桑德拉·希斯内罗丝文学作品中的奇卡纳身份建构
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摘要
桑德拉·希斯内罗丝(1954-)是一位颇有声誉的奇卡纳作家,至今仍活跃在美国文坛。她的作品描摹奇卡纳的生活经历并关注奇卡纳的发展问题,清晰地显示出作者站在奇卡纳女性的立场、向既定的霸权秩序提出质疑,以及她努力以族裔女性作家的身份发出强大的声音的自觉意识。本文旨在探讨希斯内罗丝在她的小说与诗歌作品中如何描述奇卡纳经历的。这种经历既界定了奇卡纳身份,也决定了这一身份的建构过程。希斯内罗丝的作品虽然形式零散,但却是对奇卡纳不同身份层面的折射,从整体来看为当代奇卡纳女性构筑了一个以流动性为突出特征的理想的集体身份,可以被视为一个有机整体。
身份可以随着时间的推移以及身份主体立场的变更而改变,但与此同时传统文化根深蒂固的影响也在历史进程中积淀、保留下来,因此身份的建构既以身份主体的历史、文化经历为基础,也以现实为依托,显示出流动性和相对稳定性的特质,奇卡纳群体的身份亦是如此。希斯内罗丝作品中的奇卡纳身份建构基于奇卡纳独特的历史、文化背景,但同时也反映出当代奇卡纳女性在不同人生阶段的身份变化情况,因此始终处于动态转变过程中。希斯内罗丝作品中建构的奇卡纳身份反映了她所设想的在一定时期内适合奇卡纳生存的暂时性的身份状态。她也期许这个身份状态能具有一定的前瞻性,为奇卡纳在近期内的自我发展带来启示。
本论文由五部分组成。
引言部分首先阐释奇卡纳身份的复杂性,说明本研究对奇卡纳身份要素——族群、性别和阶级三要素的划分基于奇卡纳女性遭受的“三重压迫”以及她们对此进行的反抗。对“三重压迫”的反抗也是本论文分章的依据。引言部分还回顾了国内外与本研究相关的重要的前期研究成果。国际上对此课题的研究始于二十世纪八十年代,至今方兴未艾,主要集中探究希斯内罗丝作品中族群和性别身份建构的问题,鲜少论及阶级身份。国内研究始于二十一世纪初,大多属于对性别身份问题的探究。这些前期成果是本论文坚实的研究基础。然而,前期对希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳身份建构问题的研究呈现片段性的特点,至今尚未体系化。此外,前期研究也未能指出将作者的作品视作一个有机整体进行研究的可能性。引言部分还界定本论文的研究范畴为希斯内罗丝的文学创作,最后介绍本论文应用的两个基本理论,即：身份的流动性和相对稳定性理论以及后现代去中心化理论。
论文主体部分分为三章,逐一考量希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳族群身份、性别身份和阶级身份的建构。
论文第一章分析了希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳族群身份的建构。主要探讨的文本为：《喊女溪》(涉及其中7个短篇)、《卡洛米洛》、《浪荡女》(涉及其中两个诗篇)、《芒果街上的小屋》(涉及其中一个短篇)和《不择手段》(涉及其中一个诗篇)。依据这些作品所表,奇卡纳族群身份是奇卡纳女性基于族群内部两性成员的文化经历所建构,着眼于整个族群的发展,是奇卡纳身份整体的一个主要要素。将奇卡纳/诺视为一个族群是本章的研究基础。本论文认为,奇卡纳/诺是一群具有相似的生物特征和共同文化符徵的人组成的群体；依据克里斯·巴克的定义,他们构成了一个族群。
奇卡纳/诺族群的历史经历和文化传统是作者进行族群身份建构的重要依据,因为它们形成了奇卡纳/诺族群区别于美国其他族群的种族和文化特质。希斯内罗丝的作品从三个历史时期建构族群特质,即：前哥伦比亚时期/本土时期、征服时期和墨西哥民族国家时期,并指出前哥伦比亚时期/本土时期为奇卡纳/诺人民遗留下伟大的神话,激起了他们的族群寻根意识和族群繁荣意识；征服时期形成了奇卡纳/诺最基本的种族混血特质,是梅斯蒂扎(女混血)思想的来源；墨西哥民族国家时期赋予了奇卡纳/诺人民族群自豪感。
然而,现今的奇卡纳/诺族群生活在美国社会中,因此美国社会的主流文化已经成为他们文化组成的一部分。传统文化和主流文化二者蕴含的相互冲突的价值观互相碰撞造成了族群身份建构危机。一方面,部分奇卡纳女性产生了一面倒的意识倾向,表现为盎格鲁遵从或墨西哥遵从；另一方面,有些奇卡纳女性同时排斥两种文化,进入了非此非彼的认识误区。希斯内罗丝的作品表露奇卡纳的被动性是其身份危机的症结之所在。这些女性没有意识到自己归属于一个独立的族群,应该借由自身的双文化背景主动建构一个属于自己的新身份,而是被动地接受一个“文化他者”的尴尬处境,试图融入其他群体或者把自己定位于非此非彼的中间者,因而沦为其他文化群体的副产品。
希斯内罗丝用自己的写作敦促奇卡纳女性突破墨西哥族群和美国主流群体的文化书写的限制,与自身的双文化背景进行协商,以此来重构属于自己的过去和现在。通过这样做,奇卡纳可以拥有专属于自己族群的历史和传统,建构一个能够包涵奇卡纳／诺族群的混血特征以及种族杂糅、文化杂糅和语言杂糅的族群身份——梅斯蒂扎哈(mestizaje)。
论文第二章探讨希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳性别身份的建构。讨论的文本有：《芒果街上的小屋》(涉及其中8个短篇)、《喊女溪》(涉及其中6个短篇)、《不择手段》(涉及其中5个短篇),《卡洛米洛》和《浪荡女》(涉及其中1个诗篇)。本章首先阐述奇卡诺家庭意识(la familia ideology)作为奇卡诺父权体系中最具性别倾向的一部分把奇卡纳女性牢牢限定在男性占绝对统治地位的家庭空间中,继而探讨希斯内罗丝在其作品中所展现的三种女性刻板印象在家庭意识的支配下对奇卡纳生活造成的深远影响。
希斯内罗丝的作品中吐露出奇卡诺文化中的父权制思想源自墨西哥以男性为中心的文化传统,并被奇卡诺男性用家庭意识加以强化、本土化。在这样一种父权文化中生存的奇卡纳女性被禁锢在贞女／荡妇二分法的体系中,生活在它的化身三原型——完美的母亲瓜达卢佩圣母、叛国的母亲玛琳切和妖魔化的哭泣的女人的文化书写的阴影下。不少奇卡纳女性因为内化了父权制的书写,相信自己具有“邪恶”的本性。因此,为了能够摒除邪恶,她们竭尽全力想要成为一个“完美”的母亲,然而,这个目标将永远无法实现。这是因为,贞女／荡妇二分法只是父权制用来控制奇卡纳女性而设的骗局,奇卡纳的自我牺牲和顺从是奇卡诺父权制标准下“完美”母亲的基本标准,但如果奇卡纳女性照此标准履行,其结果只会纵容奇卡诺男性的霸权行径使其罔顾家庭责任,因而使奇卡纳／诺家庭功能失调的情况更加恶化。然而依据父权制规定,一个“完美的”母亲应该使得家庭运转良好,陷入父权制圈套中的奇卡纳将永远无法解脱。
作者在创作中表示奇卡纳女性应弃绝被动、失语的性别角色,视己为有声的女性主体。她认为发出主体的声音是奇卡纳自我赋权的方式。奇卡纳作为有声主体可以诉说自己所受的压迫,解构父权制的权威,建构自己的性别身份。与此同时,希斯内罗丝在作品中揭露,奇卡诺父权制之所以难以被摧毁是因为它利用了最具威力的文化符号。这些在历史中形成的符号无法被完全抹杀,最有效的方法是将它们重写使之为奇卡纳所用。因此作者对形成于墨西哥历史的三个女性原型进行了重新书写,把她们由被沉默的被动客体形象转变为说话的赋权主体的形象,表明她的奇卡纳性别身份建构的理想,期待奇卡纳主体由屈从、被动到违反传统文化书写再到获得在家庭中的领导地位。
论文的第三章论述希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳阶级身份的建构。讨论的文本有：《卡洛米洛》、《不择手段》(涉及其中9个诗篇)、《芒果街的小屋》(涉及其中4个短篇)、《喊女溪》(涉及其中2个短篇)和《你见到玛丽了吗?》。希斯内罗丝在作品中凸显了阶级的流动性,提出奇卡纳应该为达到一个更适合自己生存的阶级状态而努力。本章采用的基本理论为卡尔·马克思提出的关于工人阶级和阶级流动性的理论。马克思指出,工人阶级的突出特征是他们靠出卖劳动力商品来维持生活。他窥探到不同阶级之间存在不可调和的矛盾,也觉察到了阶级流动的可能性。
希斯内罗丝在作品中强调奇卡纳／诺族群的工人阶级根源,突出奇卡纳／诺移民的“劳工史”。她在作品中表示工人阶级根源具有重要意义,蕴含着族群骄傲和族群团结意识。然而,奇卡纳目前的工人阶级生活状况问题重重,已经不能再让她们引以为荣。对很多奇卡纳女性来说,工人阶级的生活不仅是贫困的象征,更有可能使她们的身心受到伤害。基于阶级流动的可能性,作者指出：当下奇卡纳迫切需要去做的是去除这些困扰,寻找属于自己的阶级身份以求自身发展。但是阶级身份的建构有很大的困境：奇卡纳不能依附于中产阶级,因为中产阶级受盎格鲁美国人统治,带有与奇卡纳的族群身份和性别身份相冲突的价值观。因此,奇卡纳应当作为行动者主动建构一种能够代表她们自己的阶级身份。
希斯内罗丝为作品中阶级身份建构的实践者设计了一条离开再复归的行动路线,意在指出奇卡纳要想使自己有所提高,必须突破工人阶级社区与主流社会之间的地理疆界,亲历观察、与他人特别是中产阶级成员沟通交流,接受教育,提高自身素质,而后回归自己的社区,帮助自己的族群姐妹。
在希斯内罗丝的理想中,能够担当阶级身份建构重任的人选是那些极富创造力的主体——奇卡纳艺术家,因为在她看来,艺术和艺术家蕴含跨阶级交流的潜质。艺术陶染大众在不同阶级之间广泛流行,所以是跨阶级交流的理想工具,奇卡纳艺术家比其他奇卡纳女性更有可能在主流社会中接受教育并获得职业提升自己。在此之后,她们可以利用自己的知识通过艺术创作来发出主题的声音,代表其他奇卡纳女性,表达她们的生活和需求。另一方面,在艺术的名义下,奇卡纳的发声也更有可能被主流社会所理解和接受。希斯内罗丝作品中的奇卡纳艺术家以自身优势建构了一个“两栖的”奇卡纳阶级身份。
论文的结论部分总结了希斯内罗丝奇卡纳身份建构的特点和暂时性结果,陈述了作家本人及其文学作品在文学界的重要地位。
希斯内罗丝通过作品清晰再现了奇卡纳女性的失语状态,赋予她们主体的声音,建构了一种富于理想化的奇卡纳身份。依其作品所表,奇卡纳身份以奇卡纳的主体性为主要特征,是一个复杂的而非一维的集体身份。它在奇卡纳主动对抗内外霸权的过程中产生,它的建构基于奇卡纳女性的过去与现在的个人经历以及她们与他人和社会环境的互动协商,是一个动态的过程。希斯内罗丝的作品特别强调在身份建构过程中奇卡纳可以暂时采取一些激进的手段作为获得主体地位并反抗霸权的必要过度,重写自己的过去和现在,使自己的存在合理化,并在此基础上创造新特质,建构自己的身份以获得更好的发展。作者同时也表示奇卡纳身份不能够孤立存在,它具有社会性,需要在各种关系脉络中发展。此外,奇卡纳的身份建构是一个没有终点的过程,奇卡纳需要保持自己的主体性,根据需要来变更自己的身份特征。总之,希斯内罗丝在作品中建构的奇卡纳身份突出奇卡纳的主体地位和她们对美国社会更好的适应。
作为一个少数族裔作家,希斯内罗丝身份建构的最终目标是解构霸权势力的中心地位,并且借由奇卡纳女性的自身特质帮助她们适应美国社会并被他人理解和接受。虽然她在作品中建构的奇卡纳身份存在某些局限性并不能解决所有有关奇卡纳生存的问题,但是她所提出的身份模式真切表达了奇卡纳女性想要突破种族、性别和阶级限制、适应美国社会的强烈愿望,展现了奇卡纳生活的美好前景。她所建构的奇卡纳身份丰富了奇卡纳作品的内涵,也促进了当代奇卡纳文学的繁荣。
Sandra Cisneros (1954-) is a celebrated Chicana writer who is still active in the contemporary American literary world. Her works portray Chicanas'life experiences and focus on their self-development. Cisneros provides an unequivocal representation of her doubt about the established hegemonic system from her perspective as a Chicana woman and her self-consciousness of articulating a powerful voice through the visual angle of a minority female writer. An attempt is made in the present dissertation to explore how Cisneros depicts Chicana experience in her stories as well as her poems, an experience which defines both the Chicana identity and the course of its construction. Her demonstrably fragmented writings can actually be considered to be an organic whole because they reflect the various factors of Chicana identity and, together, they serve to construct a collective identity for contemporary Chicanas.
Identity transforms over time and depends on one's subject position, but it is also deeply influenced by one's traditional culture which is accumulated and retained through history. Thus, identity has the distinct features of being fluid and relatively stable; although its construction is based on one's historical and cultural experiences, it is also grounded in the current reality. The same is true of Chicana identity. The construction of Chicana identity in Cisneros's works is founded in historical context but assumes different characteristics during the different life stages of Chicana women; it is always in transition. Cisneros constructs a temporary identity status that reflects her conception of the optimal means for Chicanas'survival at a given point in time. The author also presumes that this identity is predictive and can offer prescriptions to inspire the self-development of Chicanas in the near future.
This dissertation comprises five parts.
The introduction presents an explanation of the complexity of Chicana identity, stating that the three identity factors this dissertation discusses-ethnicity, gender, and class-form the basis of the "triple oppression" Chicanas have experienced and resisted. The breakdown of chapters in this dissertation is also in the light of Chicanas'revolt against this "triple oppression." The introduction also reviews the most essential previous studies both home and abroad that have contributed to the research theme of this dissertation. Overseas studies, which have flourished since Chicana studies emerged in1980s, focus primarily on the construction of Chicana ethnic identity and gender identity in Cisneros's works, virtually ignoring the identity factor of class. Domestic studies, which have only surfaced since the twenty-first century, mostly concentrate on gender issues. Although these studies form a solid foundation for this dissertation, they are fragmentary and devoid of a systematic approach to researching the construction of Chicana identity implicit in Cisneros's works. Moreover, these studies neglect the potential for treating Cisneros works as an organic whole. The scope of the research, which includes all of Cisneros's literary works, is delineated following the literature review. Finally, the two basic theories used in this dissertation-identity theory that demonstrates fluidity and relative stability of identity and the postmodern theory of decenterment-are introduced.
The body of this dissertation consists of three chapters which consider and discuss the construction of Chicana ethnic identity, gender identity, and class identity in Cisneros's literary works respectively.
The first chapter examines the construction of ethnic identity and concentrates primarily on Cisneros's Woman Hollering Creek (seven stories concerned), Caramelo, Loose Woman (two poems concerned), The House on Mango Street (one story concerned) and My Wicked Wicked Ways (one poem concerned). Based on Cisneros's works, Chicana ethnic identity which is forged from the cultural experiences of both male and female members is one major factor of Chicana identity integrity that is constructed by Chicana women for the sake of the whole group. The research basis of this chapter is to treat Chicanas/os as an ethnic group. This dissertation contends that given their similar biological features and shared cultural signifiers, Chicanas/os conform to Chirs Barker's definition of an ethnic group.
Chicanas/os'historical experiences and cultural traditions are the cornerstones of the Cisneros's construction of Chicana ethnic identity because they have resulted in racial and cultural distinctions which render the Chicana/o group different from other American groups. Cisneros gathers these ethnic distinctions from three historical eras, namely, the pre-Colombian/indigenous era, the Conquest era, and the Mexican national era. Cisneros's works suggest that the pre-Colombian/indigenous era bestows upon Chicanas/os great mythology that invites a sense of rootedness and ethnic prosperity. The Conquest era results in the mixing of races which provides the origin for Chicanas'sense of hybridization or mestizo. The Mexican national era endows Chicanas/os with ethnic pride.
However, Chicanas/os now live in American society, so the dominant American culture has become part of their culture. Conflict between Chicanas/os'traditional culture and the dominant American culture causes a crisis in ethnic identity construction. On the one hand, some Chicanas adhere either to Mexican values or dominant American values, resulting in one-sided orientation of Anglo conformity or Mexican conformity. Conversely, some other Chicanas reject both Mexican and dominant American values and face a neither-nor situation. Cisneros's works reveal that the crux of this problem is Chicanas' passivity. These women have failed to realize that they belong to an independent ethnic group which possesses the distinctive feature of cultural hybridization and, therefore, they should actively appropriate both cultures to construct a new identity for their own sake. Rather, they passively accept their awkward position of being a "cultural Other" and either to assimilate into other groups or consider their position as cultural in-betweenness. Consequently, they have become the by-products of other groups.
Cisneros, therefore, uses her writings to urge Chicanas to break free from the cultural inscriptions maintained by both the Mexican group and the dominant American group, negotiate with them, and then reconstruct their past and present. In this way, Chicanas can possess their own ethnic history and traditions and construct their ethnic identity as mestizaje, an identity that acknowledges Chicana/o people's mixed ancestry and their racial, cultural, and linguistic hybridity.
The second chapter deliberates the construction of Chicana gender identity implicit in Cisneros's works. The literary works discussed include The House on Mango Street (eight stories concerned), Woman Hollering Creek (six stories concerned), My Wicked Wicked Ways (five poems concerned), Caramelo, and Loose Woman (one poem concerned). This chapter first examines Chicano la familia ideology-which, as the most gender-oriented aspect of Chicano patriarchal system, directly confines Chicanas to their home space where men are the absolute dominators. Subsequently, it demonstrates how the three patriarchal female archetypes have exerted substantial influence on Chicana women's lives under the guide of la familia ideology.
Implicit within Cisneros's works is a belief that the patriarchal notion in Chicano culture originates from Mexican male-centered cultural tradition and is strengthened and localized by Chicanos through la familia ideology. She reveals that by virtue of living in such a patriarchal culture, Chicanas are confined to the cultural system of the virgen/puta (or virgin/prostitute) dichotomy and live in the shadow of its three archetypal incarnations-La Virgen de Guadalupe, the perfect mother, La Malinche, the mother "traitor," and La Llorona, the demonized mother. Because they internalize the patriarchal inscriptions, many Chicanas believe in their "evil" nature. To rid themselves of this evil, they endeavor to become the "perfect"'mother, a goal that they will never achieve. The virgen/puta dichotomy is nothing but a patriarchal trick used by Chicanos to control Chicana women. Chicanas'self-sacrifice and submissiveness, the basic criteria for becoming the "perfect" mother according to Chicano patriarchy, serve to condone Chicano men's hegemonic behavior and their ignorance of familial responsibility, thereby exacerbating the dysfunction of the Chicana/o family. However, according to the patriarchal rule, a "perfect" mother should well operate their family. Falling into such a patriarchal trap, Chicana women will be forever tortured and controlled by Chicano men.
Accordingly, Cisneros indicates in her works that Chicana women should discard their passive and silenced gender roles and treat themselves as female speaking subjects. She proffers that articulating a subjective voice is essential for Chicanas to gain power. As speakers, these women can vocalize their sufferings, deconstruct patriarchal authority, and construct their gender identity. Cisneros also reveals that eradicating Chicano patriarchy presents a considerable challenge because it draws upon powerful cultural symbols that have been formed throughout history and become embedded in people's hearts. Recognizing that the impact of these cultural symbols will never be totally erased, Cisneros rewrites them for Chicanas" own sake. She revises the three female cultural stereotypes that are products of Mexican history, changing them from silenced and passive objects into speaking and powerful subjects. In this way, Cisneros demonstrates her ideal for constructing Chicana gender identity, hoping that Chicanas will turn their submission and passivity into violation of traditional cultural inscription and, thereby, attain familial leadership.
The third chapter of this dissertation concentrates on the construction of Chicana class identity in Cisneros's works. The works discussed are:Caramelo, My Wicked Wicked Ways (nine pieces concerned), The House on Mango Street (four pieces concerned), Woman Hollering Creek (two pieces included), and Have You Seen Marie?. Cisneros illustrates the fluidity of class in these works and suggests that Chicanas should strive for a new class status to enhance their lives. The basic theory employed in this chapter is Karl Marx's theory on working class and class mobility. Marx points out that the distinction of working-class people lies in their labor power that they sell as a commodity in an effort to survive. He also notes the irrevocable conflicts that exist between the classes and their implications of class mobility.
Cisneros emphasizes Chicanas/os'working-class origin by underscoring Chicana/o immigrants'"labor history." Her works suggest that this working-class origin is of great significance in that it engenders a sense of ethnic pride and group solidarity. However, Chicanas'working-class status is currently more problematic than honorable. Too many working-class Chicanas not only endure absolute poverty, but they also suffer from physical and mental duress. To achieve class mobility, the author insinuates that it is imperative for today's Chicanas to renounce these demoralizing circumstances and pursue a class identity for self-improvement. However, the plight of Chicanas is their inability to integrate themselves within the middle class, a class that is dominated by Anglo Americans and which comprises some values that contravene against Chicana ethnic or gender identity. Therefore, Chicanas should act as active agents to construct a class that represents themselves.
Cisneros devises a leaving and returning route for the Chicana characters who practice the construction of class identity. She postulates that to improve themselves Chicanas should first infiltrate the border between the Chicana/o working-class barrio (or community) and mainstream society. When entering the outside world, Chicanas make personal observations and negotiate with it and the people there, especially the middle-class people. They become educated and self-improved. Subsequently, upon returning to the barrio, they help their barrio sisters.
Cisneros's apparent ideal is that the most creative subjects-the Chicana artists-should be responsible for constructing class identity because art and artists have the potential for interclass communication. Because it is appreciated by people of different classes, art can refine people's sentiments and is, therefore, an apt instrument for interclass communication. Compared with other Chicanas, Chicana artists are more likely to get educated in the dominant society, join a profession, and improve themselves. They can subsequently use their knowledge and subjective voice to represent other Chicanas through art that records these women's experiences and demands. Moreover, under the guise of art, Chicanas'articulation is more likely to be understood and accepted by dominant society. By virtue of their advantages, Chicana artists in Cisneros's works construct an "amphibious" class identity.
The conclusion begins by summarizing the process and temporary achievements of Cisneros's Chicana identity construction, and then states the significance of the author and her works in the literati.
Through her works, Cisneros articulates Chicanas'loss of voice, endows Chicana women with a subjective voice, and constructs an idealistic collective identity for them. Chicana identity emerges from Chicanas'active resistance against hegemonic power both within and outside the barrio. It foregrounds Chicanas'subjectivity and its construction is based on Chicana women's personal experiences, their interaction with other people, and their social circumstances. In this sense, the author's identity construction is a dynamic process. Cisneros's body of work highlights that, during the process of construction, Chicanas can take some radical measures to facilitate the transition from which they gain their subject position. They can then revise their history and legitimize their existence to create new idiosyncratic features as well as construct their identity to facilitate their survival. The author also indicates that because of its sociality, Chicana identity cannot exist in isolation and must be developed in a relational context. Moreover, she also implies that since the construction of Chicana identity is a never-ending process, Chicanas should retain the subjectivity and modify the distinctions of their identity at any time as necessary. In short, the Chicana identity that Cisneros constructs in her works foregrounds Chicanas' subject position and their effective adaptation to American society.
As a minority writer, Cisneros's final goal of identity construction is to decenter the hegemonic power, using Chicanas' idiosyncratic nature to facilitate their integration into American society as well as enable them to be understood and accepted by others. Although the Chicana identity the author constructs in her works has certain limitations and cannot solve all the problems concerning Chicanas' subsistence, the identity mode that she proposes encapsulates Chicana women's sincere desires to broaden the prospects for Chicanas'future lives by breaking through racial, gender, and class limitations and adapting to American society. The Chicana identity Cisneros constructs in her writings ameliorates the connotations of Chicana works and contributes to the richness of contemporary Chicana literature.
身份可以随着时间的推移以及身份主体立场的变更而改变,但与此同时传统文化根深蒂固的影响也在历史进程中积淀、保留下来,因此身份的建构既以身份主体的历史、文化经历为基础,也以现实为依托,显示出流动性和相对稳定性的特质,奇卡纳群体的身份亦是如此。希斯内罗丝作品中的奇卡纳身份建构基于奇卡纳独特的历史、文化背景,但同时也反映出当代奇卡纳女性在不同人生阶段的身份变化情况,因此始终处于动态转变过程中。希斯内罗丝作品中建构的奇卡纳身份反映了她所设想的在一定时期内适合奇卡纳生存的暂时性的身份状态。她也期许这个身份状态能具有一定的前瞻性,为奇卡纳在近期内的自我发展带来启示。
本论文由五部分组成。
引言部分首先阐释奇卡纳身份的复杂性,说明本研究对奇卡纳身份要素——族群、性别和阶级三要素的划分基于奇卡纳女性遭受的“三重压迫”以及她们对此进行的反抗。对“三重压迫”的反抗也是本论文分章的依据。引言部分还回顾了国内外与本研究相关的重要的前期研究成果。国际上对此课题的研究始于二十世纪八十年代,至今方兴未艾,主要集中探究希斯内罗丝作品中族群和性别身份建构的问题,鲜少论及阶级身份。国内研究始于二十一世纪初,大多属于对性别身份问题的探究。这些前期成果是本论文坚实的研究基础。然而,前期对希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳身份建构问题的研究呈现片段性的特点,至今尚未体系化。此外,前期研究也未能指出将作者的作品视作一个有机整体进行研究的可能性。引言部分还界定本论文的研究范畴为希斯内罗丝的文学创作,最后介绍本论文应用的两个基本理论,即：身份的流动性和相对稳定性理论以及后现代去中心化理论。
论文主体部分分为三章,逐一考量希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳族群身份、性别身份和阶级身份的建构。
论文第一章分析了希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳族群身份的建构。主要探讨的文本为：《喊女溪》(涉及其中7个短篇)、《卡洛米洛》、《浪荡女》(涉及其中两个诗篇)、《芒果街上的小屋》(涉及其中一个短篇)和《不择手段》(涉及其中一个诗篇)。依据这些作品所表,奇卡纳族群身份是奇卡纳女性基于族群内部两性成员的文化经历所建构,着眼于整个族群的发展,是奇卡纳身份整体的一个主要要素。将奇卡纳/诺视为一个族群是本章的研究基础。本论文认为,奇卡纳/诺是一群具有相似的生物特征和共同文化符徵的人组成的群体；依据克里斯·巴克的定义,他们构成了一个族群。
奇卡纳/诺族群的历史经历和文化传统是作者进行族群身份建构的重要依据,因为它们形成了奇卡纳/诺族群区别于美国其他族群的种族和文化特质。希斯内罗丝的作品从三个历史时期建构族群特质,即：前哥伦比亚时期/本土时期、征服时期和墨西哥民族国家时期,并指出前哥伦比亚时期/本土时期为奇卡纳/诺人民遗留下伟大的神话,激起了他们的族群寻根意识和族群繁荣意识；征服时期形成了奇卡纳/诺最基本的种族混血特质,是梅斯蒂扎(女混血)思想的来源；墨西哥民族国家时期赋予了奇卡纳/诺人民族群自豪感。
然而,现今的奇卡纳/诺族群生活在美国社会中,因此美国社会的主流文化已经成为他们文化组成的一部分。传统文化和主流文化二者蕴含的相互冲突的价值观互相碰撞造成了族群身份建构危机。一方面,部分奇卡纳女性产生了一面倒的意识倾向,表现为盎格鲁遵从或墨西哥遵从；另一方面,有些奇卡纳女性同时排斥两种文化,进入了非此非彼的认识误区。希斯内罗丝的作品表露奇卡纳的被动性是其身份危机的症结之所在。这些女性没有意识到自己归属于一个独立的族群,应该借由自身的双文化背景主动建构一个属于自己的新身份,而是被动地接受一个“文化他者”的尴尬处境,试图融入其他群体或者把自己定位于非此非彼的中间者,因而沦为其他文化群体的副产品。
希斯内罗丝用自己的写作敦促奇卡纳女性突破墨西哥族群和美国主流群体的文化书写的限制,与自身的双文化背景进行协商,以此来重构属于自己的过去和现在。通过这样做,奇卡纳可以拥有专属于自己族群的历史和传统,建构一个能够包涵奇卡纳／诺族群的混血特征以及种族杂糅、文化杂糅和语言杂糅的族群身份——梅斯蒂扎哈(mestizaje)。
论文第二章探讨希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳性别身份的建构。讨论的文本有：《芒果街上的小屋》(涉及其中8个短篇)、《喊女溪》(涉及其中6个短篇)、《不择手段》(涉及其中5个短篇),《卡洛米洛》和《浪荡女》(涉及其中1个诗篇)。本章首先阐述奇卡诺家庭意识(la familia ideology)作为奇卡诺父权体系中最具性别倾向的一部分把奇卡纳女性牢牢限定在男性占绝对统治地位的家庭空间中,继而探讨希斯内罗丝在其作品中所展现的三种女性刻板印象在家庭意识的支配下对奇卡纳生活造成的深远影响。
希斯内罗丝的作品中吐露出奇卡诺文化中的父权制思想源自墨西哥以男性为中心的文化传统,并被奇卡诺男性用家庭意识加以强化、本土化。在这样一种父权文化中生存的奇卡纳女性被禁锢在贞女／荡妇二分法的体系中,生活在它的化身三原型——完美的母亲瓜达卢佩圣母、叛国的母亲玛琳切和妖魔化的哭泣的女人的文化书写的阴影下。不少奇卡纳女性因为内化了父权制的书写,相信自己具有“邪恶”的本性。因此,为了能够摒除邪恶,她们竭尽全力想要成为一个“完美”的母亲,然而,这个目标将永远无法实现。这是因为,贞女／荡妇二分法只是父权制用来控制奇卡纳女性而设的骗局,奇卡纳的自我牺牲和顺从是奇卡诺父权制标准下“完美”母亲的基本标准,但如果奇卡纳女性照此标准履行,其结果只会纵容奇卡诺男性的霸权行径使其罔顾家庭责任,因而使奇卡纳／诺家庭功能失调的情况更加恶化。然而依据父权制规定,一个“完美的”母亲应该使得家庭运转良好,陷入父权制圈套中的奇卡纳将永远无法解脱。
作者在创作中表示奇卡纳女性应弃绝被动、失语的性别角色,视己为有声的女性主体。她认为发出主体的声音是奇卡纳自我赋权的方式。奇卡纳作为有声主体可以诉说自己所受的压迫,解构父权制的权威,建构自己的性别身份。与此同时,希斯内罗丝在作品中揭露,奇卡诺父权制之所以难以被摧毁是因为它利用了最具威力的文化符号。这些在历史中形成的符号无法被完全抹杀,最有效的方法是将它们重写使之为奇卡纳所用。因此作者对形成于墨西哥历史的三个女性原型进行了重新书写,把她们由被沉默的被动客体形象转变为说话的赋权主体的形象,表明她的奇卡纳性别身份建构的理想,期待奇卡纳主体由屈从、被动到违反传统文化书写再到获得在家庭中的领导地位。
论文的第三章论述希斯内罗丝作品中奇卡纳阶级身份的建构。讨论的文本有：《卡洛米洛》、《不择手段》(涉及其中9个诗篇)、《芒果街的小屋》(涉及其中4个短篇)、《喊女溪》(涉及其中2个短篇)和《你见到玛丽了吗?》。希斯内罗丝在作品中凸显了阶级的流动性,提出奇卡纳应该为达到一个更适合自己生存的阶级状态而努力。本章采用的基本理论为卡尔·马克思提出的关于工人阶级和阶级流动性的理论。马克思指出,工人阶级的突出特征是他们靠出卖劳动力商品来维持生活。他窥探到不同阶级之间存在不可调和的矛盾,也觉察到了阶级流动的可能性。
希斯内罗丝在作品中强调奇卡纳／诺族群的工人阶级根源,突出奇卡纳／诺移民的“劳工史”。她在作品中表示工人阶级根源具有重要意义,蕴含着族群骄傲和族群团结意识。然而,奇卡纳目前的工人阶级生活状况问题重重,已经不能再让她们引以为荣。对很多奇卡纳女性来说,工人阶级的生活不仅是贫困的象征,更有可能使她们的身心受到伤害。基于阶级流动的可能性,作者指出：当下奇卡纳迫切需要去做的是去除这些困扰,寻找属于自己的阶级身份以求自身发展。但是阶级身份的建构有很大的困境：奇卡纳不能依附于中产阶级,因为中产阶级受盎格鲁美国人统治,带有与奇卡纳的族群身份和性别身份相冲突的价值观。因此,奇卡纳应当作为行动者主动建构一种能够代表她们自己的阶级身份。
希斯内罗丝为作品中阶级身份建构的实践者设计了一条离开再复归的行动路线,意在指出奇卡纳要想使自己有所提高,必须突破工人阶级社区与主流社会之间的地理疆界,亲历观察、与他人特别是中产阶级成员沟通交流,接受教育,提高自身素质,而后回归自己的社区,帮助自己的族群姐妹。
在希斯内罗丝的理想中,能够担当阶级身份建构重任的人选是那些极富创造力的主体——奇卡纳艺术家,因为在她看来,艺术和艺术家蕴含跨阶级交流的潜质。艺术陶染大众在不同阶级之间广泛流行,所以是跨阶级交流的理想工具,奇卡纳艺术家比其他奇卡纳女性更有可能在主流社会中接受教育并获得职业提升自己。在此之后,她们可以利用自己的知识通过艺术创作来发出主题的声音,代表其他奇卡纳女性,表达她们的生活和需求。另一方面,在艺术的名义下,奇卡纳的发声也更有可能被主流社会所理解和接受。希斯内罗丝作品中的奇卡纳艺术家以自身优势建构了一个“两栖的”奇卡纳阶级身份。
论文的结论部分总结了希斯内罗丝奇卡纳身份建构的特点和暂时性结果,陈述了作家本人及其文学作品在文学界的重要地位。
希斯内罗丝通过作品清晰再现了奇卡纳女性的失语状态,赋予她们主体的声音,建构了一种富于理想化的奇卡纳身份。依其作品所表,奇卡纳身份以奇卡纳的主体性为主要特征,是一个复杂的而非一维的集体身份。它在奇卡纳主动对抗内外霸权的过程中产生,它的建构基于奇卡纳女性的过去与现在的个人经历以及她们与他人和社会环境的互动协商,是一个动态的过程。希斯内罗丝的作品特别强调在身份建构过程中奇卡纳可以暂时采取一些激进的手段作为获得主体地位并反抗霸权的必要过度,重写自己的过去和现在,使自己的存在合理化,并在此基础上创造新特质,建构自己的身份以获得更好的发展。作者同时也表示奇卡纳身份不能够孤立存在,它具有社会性,需要在各种关系脉络中发展。此外,奇卡纳的身份建构是一个没有终点的过程,奇卡纳需要保持自己的主体性,根据需要来变更自己的身份特征。总之,希斯内罗丝在作品中建构的奇卡纳身份突出奇卡纳的主体地位和她们对美国社会更好的适应。
作为一个少数族裔作家,希斯内罗丝身份建构的最终目标是解构霸权势力的中心地位,并且借由奇卡纳女性的自身特质帮助她们适应美国社会并被他人理解和接受。虽然她在作品中建构的奇卡纳身份存在某些局限性并不能解决所有有关奇卡纳生存的问题,但是她所提出的身份模式真切表达了奇卡纳女性想要突破种族、性别和阶级限制、适应美国社会的强烈愿望,展现了奇卡纳生活的美好前景。她所建构的奇卡纳身份丰富了奇卡纳作品的内涵,也促进了当代奇卡纳文学的繁荣。
Sandra Cisneros (1954-) is a celebrated Chicana writer who is still active in the contemporary American literary world. Her works portray Chicanas'life experiences and focus on their self-development. Cisneros provides an unequivocal representation of her doubt about the established hegemonic system from her perspective as a Chicana woman and her self-consciousness of articulating a powerful voice through the visual angle of a minority female writer. An attempt is made in the present dissertation to explore how Cisneros depicts Chicana experience in her stories as well as her poems, an experience which defines both the Chicana identity and the course of its construction. Her demonstrably fragmented writings can actually be considered to be an organic whole because they reflect the various factors of Chicana identity and, together, they serve to construct a collective identity for contemporary Chicanas.
Identity transforms over time and depends on one's subject position, but it is also deeply influenced by one's traditional culture which is accumulated and retained through history. Thus, identity has the distinct features of being fluid and relatively stable; although its construction is based on one's historical and cultural experiences, it is also grounded in the current reality. The same is true of Chicana identity. The construction of Chicana identity in Cisneros's works is founded in historical context but assumes different characteristics during the different life stages of Chicana women; it is always in transition. Cisneros constructs a temporary identity status that reflects her conception of the optimal means for Chicanas'survival at a given point in time. The author also presumes that this identity is predictive and can offer prescriptions to inspire the self-development of Chicanas in the near future.
This dissertation comprises five parts.
The introduction presents an explanation of the complexity of Chicana identity, stating that the three identity factors this dissertation discusses-ethnicity, gender, and class-form the basis of the "triple oppression" Chicanas have experienced and resisted. The breakdown of chapters in this dissertation is also in the light of Chicanas'revolt against this "triple oppression." The introduction also reviews the most essential previous studies both home and abroad that have contributed to the research theme of this dissertation. Overseas studies, which have flourished since Chicana studies emerged in1980s, focus primarily on the construction of Chicana ethnic identity and gender identity in Cisneros's works, virtually ignoring the identity factor of class. Domestic studies, which have only surfaced since the twenty-first century, mostly concentrate on gender issues. Although these studies form a solid foundation for this dissertation, they are fragmentary and devoid of a systematic approach to researching the construction of Chicana identity implicit in Cisneros's works. Moreover, these studies neglect the potential for treating Cisneros works as an organic whole. The scope of the research, which includes all of Cisneros's literary works, is delineated following the literature review. Finally, the two basic theories used in this dissertation-identity theory that demonstrates fluidity and relative stability of identity and the postmodern theory of decenterment-are introduced.
The body of this dissertation consists of three chapters which consider and discuss the construction of Chicana ethnic identity, gender identity, and class identity in Cisneros's literary works respectively.
The first chapter examines the construction of ethnic identity and concentrates primarily on Cisneros's Woman Hollering Creek (seven stories concerned), Caramelo, Loose Woman (two poems concerned), The House on Mango Street (one story concerned) and My Wicked Wicked Ways (one poem concerned). Based on Cisneros's works, Chicana ethnic identity which is forged from the cultural experiences of both male and female members is one major factor of Chicana identity integrity that is constructed by Chicana women for the sake of the whole group. The research basis of this chapter is to treat Chicanas/os as an ethnic group. This dissertation contends that given their similar biological features and shared cultural signifiers, Chicanas/os conform to Chirs Barker's definition of an ethnic group.
Chicanas/os'historical experiences and cultural traditions are the cornerstones of the Cisneros's construction of Chicana ethnic identity because they have resulted in racial and cultural distinctions which render the Chicana/o group different from other American groups. Cisneros gathers these ethnic distinctions from three historical eras, namely, the pre-Colombian/indigenous era, the Conquest era, and the Mexican national era. Cisneros's works suggest that the pre-Colombian/indigenous era bestows upon Chicanas/os great mythology that invites a sense of rootedness and ethnic prosperity. The Conquest era results in the mixing of races which provides the origin for Chicanas'sense of hybridization or mestizo. The Mexican national era endows Chicanas/os with ethnic pride.
However, Chicanas/os now live in American society, so the dominant American culture has become part of their culture. Conflict between Chicanas/os'traditional culture and the dominant American culture causes a crisis in ethnic identity construction. On the one hand, some Chicanas adhere either to Mexican values or dominant American values, resulting in one-sided orientation of Anglo conformity or Mexican conformity. Conversely, some other Chicanas reject both Mexican and dominant American values and face a neither-nor situation. Cisneros's works reveal that the crux of this problem is Chicanas' passivity. These women have failed to realize that they belong to an independent ethnic group which possesses the distinctive feature of cultural hybridization and, therefore, they should actively appropriate both cultures to construct a new identity for their own sake. Rather, they passively accept their awkward position of being a "cultural Other" and either to assimilate into other groups or consider their position as cultural in-betweenness. Consequently, they have become the by-products of other groups.
Cisneros, therefore, uses her writings to urge Chicanas to break free from the cultural inscriptions maintained by both the Mexican group and the dominant American group, negotiate with them, and then reconstruct their past and present. In this way, Chicanas can possess their own ethnic history and traditions and construct their ethnic identity as mestizaje, an identity that acknowledges Chicana/o people's mixed ancestry and their racial, cultural, and linguistic hybridity.
The second chapter deliberates the construction of Chicana gender identity implicit in Cisneros's works. The literary works discussed include The House on Mango Street (eight stories concerned), Woman Hollering Creek (six stories concerned), My Wicked Wicked Ways (five poems concerned), Caramelo, and Loose Woman (one poem concerned). This chapter first examines Chicano la familia ideology-which, as the most gender-oriented aspect of Chicano patriarchal system, directly confines Chicanas to their home space where men are the absolute dominators. Subsequently, it demonstrates how the three patriarchal female archetypes have exerted substantial influence on Chicana women's lives under the guide of la familia ideology.
Implicit within Cisneros's works is a belief that the patriarchal notion in Chicano culture originates from Mexican male-centered cultural tradition and is strengthened and localized by Chicanos through la familia ideology. She reveals that by virtue of living in such a patriarchal culture, Chicanas are confined to the cultural system of the virgen/puta (or virgin/prostitute) dichotomy and live in the shadow of its three archetypal incarnations-La Virgen de Guadalupe, the perfect mother, La Malinche, the mother "traitor," and La Llorona, the demonized mother. Because they internalize the patriarchal inscriptions, many Chicanas believe in their "evil" nature. To rid themselves of this evil, they endeavor to become the "perfect"'mother, a goal that they will never achieve. The virgen/puta dichotomy is nothing but a patriarchal trick used by Chicanos to control Chicana women. Chicanas'self-sacrifice and submissiveness, the basic criteria for becoming the "perfect" mother according to Chicano patriarchy, serve to condone Chicano men's hegemonic behavior and their ignorance of familial responsibility, thereby exacerbating the dysfunction of the Chicana/o family. However, according to the patriarchal rule, a "perfect" mother should well operate their family. Falling into such a patriarchal trap, Chicana women will be forever tortured and controlled by Chicano men.
Accordingly, Cisneros indicates in her works that Chicana women should discard their passive and silenced gender roles and treat themselves as female speaking subjects. She proffers that articulating a subjective voice is essential for Chicanas to gain power. As speakers, these women can vocalize their sufferings, deconstruct patriarchal authority, and construct their gender identity. Cisneros also reveals that eradicating Chicano patriarchy presents a considerable challenge because it draws upon powerful cultural symbols that have been formed throughout history and become embedded in people's hearts. Recognizing that the impact of these cultural symbols will never be totally erased, Cisneros rewrites them for Chicanas" own sake. She revises the three female cultural stereotypes that are products of Mexican history, changing them from silenced and passive objects into speaking and powerful subjects. In this way, Cisneros demonstrates her ideal for constructing Chicana gender identity, hoping that Chicanas will turn their submission and passivity into violation of traditional cultural inscription and, thereby, attain familial leadership.
The third chapter of this dissertation concentrates on the construction of Chicana class identity in Cisneros's works. The works discussed are:Caramelo, My Wicked Wicked Ways (nine pieces concerned), The House on Mango Street (four pieces concerned), Woman Hollering Creek (two pieces included), and Have You Seen Marie?. Cisneros illustrates the fluidity of class in these works and suggests that Chicanas should strive for a new class status to enhance their lives. The basic theory employed in this chapter is Karl Marx's theory on working class and class mobility. Marx points out that the distinction of working-class people lies in their labor power that they sell as a commodity in an effort to survive. He also notes the irrevocable conflicts that exist between the classes and their implications of class mobility.
Cisneros emphasizes Chicanas/os'working-class origin by underscoring Chicana/o immigrants'"labor history." Her works suggest that this working-class origin is of great significance in that it engenders a sense of ethnic pride and group solidarity. However, Chicanas'working-class status is currently more problematic than honorable. Too many working-class Chicanas not only endure absolute poverty, but they also suffer from physical and mental duress. To achieve class mobility, the author insinuates that it is imperative for today's Chicanas to renounce these demoralizing circumstances and pursue a class identity for self-improvement. However, the plight of Chicanas is their inability to integrate themselves within the middle class, a class that is dominated by Anglo Americans and which comprises some values that contravene against Chicana ethnic or gender identity. Therefore, Chicanas should act as active agents to construct a class that represents themselves.
Cisneros devises a leaving and returning route for the Chicana characters who practice the construction of class identity. She postulates that to improve themselves Chicanas should first infiltrate the border between the Chicana/o working-class barrio (or community) and mainstream society. When entering the outside world, Chicanas make personal observations and negotiate with it and the people there, especially the middle-class people. They become educated and self-improved. Subsequently, upon returning to the barrio, they help their barrio sisters.
Cisneros's apparent ideal is that the most creative subjects-the Chicana artists-should be responsible for constructing class identity because art and artists have the potential for interclass communication. Because it is appreciated by people of different classes, art can refine people's sentiments and is, therefore, an apt instrument for interclass communication. Compared with other Chicanas, Chicana artists are more likely to get educated in the dominant society, join a profession, and improve themselves. They can subsequently use their knowledge and subjective voice to represent other Chicanas through art that records these women's experiences and demands. Moreover, under the guise of art, Chicanas'articulation is more likely to be understood and accepted by dominant society. By virtue of their advantages, Chicana artists in Cisneros's works construct an "amphibious" class identity.
The conclusion begins by summarizing the process and temporary achievements of Cisneros's Chicana identity construction, and then states the significance of the author and her works in the literati.
Through her works, Cisneros articulates Chicanas'loss of voice, endows Chicana women with a subjective voice, and constructs an idealistic collective identity for them. Chicana identity emerges from Chicanas'active resistance against hegemonic power both within and outside the barrio. It foregrounds Chicanas'subjectivity and its construction is based on Chicana women's personal experiences, their interaction with other people, and their social circumstances. In this sense, the author's identity construction is a dynamic process. Cisneros's body of work highlights that, during the process of construction, Chicanas can take some radical measures to facilitate the transition from which they gain their subject position. They can then revise their history and legitimize their existence to create new idiosyncratic features as well as construct their identity to facilitate their survival. The author also indicates that because of its sociality, Chicana identity cannot exist in isolation and must be developed in a relational context. Moreover, she also implies that since the construction of Chicana identity is a never-ending process, Chicanas should retain the subjectivity and modify the distinctions of their identity at any time as necessary. In short, the Chicana identity that Cisneros constructs in her works foregrounds Chicanas' subject position and their effective adaptation to American society.
As a minority writer, Cisneros's final goal of identity construction is to decenter the hegemonic power, using Chicanas' idiosyncratic nature to facilitate their integration into American society as well as enable them to be understood and accepted by others. Although the Chicana identity the author constructs in her works has certain limitations and cannot solve all the problems concerning Chicanas' subsistence, the identity mode that she proposes encapsulates Chicana women's sincere desires to broaden the prospects for Chicanas'future lives by breaking through racial, gender, and class limitations and adapting to American society. The Chicana identity Cisneros constructs in her writings ameliorates the connotations of Chicana works and contributes to the richness of contemporary Chicana literature.
引文
④ This dissertation uses the 25th anniversary edition published in 2009.
⑤ This dissertation uses the first hardcover edition published in 1992.
① There is little agreement on the etymology of the word "Chicano." Among Americans who opposed the Chicano Movement and Mexican Americans who wanted to divorce themselves from their working-class origin, "Chicano" was believed to derive from chicas patas ("small feet"), an extremely contemptuous form of address for new arrivals from Mexico. On the other hand, the working-class participants in the Chicano Movement used "Chicano" during the tumultuous years to symbolize their identity and the spirit of the Movement, believing it came from the Nahuatl word mexicano, with the letter "x" being mispronounced as "sh'(Kanellos, Greenwood Encyclopedia 1:230).
② "Barrio" is a Spanish word for "neighborhood" or "community." In America, it refers to a city neighborhood where Latinas/os inhabit. Cisneros emphasizes that it is a place where Chicanas/os centralize. For more explanation of "barrio," see Warrick 121.
① In 1971, the Chicana activist, Velia G. Hancock, used the term "triple oppression" in her article "La Chicana:Chicana Movement and Women's Liberation" which was published by Chicano Studies Newsletter. See C6rdova 36.
② For Cisneros, maybe a personal reason for giving prominence to upholstery is to pay homage to her father, who was once an upholsterer when he was alive. See Warrick 16.
① When she was interviewed by Reed Dasenbrock, Cisneros said that "I'm much more conscious of the Spanish now. When I wrote House on Mango Street [sic], I didn't know enough about mixing the languages. Also, I was only a product of my English" (Dasenbrock 288).
① See "Hips" (49-52) in The House on Mango Street.
② The villagers in Middle America increase their water-control farming through cultivating the nearby hillsides with a dry farming and fallowing technique called tlacolo or barbecho, which can be roughly translated as "fallow" in English. And tilling is usually done with a hoe. Thus in the passage Ines's planting work is labor consuming. For more information about Mexican culture history, see Helms 33.
① Because of the economic crisis in Mexico, recently more middle-class Mexicans go to America, but their number only occupies a small proportion of Chicana/o population. See Zavella 107-19.
② "Wetback" is a metaphor, implying the act that Mexicans swim the Rio Grande to enter the United States. See J. Griffin 609.
① For the original source see Maria Isabel Barreno, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa's The Three Marias:New Portuguese Letters,147.
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⑤ This dissertation uses the first hardcover edition published in 1992.
① There is little agreement on the etymology of the word "Chicano." Among Americans who opposed the Chicano Movement and Mexican Americans who wanted to divorce themselves from their working-class origin, "Chicano" was believed to derive from chicas patas ("small feet"), an extremely contemptuous form of address for new arrivals from Mexico. On the other hand, the working-class participants in the Chicano Movement used "Chicano" during the tumultuous years to symbolize their identity and the spirit of the Movement, believing it came from the Nahuatl word mexicano, with the letter "x" being mispronounced as "sh'(Kanellos, Greenwood Encyclopedia 1:230).
② "Barrio" is a Spanish word for "neighborhood" or "community." In America, it refers to a city neighborhood where Latinas/os inhabit. Cisneros emphasizes that it is a place where Chicanas/os centralize. For more explanation of "barrio," see Warrick 121.
① In 1971, the Chicana activist, Velia G. Hancock, used the term "triple oppression" in her article "La Chicana:Chicana Movement and Women's Liberation" which was published by Chicano Studies Newsletter. See C6rdova 36.
② For Cisneros, maybe a personal reason for giving prominence to upholstery is to pay homage to her father, who was once an upholsterer when he was alive. See Warrick 16.
① When she was interviewed by Reed Dasenbrock, Cisneros said that "I'm much more conscious of the Spanish now. When I wrote House on Mango Street [sic], I didn't know enough about mixing the languages. Also, I was only a product of my English" (Dasenbrock 288).
① See "Hips" (49-52) in The House on Mango Street.
② The villagers in Middle America increase their water-control farming through cultivating the nearby hillsides with a dry farming and fallowing technique called tlacolo or barbecho, which can be roughly translated as "fallow" in English. And tilling is usually done with a hoe. Thus in the passage Ines's planting work is labor consuming. For more information about Mexican culture history, see Helms 33.
① Because of the economic crisis in Mexico, recently more middle-class Mexicans go to America, but their number only occupies a small proportion of Chicana/o population. See Zavella 107-19.
② "Wetback" is a metaphor, implying the act that Mexicans swim the Rio Grande to enter the United States. See J. Griffin 609.
① For the original source see Maria Isabel Barreno, Maria Teresa Horta, and Maria Velho da Costa's The Three Marias:New Portuguese Letters,147.
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