息、增加组织间的互利行为、有助于促进对专用性资产的投资、增加组织间对市场变化的适应性,但不利于组织合作范围的扩大。②结构性嵌入有利于获取经济的外部性、降低内生交易费用、提供重复嵌入的治理机制。
信任机制对于中间组织成员企业间的合作成功具有关键性的作用。本文研究了中间组织的典型形态--战略联盟中信任机制的作用。由于战略联盟常常会面对两种类型的不确定性：一是未来未知事件的不确定性；二是成员伙伴对这些未来事件可能作出的反应的不确定性。在这种双重不确定的环境下,相互信任就成为战略联盟成功的关键。相互信任比能事先预测、依靠权威或进行谈判等手段更快、更经济地减少联盟内部的复杂性与不确定性,并能够有利于联盟成员企业间的合作、有利于改善联盟冲突管理、有利于联盟成员企业间知识共享和互相学习、有利于联盟成员企业的创新。
第六部分,中间组织的生态系统与协同机制
产业中的分工协作和进一步挖掘利润潜力的需要,要求企业在组织形式的选择上要便于相互沟通,以适应必要的知识共享、信息流动和技术扩散过程的需要。加入供应链有利于组织间的知识转移,从而给单个企业提供了更多的生存与发展机会。然而,随着供应链节点的增加,传统简单形式的供应链难以满足企业对价值创造的需要。因此,供应链从形态上逐渐通过流程整合、同步化等改进方式,开始向着宽度方面拓展主体间的关系。也就是说,供给链的形态不再局限于线性的“链”,而发展成为“价值网”,即组织生态系统。
另一方面,产业组织理论开始引入协同演进思想来解释企业与环境相互推动的组织发展问题。本文通过分析协同演进的机理,提出了实现中间组织成员企业间协同效应应该注意的几个方面：①由于跨组织信息系统有利于支持或实现两个以上组织的活动,因此创建跨组织信息系统是中间组织成员企业间协同的前提。②尽管供应链中存在主体利益的矛盾性、信息难以共享的普遍性、供应链环节的不确定性等问题,然而供应链协同有利于提升整个供应链价值网络的竞争力,因此是组织间协同的重点。③跨组织协作通常涉及价值链中多个层面的众多企业,需要对它们的资源进行统筹调度,而共享资产需要跨组织间的流程能实现无缝运作。然而,尽管很多公司在内部流程优化方面确实做得卓有成效,但在公司之间的“共用流程”上却还是一团糟。因此,跨组织流程协同是组织间协同的难点。
第七部分,实证研究——香港利丰公司
本文通过分析香港利丰公司的发展历程,验证了组织间合作进行价值创造的途径：价值链的解构与资源能力的整合、合作关系的建立与价值网络的形成。
本论文的主要创新之处在于：
1、明确提出了中间组织价值创造的结构性维度和关联性维度。本文认为,结构性维度是描述中间组织价值创造的内部特征,它们既是单个组织价值创造的基础,也是中间组织成员企业间通过合作共同创造价值的基础。关联性维度是描述组织与外部环境和其他企业的联系,它们是中间组织价值创造区别于单个组织的不同之处,也是研究中间组织价值创造机制的主要内容。
2、对中间组织价值创造的资源和能力整合机制进行了研究,提出了基于能力要素的价值链重构的思路。本文认为,传统价值链的解构将导致企业价值创造方式的转变、价值链的分层、基于核心能力的价值链重构、价值链节点的模块化等问题。
3、构建了“知识搜寻—知识转移—知识吸收”的中间组织知识转移分析框架。本文认为知识搜寻的效果取决于学习愿望和市场导向,组织间的关系品质和激励机制是影响知识转移的主要因素,供应链、战略联盟和跨国公司是中间组织知识转移的主要路径,知识吸收则是价值创造的最终体现。
4、综合运用经济学、管理学和社会学的相关理论,研究了嵌入关系对组织间合作绩效的影响。本文认为,关系性嵌入有利于组织间传递专业性的信息、增加组织间的互利行为、促进专用性资产的投资、增加对市场变化的适应性,但不利于合作范围的扩大。结构性嵌入会产生经济的外部性,并将企业间的关系从“个人实施”的、“一次性”的信任博弈转变为“社会实施”的、“多次性”的信任博弈,从而降低内生交易费用。另外,结构性嵌入还通过制造出重复嵌入的关系,达到对组织间关系的有效治理。
The age of knowledge-based economy urges the innovation of organizational structure and its managing mode, In order to adapt to the future competition, the original strict-layer organizational model needs to be changed for rebuilding the concept of organization and the boundary and operational mechanism. Under this condition, a new organizational structure that exists between market and bureaucracy has emerged, which becomes the hot topic of organizational theory researches.
Value-creation issue has always been the important point in the fields of economics and management research. Most of researches in economics are concerned about labor value and marginal utility theory of value, Theory of Labor Division is considered as the source of value creation in the Wealth of Nations written by Adam Smith, the following theory of Smith-Young Theorem indicates that the increasing return in the rise of economy does not originate from Economics of Scale, but from division of labor and specialized economy. In fact, with the development of communication skills and Property Rights system, division of labor is not only happened inside the enterprises, but among small and more specialized companies. On the other hand, the early researches of value creation in management mainly focused on issues inside organization which investigated the resource and capacity allocation, the knowledge sharing of different department in an organization, and customer value creation through optimizing business processes inside organization. But with more intense competition, to be successful in the fierce competition for an individual firm becomes more difficult. So nowadays, the focal point of current research shifts to the value creation through coordination among different firms, that is to say, the value creation of inter-organizations such as strategic alliance and network organization becomes more important in the current research.
The main contents and viewpoint of this paper are as follows:
Part one reviews the literatures of Inter-organizations and value creation system.
This paper first analyzes the limitation of dichotomy theory of enterprise and market, and comes to the conclusion that resource allocation mechanism between market and enterprises is needed, which is inter-organization, this inter-organization is used to explain the multi-system arrangement and organization forms. Actually, inter-organization is dynamic alliance and network framework which formed by many firms, the essential is cooperation among organizations. The newly developed forms such as enterprises cluster, strategic alliance, virtual enterprise and network organization all belong to inter-organizations.
There are two systems in the research of value creation in economics which are theories of labor value and utility value. The main viewpoint of labor division theory of Adam Smith which is promoting the increase of economy through division goes by the name of Smith theorem. The famous American economist Allyn Young developed Smith theorem into Young theorem, this theorem thought the division of labor was mainly represented as devious economic ability, labor division relied on the limitation of market boundary and at the same time, limitation of market boundary also depended on labor division. Smith-Young Theorem indicates that the increasing return in the rise of economy does not originate from Economics of Scale, but from division of labor and specialized economy. Because division inevitably leads to cooperation, so it is necessary to investigate the value creation mechanism among inter-organizations.
Part two explains in detail dimensions of inter-organization's value creation.
In this part, we think two dimensions exist in inter-organization value creation which are structural and relevancy dimensions. Structural dimension describes the interior characteristics of value creation in inter-organizations. This dimension includes the following three parts:the first part is resource, because of the heterogeneity of resource and because resource is the basis to take organizational activities. In order to maximize the common interest, it is necessary to integrate all recourses. Second is ability. Differences in ability between organizations have become the key point to integrate value creation of inter-organizations; third is knowledge, the inadequate and complementarily of knowledge has lead the division and collaboration of knowledge becoming the focal point among organizations.
Relevant dimension describes the relationship between organization and external environment. It includes social-network relationship, organization ecosystem. First, social-network relationship points out that because economic activities are embedded in social structure, it has some influence on economic activities, that is to say, the relationship among inter-organizations gives influence to the performance of coordination. Second, organization ecosystem consists of material suppliers, distributors, outsource firms, technology providers and other organizations which are relevant to organizational operating activity, this ecosystem largely influences the ability of organization to create value and obtain competitive advantages.
Part three mainly discusses resource and ability integrating mechanism of inter-organizations.
Use the dynamic capability idea for reference, this paper thinks that there doesn't have any company who can optimize all links in value chain, so the conventional value chain must be deconstructed. The deconstruction of value chain separates supply, production and sale, just selects the links that relevant to organization competitive advantage, left other links that they are not good at to the best-fit collaborator or obtain this activity through business in market. Based on this idea, this paper proposes the following two methods to restructure value chain: The first is to change the analysis approach. The tradition analyses of value chain begin with analyzing the asset and core ability of organization, and then shift to the analysis of input elements, production, distribution channel and then customers. New analyses should begin with the demand of customers, and then consider how to satisfy customers, how to organize production, select distribution channel and so on, and at last rigid characters of asset and core capability needed, something noticeable is that the allocation of resources and capability should not be limited inside the organization. The second method is to change the management focal point of value chain. The intense competition leads to higher requirement of organization capability, so under this condition companies are hard to optimize all links in the whole value chain. Within this problem, the management of supply chain extends from internal to external value chain which obtains competitive advantage through the coordination with other enterprises. In fact, the process of value chain deconstruction is indeed the process of modularization of value chain's node. After the value modularization by the deconstruction of value chain, coupling between modules becomes more and more important in order to guarantee the whole system's efficiency.
Part four studies knowledge transfer and innovation mechanism of inter-organizations
Based on the knowledge transfer theory, the paper has built analyzing framework of knowledge transfer which is knowledge searching, knowledge transfer and knowledge absorbing. The framework includes the following points: First, not all the organizations have intense desire for knowledge searching, the effectiveness and intension of knowledge searching just rests on the learning desire and market-orientation of an organization. Second, on one hand, the knowledge transfer among organizations needs to span the boundary of each firm, so the performance of knowledge transfer largely depends on the relationship among the partners; on the other hand, because costs are needed when transferring knowledge, so a motivation mechanism should be established in order to promote knowledge sharing. Third, the reorganization of knowledge transferring path is propitious to establish proper organization form. There not only exists flows of logistics and capital, but lots of information and knowledge flow that relevant to production technology in supply chain. So it is easier to transfer and share knowledge; in strategic alliances, the interact among organizations is in favor of establishing trust mechanism, so it can increase the ability of boundary penetration among enterprises, shift imitation from outside organization to inside, make studying and imitation more easier. Admirals of multinational companies need to transfer relevant technology and management knowledge to local supplier out of consideration for improving productivity effect, so it leads to transnational knowledge flow. Fourth, the final performance of knowledge transfer depends on the knowledge absorption ability of organization which is consanguineous relevant to learning input, knowledge basis and organization culture.
Another topic that is consanguineous to knowledge transfer is cooperative innovation among organizations. This article holds the viewpoint that it increases the possibility of cooperative innovation by deepening in specialization. However, in the process of cooperative innovation, it often emerges the problems that are knowledge abusing and equity problem among collaboration organization which lead the cooperative innovation obstacles. In order to promote the cooperative innovation among organizations, more considerations should be given when selecting organization form, which include the matching between complexity of knowledge and integration among organizations, network centrality, the relationship between formal and informal mechanism, the justification of resource allocation, etc.
Part five discusses the embedding relation and trust mechanism of inter-organization.
Embedding relation and trust mechanism are important issues in social network theory research. According to Granovetter, the embedding relation is divided into relational embeddedness and structural embeddedness. This paper studies the influences that the two kinds of embedding relations have on the enterprise performance between inter-organizations. We have two main viewpoints:①Relational embeddedness can help transfer professional information, increase mutually beneficial behavior among organizations, promote investment towards special assets and enhance the adaptability in face of market change, but it is not beneficial to the expansion of cooperation scale;②Structural embeddedness can help gain external economy, reduce endogenetic transaction expense, and afford multi-embedding administering mechanism.
Trust mechanism plays a key role in successful cooperation between inter-organizational member enterprises. This paper studies the role of trust mechanism in typical form of inter-organizations, which means strategic alliance. A strategic alliance always meets with two kinds of uncertainty, that is, the uncertainty about future unknowns and the uncertain reaction of organization members towards these unknowns. Because of the two uncertainties, mutual trust becomes the key factor for successful strategic alliance. Mutual trust can reduce the complexity and uncertainty within an alliance more quickly and economically than using such means as forecast, authority and negotiation. It can also help the alliance members cooperate with each other, improve the administration of alliance conflicts, share knowledge and study mutually among alliance members, and promote company innovation.
Part six studies the ecosystem and synergy mechanism of inter-organization.
Considering co-operation based on division of labor and the need of further exploiting potential profit, a corporation should employ right organization form, which is easy for people to communicate with each other, so that the corporation can fit the needs of knowledge share, information transfer and technical diffusion. Supply chain makes for knowledge transfer among organizations, which affords a single corporation more chance of survival and development. However, with the increase of supply chain nodes, it's difficult for traditional simple supply chain to meet the need of value creation. Therefore, through some improvement measure such as reengineering and synchronization, the traditional supply chain inclines to extend, that is to say, the form of supply chain is not limited to be linear any more, but become a value-net, which is so called organizational ecosystem.
On the other hand, industrial organization theory starts to introduce co-evolution thought to explain the mutual promotion between corporations and environment. Through analysis about co-evolution mechanism, this paper gives some suggestions about how to realize the synergy effect among member corporations of inter-organization:①Inter-organizational information system is useful to support or realize two or more organization activities, so the synergy among member corporations is based on the premise that inter-organizational information system is set up.②There are many problems in supply chain, such as the contradiction among entity interests, the universality that the information is difficult to share, the uncertainty in supply chain, and so on. However, supply chain synergy can help improve the competitiveness of the whole supply chain value network. Therefore, supply chain synergy is the keystone of organization synergy.③Inter-organizational cooperation usually involved many enterprises of various aspects in the value chain, their resources need centralized dispatcher, and shared resources need inter-organizational processes to realize seamless operation. Many corporations are highly effective as a result of internal process optimization, but they can't do well in shared process. Therefore, inter-organizational synergy is a difficulty of organization synergy.
Part seven performs an empirical study——Lifeng Corporation of HongKong
Thorough the analysis about the development history of Lifeng, this part validates the approach with which organizations carry out value creation:value chain deconstruction and the integration of resources and capacity, the construction of symbiosis and the emergence of value network.
Main innovation of the dissertation were placed in follows:
First, this paper definitely puts forward structural dimension and relevant dimension in inter-organizational value creation. Structural dimension describes the internal character of inter-organizational value creation, which is not only the foundation of value creation of single organization, but also the base for inter-organizational member enterprises to create value together. Relevant dimension describes the relationship among the organizations, external environments and other enterprises, which tells the difference between inter-organizational value creation and single organization, it's also the main content of inter-organizational value creation mechanism.
Second, this paper studies the resource and capacity integration mechanism of inter-organizational value creation and suggests value chain reconstruction based on capacity elements. Traditional value chain deconstruction can lead to the change of enterprise value creation, delamination of value chain, value chain reconstruction based on core ability, and modularization of value chain node.
Third, the paper has built analyzing framework of inter-organization of knowledge transfer which is knowledge searching, knowledge transfer and knowledge absorbing. The effectiveness of knowledge searching rests on the learning desire and market-orientation of an organization, the relationship of organizations and motivation mechanism are the main factors that influence knowledge transfer. Supply chain, multinational and strategic alliance are the main path for knowledge transfer, and knowledge absorption is the ultimate expression of value creation.
Last, but by no means the least, on the bases of related theory of economics, management and sociology, this paper studies the influence that embedding relation have on organizational cooperation performance. We think that relational embeddedness can help organization to transfer professional information, increase mutually beneficial behavior among organizations, promote investment towards special assets and enhance the adaptability in face of market change, but it is not good for the expansion of cooperation scale. Structural embeddedness can bring external economy, make the relationship between corporations transfer to social, time after time trust game from individual, one-off trust game, and reduce endogenetic transaction expense. Besides, structural embeddedness leads to effective management among organizations by producing the relationship of repeated enbeddedness.
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