农业生产方式转变对稻作生态系统温室气体（CO_2、CH_4和N_2O）排放的影响
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摘要
农田生态系统在全球大气温室气体(CO2、CH4和N2O)收支中扮演着十分重要的角色,是主要的温室气体排放源之一。农业生产方式转变被认为是影响农田温室气体排放的主要人为因素之一,因此探讨和研究农业生产方式转变对我国农田温室气体排放的综合影响,进而合理评价不同农业生产方式下农田生态系统的综合温室效应、温室气体排放强度及其生态生产效益显得尤为重要。
本研究主要以我国华东地区典型的稻麦轮作生态系统为研究对象,采用静态暗箱-气相色谱法田间原位同步测定CO2、CH4和N2O的排放通量,探讨基于水分管理的常规农业管理措施对该系统的温室气体排放的影响,及其相关的过程和机理。田间试验包括以下五个部分：2O10年水稻苗床试验研究水稻育秧方式转变(区分为常规水育和旱育苗床)和氮肥施用类型(无机氮肥施用,IF；有机氮肥施用,OF；有机/无机氮肥混合施用,CF3处理)对苗床期CH4和N2O排放的影响；2011年水稻生长季大田试验研究水稻不同种植方式(区分为常规移栽和旱直播)结合缓释高效肥、硝化抑制剂以及高价铁氧化物微量元素调理剂施用(区分为对照无肥料及调理剂施用处理、普通尿素施用处理、树脂包膜尿素施用处理、硫包尿素施用处理、尿素配合双氰胺和对苯二酚混合施用处理以及尿素配合氢氧化铁胶体施用共6个大田试验处理)对水稻生长季CH4和N2O排放的综合影响。2007年水稻生长季大田试验研究灌溉水源(区分为污水灌溉和常规灌溉)对稻田CH4和N2O排放的影响；2007-08年稻麦轮作周期内,采用区组设计研究水稻生长季的不同水分管理方式(持续淹水,F；淹水-烤田-淹水,F-D-F；淹水-烤田-淹水-湿润灌溉,F-D-F-M)和氮肥施用(水稻生长季分O、100、200、300kgN.hm-24水平；冬小麦生长季分0、75、15O、250kg N.hm-24水平)对整个稻麦轮作周期N2O排放的影响；2009-10年稻麦轮作周期研究高价铁氧化物(稻季和麦季的氢氧化铁胶体施用量均分0、4、8t.ha-13水平)施用对整个稻麦轮作系统CO2、CH4和N2O排放的综合影响及固碳效应；
主要研究结果如下：
1.不同育秧方式和肥料施用下的水稻苗床系统温室气体(CH4和N20)排放差异显著。相对于常规水育秧(F),旱育(M)方式下无机N肥施用(IF)、有机/无机N肥混合施用(CF)和有机N肥施用(OF)3处理的CH4排放量分别减少了50%、25%和14%。与IF处理相比,F和M两种育秧方式下OF处理的CH4排放分别增加了44%和148%。同样,两种不同育秧方式下的N2O排放差异也较为明显,但不同施肥类型之间并无显著差异。与F育秧方式相比,M育秧方式下IF、CF和OF3种施肥处理的N2O排放总量分别增加了186%、132%和72%。F和M两种育秧方式下苗床期N2O累计排放总量分别占秧苗期施N量的0.20-0.24%和0.41-0.57%。相对于F育秧方式,M育秧方式下来自于CH4和N2O的综合净GWP在20年和100年的时间尺度上分别降低了13-46%和11-39%。与IF施肥处理相比,F和M两种育秧方式下OF处理的CH4和N2O的综合净GWP分别增加了43%和107-132%。本研究结果表明,旱育秧方式并减少有机N肥投入将减缓来自于苗床系统的CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
2.综合不同的施肥处理,常规移栽(TPR)和直播稻(DSR)生产方式下的CH4累计排放量之间具有显著差异(P=0.01),与常规移栽稻田相比,直播稻田的CH4累计排放量减少了59%。综合不同的水稻生产方式,不同施肥处理之间的CH4累计排放量并没有显著差异(P=0.14),同时水稻栽培方式和肥料施用之间也没有互作效应(P=0.40)。两种不同的水稻栽培方式下的N2O排放量具有显著差异(P=0.02)。与移栽稻相比,直播稻的生育期N2O排放总量平均增加了38%。两种不同水稻栽培方式下不同肥料施用处理之间的N2O排放量差异达到了极显著水平(P<0.001),在同等施N水平下,相对于常规尿素施用(U),移栽和直播稻田硫包尿素施用处理(U-S)的N2O排放分别增加了12%和11%；脲甲醛施用处理(UF)的N2O排放分别减少了38%和33%；尿素配合硝化抑制剂-双氰胺和对苯二酚施用处理(U+DCD+HQ)的N2O累计排放量分别减少了54%和60%。然而常规移栽方式下与U处理相比,尿素配合氢氧化铁胶体施用处理(U+Fe)的N2O累计排放量增加了18%。常规移栽和直播生产方式下,作物收获时的地上生物量与CH4和N2O排放总量呈显著正相关。
3.污水灌溉下的CH4季节排放总量显著高于常规河水灌溉。与常规河水灌溉相比,污水灌溉方式下,有无化学N肥施用处理的CH4累计排放量分别增加了27%和33%。与无N肥施用对照处理相比,污水和常规河水灌溉方式下化学N肥施用处理的CH4累计排放量分别减少了8%和12%。方差分析表明,水稻生长季的N2O累计排放总量受灌溉类型和N肥施用的显著影响(P<0.001),污水灌溉和N肥施用显著增加N2O排放,且两者趋于存在交互作用。污水和常规河水灌溉方式下,来自于N肥施用的N2O直接排放系数分别为0.71%和0.52%,相应的N2O-N背景排放量依次分别为0.81kg·hm-2和0.30kg·hm-2,而本研究中由于灌溉污水引入N源所导致的N2O间接排放系数为0.73-0.92%。从各处理CH4和N20排放的综合GWP值来看,与常规河水灌溉相比,在20年和100年的时间尺度上污水灌溉方式下的净GWP显著增加。N肥施用显著增加了N2O排放,但却同时降低了CH4排放。在100年的时间尺度上,化学N肥施用轻微增加了净GWP,但其效应在两种水源灌溉方式下均不明显。相比之下,与对照相比,本研究中N肥施用显著降低了单位产量的GWP。总体来说,污水灌溉条件下的相对较高的净GWP值表明污水相对于无污染的河水灌溉将加剧来自于稻田系统CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
4.与淹水-烤田-淹水(F-D-F)和淹水-烤田-淹水-湿润灌溉(F-D-F-M)的水分管理方式相比,持续淹水(F)显著减少了水稻生长季的N2O排放,但却明显增加随后的非水稻生长季(包括休耕期和后季麦田)的N2O排放。中期烤田和后期湿润灌溉方式下的干湿交替阶段显著促进了水稻生长季的N2O排放,但却一定程度上抑制了后季麦田的N2O排放。但就全轮作周期而言,本研究中水稻生长季的3种不同水分管理下的N2O累计排放总量相当。稻麦轮作系统的N2O排放系数和背景排放量与水稻生长季的水分管理方式密切相关,稻麦轮作周期的N2O累计排放量随着氮肥施用量的增加而增加,除了水稻生长季持续淹水(F)方式下N2O排放量与施氮量之间并没有明显的对应关系。以上F、F-D-F和F-D-F-M3种水分管理方式下全轮作周期化肥N的N2O直接排放系数平均分别为0.87%、0.97%和0.85%。综合3种不同水分管理方式,全轮作周期的N2O直接排放系数和背景排放量平均分别为0.89%和1.80kgN20-N.hm-2。
5.稻麦轮作系统的温室气体(CO2、CH4和N2O)排放与氧化铁施用密切相关,氧化铁施用显著降低了全轮作系统的CO2排放。与对照相比,全年轮作系统Fe-M和Fe-H处理的CO2排放量分别减少了26%和32%。本研究中作物系统-大气之间CO2的生态系统净交换量(NEE)显著受氧化铁施用的影响。对NEE的估算结果表明稻田系统的固碳效应明显要高于后季的冬小麦旱作生态系统。与对照相比,氧化铁的施用显著增强了全年稻麦轮作系统的碳汇功能(F2,6=14.5,P<0.01),水稻生长季和随后的非水稻生长季的固碳潜力分别提高了19-21%和57-90%。与对照相比,氧化铁施用显著降低了水稻生长季的CH4排放(F2,6=22.7,P<0.01),Fe-M和Fe-H处理的CH4排放量相比于对照分别减少了27%和44%。方差分析表明,氧化铁施用显著增加了水稻生长季的N2O排放(F2,6=8.4,P=0.02)、非水稻生长季的N2O排放(F2,6=23.4,P<0.01)以及整个轮作周期的N2O排放(F2,6=28.6,P<0.001)。较对照而言,全年轮作周期氧化铁施用处理的N2O排放量增加了65-100%。全年轮作系统所有处理的CO2、CH4和N2O的地-气净交换估算(NGHGB)结果为负表明,稻麦轮作生态系统对大气中的CO2的净固定量已超越了过程中系统所排放的CH4和N2O的CO2等效量。尽管氧化铁施用刺激了稻麦轮作系统N2O排放,但却很大程度上降低了CH4排放并且增强了该农业生态系统对大气中CO2的固定潜力,进而降低了100年时间尺度上的综合NGHGB。
全文结论：
1.水稻不同育秧方式和肥料施用影响苗床期CH4和N2O排放。相对于常规水育苗床,旱育苗床并减少有机N肥投入在培育壮苗的同时可以减缓苗床期CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
2.常规移栽和直播生产方式下稻田的CH4和N2O排放差异显著。综合两种水稻生产方式下稻田系统的作物生产效益和综合温室效应,相对于直播稻而言,常规移栽稻田多种肥料的综合施用都不同程度地加剧水稻生长季CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应,尤其是常规尿素和脲甲醛施用下的增温效应最为明显,同时常规移栽稻生产明显降低了水稻产量。
3.与常规河水灌溉相比,污水灌溉显著加剧了来自于稻田生态系统CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
4.水稻生长季的水分管理方式显著影响后季麦田及全年轮作周期的N2O排放。水稻生长季持续淹水条件下几乎没有N2O排放,但却显著增加了随后的非水稻生长季(小麦生长季+休耕期)的N2O排放；水稻生长季的中期烤田和干湿交替阶段显著促进了稻季的N2O排放,但却明显降低了随后非水稻生长季的N2O排放。
5.稻麦轮作系统的温室气体(CO2、CH4和N2O)排放与氧化铁施用密切相关。对NEE和NGHGB的估算结果表明稻田系统的固碳潜力明显要高于后季的冬小麦旱作生态系统,氧化铁的施用显著增强了全年稻麦轮作系统的碳汇功能。
Agroecosystems play a vital role in the global balance of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) and act as a main souce of GHGs emissions. Shift in agricultural production regime is considered to be a key factor influencing GHGs emissions from croplands, thus, to give an insight into GHGs emissions from cropping systems as affected by the shift in agricultural production regime and in turn to comprehensively evaluate the global warming potential (GWP), greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) and its relevant ecological benefits derived from agricultural production would be highly needed.
The paddy rice-winter wheat rotation, as one of the major cropping systems in Southeast China, was selected in the present study to simultaneously measure CO2, CH4and N2O fluxes with static opaque chamber-gas chromatograph method. The primary objective of this study was to gain an insight into the effect of water regime-specific conventional agricultural management on GHGs emissions, and in turn to explore the related processes and mechanisms involved. This study consists of five field experiments. In2010, we presented field measurements of CH4and N2O fluxes from rice seedling nurseries under the water regimes of continuous flooding and moist irrigation without waterlogging in Southeast China. Different N fertilizer sources were simultaneously integrated in this field experiment, which include inorganic N, organic N or combined organic/inorganic N fertilizers. The main objectives are to gain an insight into a complete accounting of CH4and N2O emissions from typical rice seedling nurseries and thereby to examine which water management and fertilizer regimes would be an effective option for mitigating climatic impacts of rice seedling nurseries on the perspective of GWP of CH4and N2O. In2011, field experiments were carried out both in conventional transplanted and direct seeded rice paddies, to examine the effects of rice cultivation pattern together with the application of chemical N fertilizer, slow-release N fertilizers, nitrification inhibitors and Fe (III) fertilizers on CH4and N2O emissions during the rice-growing season. The fertilizer sources consisted of urea (U), sulfur-coated urea (U-S), urea formaldehyde (UF), urea with ferrihydrite (U+Fe) or urea with dicyandiamide and hydroquinone (U+DCD+HQ). Five fertilizer treatments and a control treatment without fertilizer application under either rice cultivation pattern were simultaneously devised in this field experiment. In2007, a field experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of sewage irrigation on CH4and N2O emissions during the rice-growing season, where sewage and unpolluted rive water was simultaneously taken into account in this field experiment. In2007-08cropping rotation, a split-plot experiment was performed to study the effects of water regime during the rice-growing season and fertilizer application on N2O emissions over the annual rotation cycle. Water regime during the rice season consisted of continuous flooding (F), flooding-drainage-flooding (F-D-F) and flooding-drainage-flooding-moisture irrigation (F-D-F-M). Chemical N were applied at the rates of0,100,200or300kg N. hm'2in rice season and0,75,150or250kg N·hm-2in wheat season, respectively. In2009-10cropping rotation, ferric hydroxide and ferrihydrite in the form of amorphous granular selected as the iron fertilizer materials were amended in the rice-and wheat-cropping seasons, respectively. The objective was to gain an insight into a complete GHGs (including CO2, CH4and N2O) accounting of the net greenhouse gas balance (NGHGB) and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) as affected by Fe (III) fertilization in paddy rice-winter wheat rotation systems. The Fe (III) fertilizer was applied identically at the rate of4and8t-ha"1for both rice and wheat growing seasons, respectively.
The results of this study are displayed as follows:
1. The total CH4emissions from the rice seedling nurseries were significantly affected by water regime and fertilizer. Relative to the continuous flooding (F), moist irrigation (M) decreased total CH4by50%,25%and14%for the inorganic N (IF), combined application of inorganic/organic manure N (CF) and organic manure N (OF) plots, respectively. Compared with IF applied plots, OF applied plots increased CH4by44%and148%in the rice seedling nurseries under the F and M irrigation regimes, respectively. Total N2O emissions from the rice seedling nurseries were significantly affected by water regime, but the effects of fertilizer and their interaction were not significant. Relative to the continuous flooding, total N2O emissions from moist irrigated plots were increased by186%,132%and72%for the IF, CF and OF plots, respectively. Total N2O emissions were equivalent to0.20-0.24%and0.41-0.57%of the N applied in the rice seedling nurseries under continuous flooding and moist irrigation regimes, respectively. Relative to the continuous flooding, moist irrigation decreased the net GWPs by13-46%over the20-year horizon or11-39%over the100-year horizon. Compared with inorganic fertilizer, organic manure application significant increased CH4emissions, but no significant effects on N2O emissions, which led to the net GWPs increased by43%and107-132%in the rice seedling nurseries under the continuous flooding and moist irrigation regimes, respectively. The results of this study suggest that moist irrigation instead of continuous waterlogging and decreased organic N fertilizer inputs that have been increasingly experienced in Chinese rice seedling nurseries would benefit for mitigating the combined global warming potentials of CH4and N2O in rice seedling nurseries in China.
2. Seasonal CH4emissions differed significantly (P=0.01) between conventional transplanted (TPR) and direct seeded rice (DSR) cultivation patterns, irrespective of various fertilizer sources applied. As compared to TPR production mode, DSR decreased CH4by59%. No pronounced relationship (P=0.14) was found across fertilizer treatments under either rice cultivation mode, and also the interaction between rice cultivation pattern and fertilizer application (P=0.40). The N2O emissions differed significantly (P=0.02) between the two rice cultivation methods. In comparision with TPR, seasonal amounts of N2O emissions during the rice growing season for DSR were enhanced by38%across different fertilizer treatments. Seasonal N2O emissions under either rice cultivation mode were significantly distinguished by fertilizer source (P<0.001). Under identical N input rates, in contrast with urea applied plots (U) treatment, N2O emissions were increased by12%and11%for the plots with urea and sulfur-coated urea (U-S), while decreased by38%and33%for the urea formaldehyde applied treatment (UF), and also decreased by54%and60%for plots with nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide and urease inhibitor hydrochinone (U+DCD+HQ) under TPR and DSR production modes, respectively. However, under the TPR mode, the treatment with urea and ferrihydrite (U+Fe) vs. the U treatment enhanced N2O by18%. Seasonal CH4and N2O emissions significantly correlated with the harvested rice above-ground biomass both under TPR and DSR production modes in the present study.
3. Sewage irrigation significantly increased seasonal amounts of CH4emissions. In contrast with river water irrigation, sewage irrigation increased seasonal CH4emissions by27%and33%for the plots with and without chemical N addition, respectively. Compared with the control without fertilizer application, chemical N fertilizer application decreased CH4emissions by8%and12%for the plots under sewage and river water irrigation, respectively. Seasonal amounts of N2O emissions were significantly affected by the water type of irrigation, fertilizer application (P<0.001) and tended to be affected by their interaction (P=0.06). Relative to river water irrigation, sewage irrigation increased N2O by68%and170%for the plots with and without N application, respectively. The direct emission factor of fertilizer N for N2O was estimated to be0.71%and0.52%for the plots under sewage and river water irrigation, accompanied by a seasonal N2O-N background emission of0.81kg·hm-2and0.30kg·hm-2, respectively. The sewage N induced indirect emission factor of N2O would be0.73-0.92%. In terms of the combined GWP of CH4and N2O as affected by irrigation type and N fertilization, compared with river water irrigation, sewage irrigation increased significantly the net GWPs whether over a20-year horizon or a100-year horizon. N application significantly increased N2O emissions, while it tended to decrease CH4emissions, the synthetic fertilizer application slightly increased the net GWPs over a100-year horizon, but this impact was not pronounced whether under river water irrigation or sewage irrigation. In contrast, the net GWPs in terms of rice yield were significantly decreased by nitrogen application. Overall, higher net GWPs in rice paddies irrigated by sewage suggests that sewage instead of unpolluted river water irrigation would intensify the radiative forcing derived from CH4and N2O emissions in rice production.
4. In contrast with the water regimes of flooding-drainage-flooding (F-D-F) and flooding-drainage-flooding-moisture (F-D-F-M), continuous flooding (F) greatly decreased N2O emissions in rice-growing season, but markedly enhanced N2O emissions in the following non-rice season (including following fallow period and wheat season). On the contrary, Midseason drainage and dry-wet episodes during rice season significantly increased N2O emissions in rice season, but cut down the N2O emissions in the following wheat season. However, under an identical N fertilizer application, annual total N2O emissions were generally comparable among the experimental plots experienced by various water regimes during the rice-growing season. The fertilizer-induced emission factor and background emission of N2O through the annual cropping rotation were closely correlated with the various water regimes practiced during the rice-growing season. Seasonal N2O emissions significantly increased with N inputs under each water regime except that the relationship between N2O emission and N input was not pronounced during the rice-growing season under continuous flooding. Over the whole annual cycle, however, the emission factor of N2O did not significantly differ among the plots under three water regime treatments, which was estimated to be0.87%,0.97%and0.85%for the plots experienced by the water regimes of F, F-D-F and F-D-F-M, respectively. Overall, the relationship between N2O emissions and N inputs estimated the emission factor and background emission of N2O to be, on average,0.89%and1.80kg N2O-N·hm-2in the rice-wheat rotation system experienced by various water regimes, respectively.
5. The CO2, CH4and N2O emissions during the rice-growing season were significantly correlated to Fe (Ⅲ) fertilizer application. Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization slightly or significantly decreased soil total CO2emissions across the rice-wheat cropping rotation. Compared with the control, Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization decreased annual soil CO2emissions by26%and32%for the medium (Fe-M) and high (Fe-H) Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization applied plots, respectively. Net ecosystem exchange of CO2(NEE) was significantly affected by Fe (Ⅲ) fertilizer application. The NEE estimates indicated that rice production system sequestrated atmospheric CO2more efficiently than winter wheat cropping system. Compared with the control, Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization significantly benefited for ecosystem CO2sequestration (F2,6=14.5, P0.01), with19-21%greater in the rice-growing season and57-90%greater in the non-rice season. In comparision with the control, Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization significantly decreased CH4emissions from rice paddies by27%nd44%or the Fe-M and Fe-H plots, respectively (F2,6=22.7, P<0.01).Aone-way ANOVA showed that Fe (III) fertilization significantly increased N2O emissions during the rice-growing season (F2,6=8.4, P=0.02), non-rice season (F2,6=23.4, P<0.0\) and over the whole annual cycle (F2,6=28.6, PO.001). Over the whole annual paddy rice-winter wheat rotation cycle, N2O emissions were65-100%greater in the Fe (III) fertilizer applied plots than in the non-amendment control plots. The annual NGHGB were negative for all the field treatments, suggesting that atmospheric CO2sequestrated into the agroecosystems exceeded the CO2-equivalents due to annual CH4and N2O emissions from paddy rice-winter wheat rotation systems. Although Fe (III) fertilizer application increased annual N2O emissions, it remarkably decreased CH4emission and increasingly sequestrated atmospheric CO2into agroecosystems, which led to the decease in the NGHGB over the100-year time. In conclusion:
First, the total CH4and N2O emissions from the rice seedling nurseries were significantly affected by water regime and fertilizer. The results suggest that moist irrigation instead of continuous waterlogging and decreased organic N fertilizer inputs that have been increasingly experienced in Chinese rice seedling nurseries would benefit for seedling growth while mitigating the combined global warming potentials of CH4and N2O in rice seedling nurseries in China. Second, seasonal CH4and N2O emissions differed significantly between conventional transplanted and direct seeded rice cultivation patterns. By integrating rice production benefits and the net GWPs from CH4and N2O, relative to direct seeded rice, all the fertilized plots under the transplanted rice cultivation mode exacerbated the net GWPs from CH4and N2O with different levels, particularly for the urea and urea formaldehyde applied plots. Moreover, transplanted rice vs. direct seeded rice greatly decreased grain yield in rice production. Third, relative to river water irrigation, sewage irrigation significantly intensified the radiative forcing derived from CH4and N2O emissions in rice production. Fourth, seasonal or annual N2O emissions differed greatly among various water regimes practiced during the rice-growing season. Continuous flooding greatly decreased N2O emissions in rice-growing season, but markedly enhanced N2O emissions in the following non-rice season (including following fallow period and wheat season); On the contrary, Midseason drainage and dry-wet episodes during rice season significantly increased N2O emissions in rice season, but cut down the N2O emissions in the following non-rice season. Finally, the CO2, CH4and N2O emissions across the annual rice-wheat cropping rotation were significantly correlated to Fe (Ⅲ) fertilizer application. The NEE and NGHGB estimates indicated that rice production system sequestrated atmospheric CO2more efficiently than winter wheat cropping system and Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization greatly benefited for ecosystem CO2sequestration.
本研究主要以我国华东地区典型的稻麦轮作生态系统为研究对象,采用静态暗箱-气相色谱法田间原位同步测定CO2、CH4和N2O的排放通量,探讨基于水分管理的常规农业管理措施对该系统的温室气体排放的影响,及其相关的过程和机理。田间试验包括以下五个部分：2O10年水稻苗床试验研究水稻育秧方式转变(区分为常规水育和旱育苗床)和氮肥施用类型(无机氮肥施用,IF；有机氮肥施用,OF；有机/无机氮肥混合施用,CF3处理)对苗床期CH4和N2O排放的影响；2011年水稻生长季大田试验研究水稻不同种植方式(区分为常规移栽和旱直播)结合缓释高效肥、硝化抑制剂以及高价铁氧化物微量元素调理剂施用(区分为对照无肥料及调理剂施用处理、普通尿素施用处理、树脂包膜尿素施用处理、硫包尿素施用处理、尿素配合双氰胺和对苯二酚混合施用处理以及尿素配合氢氧化铁胶体施用共6个大田试验处理)对水稻生长季CH4和N2O排放的综合影响。2007年水稻生长季大田试验研究灌溉水源(区分为污水灌溉和常规灌溉)对稻田CH4和N2O排放的影响；2007-08年稻麦轮作周期内,采用区组设计研究水稻生长季的不同水分管理方式(持续淹水,F；淹水-烤田-淹水,F-D-F；淹水-烤田-淹水-湿润灌溉,F-D-F-M)和氮肥施用(水稻生长季分O、100、200、300kgN.hm-24水平；冬小麦生长季分0、75、15O、250kg N.hm-24水平)对整个稻麦轮作周期N2O排放的影响；2009-10年稻麦轮作周期研究高价铁氧化物(稻季和麦季的氢氧化铁胶体施用量均分0、4、8t.ha-13水平)施用对整个稻麦轮作系统CO2、CH4和N2O排放的综合影响及固碳效应；
主要研究结果如下：
1.不同育秧方式和肥料施用下的水稻苗床系统温室气体(CH4和N20)排放差异显著。相对于常规水育秧(F),旱育(M)方式下无机N肥施用(IF)、有机/无机N肥混合施用(CF)和有机N肥施用(OF)3处理的CH4排放量分别减少了50%、25%和14%。与IF处理相比,F和M两种育秧方式下OF处理的CH4排放分别增加了44%和148%。同样,两种不同育秧方式下的N2O排放差异也较为明显,但不同施肥类型之间并无显著差异。与F育秧方式相比,M育秧方式下IF、CF和OF3种施肥处理的N2O排放总量分别增加了186%、132%和72%。F和M两种育秧方式下苗床期N2O累计排放总量分别占秧苗期施N量的0.20-0.24%和0.41-0.57%。相对于F育秧方式,M育秧方式下来自于CH4和N2O的综合净GWP在20年和100年的时间尺度上分别降低了13-46%和11-39%。与IF施肥处理相比,F和M两种育秧方式下OF处理的CH4和N2O的综合净GWP分别增加了43%和107-132%。本研究结果表明,旱育秧方式并减少有机N肥投入将减缓来自于苗床系统的CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
2.综合不同的施肥处理,常规移栽(TPR)和直播稻(DSR)生产方式下的CH4累计排放量之间具有显著差异(P=0.01),与常规移栽稻田相比,直播稻田的CH4累计排放量减少了59%。综合不同的水稻生产方式,不同施肥处理之间的CH4累计排放量并没有显著差异(P=0.14),同时水稻栽培方式和肥料施用之间也没有互作效应(P=0.40)。两种不同的水稻栽培方式下的N2O排放量具有显著差异(P=0.02)。与移栽稻相比,直播稻的生育期N2O排放总量平均增加了38%。两种不同水稻栽培方式下不同肥料施用处理之间的N2O排放量差异达到了极显著水平(P<0.001),在同等施N水平下,相对于常规尿素施用(U),移栽和直播稻田硫包尿素施用处理(U-S)的N2O排放分别增加了12%和11%；脲甲醛施用处理(UF)的N2O排放分别减少了38%和33%；尿素配合硝化抑制剂-双氰胺和对苯二酚施用处理(U+DCD+HQ)的N2O累计排放量分别减少了54%和60%。然而常规移栽方式下与U处理相比,尿素配合氢氧化铁胶体施用处理(U+Fe)的N2O累计排放量增加了18%。常规移栽和直播生产方式下,作物收获时的地上生物量与CH4和N2O排放总量呈显著正相关。
3.污水灌溉下的CH4季节排放总量显著高于常规河水灌溉。与常规河水灌溉相比,污水灌溉方式下,有无化学N肥施用处理的CH4累计排放量分别增加了27%和33%。与无N肥施用对照处理相比,污水和常规河水灌溉方式下化学N肥施用处理的CH4累计排放量分别减少了8%和12%。方差分析表明,水稻生长季的N2O累计排放总量受灌溉类型和N肥施用的显著影响(P<0.001),污水灌溉和N肥施用显著增加N2O排放,且两者趋于存在交互作用。污水和常规河水灌溉方式下,来自于N肥施用的N2O直接排放系数分别为0.71%和0.52%,相应的N2O-N背景排放量依次分别为0.81kg·hm-2和0.30kg·hm-2,而本研究中由于灌溉污水引入N源所导致的N2O间接排放系数为0.73-0.92%。从各处理CH4和N20排放的综合GWP值来看,与常规河水灌溉相比,在20年和100年的时间尺度上污水灌溉方式下的净GWP显著增加。N肥施用显著增加了N2O排放,但却同时降低了CH4排放。在100年的时间尺度上,化学N肥施用轻微增加了净GWP,但其效应在两种水源灌溉方式下均不明显。相比之下,与对照相比,本研究中N肥施用显著降低了单位产量的GWP。总体来说,污水灌溉条件下的相对较高的净GWP值表明污水相对于无污染的河水灌溉将加剧来自于稻田系统CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
4.与淹水-烤田-淹水(F-D-F)和淹水-烤田-淹水-湿润灌溉(F-D-F-M)的水分管理方式相比,持续淹水(F)显著减少了水稻生长季的N2O排放,但却明显增加随后的非水稻生长季(包括休耕期和后季麦田)的N2O排放。中期烤田和后期湿润灌溉方式下的干湿交替阶段显著促进了水稻生长季的N2O排放,但却一定程度上抑制了后季麦田的N2O排放。但就全轮作周期而言,本研究中水稻生长季的3种不同水分管理下的N2O累计排放总量相当。稻麦轮作系统的N2O排放系数和背景排放量与水稻生长季的水分管理方式密切相关,稻麦轮作周期的N2O累计排放量随着氮肥施用量的增加而增加,除了水稻生长季持续淹水(F)方式下N2O排放量与施氮量之间并没有明显的对应关系。以上F、F-D-F和F-D-F-M3种水分管理方式下全轮作周期化肥N的N2O直接排放系数平均分别为0.87%、0.97%和0.85%。综合3种不同水分管理方式,全轮作周期的N2O直接排放系数和背景排放量平均分别为0.89%和1.80kgN20-N.hm-2。
5.稻麦轮作系统的温室气体(CO2、CH4和N2O)排放与氧化铁施用密切相关,氧化铁施用显著降低了全轮作系统的CO2排放。与对照相比,全年轮作系统Fe-M和Fe-H处理的CO2排放量分别减少了26%和32%。本研究中作物系统-大气之间CO2的生态系统净交换量(NEE)显著受氧化铁施用的影响。对NEE的估算结果表明稻田系统的固碳效应明显要高于后季的冬小麦旱作生态系统。与对照相比,氧化铁的施用显著增强了全年稻麦轮作系统的碳汇功能(F2,6=14.5,P<0.01),水稻生长季和随后的非水稻生长季的固碳潜力分别提高了19-21%和57-90%。与对照相比,氧化铁施用显著降低了水稻生长季的CH4排放(F2,6=22.7,P<0.01),Fe-M和Fe-H处理的CH4排放量相比于对照分别减少了27%和44%。方差分析表明,氧化铁施用显著增加了水稻生长季的N2O排放(F2,6=8.4,P=0.02)、非水稻生长季的N2O排放(F2,6=23.4,P<0.01)以及整个轮作周期的N2O排放(F2,6=28.6,P<0.001)。较对照而言,全年轮作周期氧化铁施用处理的N2O排放量增加了65-100%。全年轮作系统所有处理的CO2、CH4和N2O的地-气净交换估算(NGHGB)结果为负表明,稻麦轮作生态系统对大气中的CO2的净固定量已超越了过程中系统所排放的CH4和N2O的CO2等效量。尽管氧化铁施用刺激了稻麦轮作系统N2O排放,但却很大程度上降低了CH4排放并且增强了该农业生态系统对大气中CO2的固定潜力,进而降低了100年时间尺度上的综合NGHGB。
全文结论：
1.水稻不同育秧方式和肥料施用影响苗床期CH4和N2O排放。相对于常规水育苗床,旱育苗床并减少有机N肥投入在培育壮苗的同时可以减缓苗床期CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
2.常规移栽和直播生产方式下稻田的CH4和N2O排放差异显著。综合两种水稻生产方式下稻田系统的作物生产效益和综合温室效应,相对于直播稻而言,常规移栽稻田多种肥料的综合施用都不同程度地加剧水稻生长季CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应,尤其是常规尿素和脲甲醛施用下的增温效应最为明显,同时常规移栽稻生产明显降低了水稻产量。
3.与常规河水灌溉相比,污水灌溉显著加剧了来自于稻田生态系统CH4和N2O排放的综合温室效应。
4.水稻生长季的水分管理方式显著影响后季麦田及全年轮作周期的N2O排放。水稻生长季持续淹水条件下几乎没有N2O排放,但却显著增加了随后的非水稻生长季(小麦生长季+休耕期)的N2O排放；水稻生长季的中期烤田和干湿交替阶段显著促进了稻季的N2O排放,但却明显降低了随后非水稻生长季的N2O排放。
5.稻麦轮作系统的温室气体(CO2、CH4和N2O)排放与氧化铁施用密切相关。对NEE和NGHGB的估算结果表明稻田系统的固碳潜力明显要高于后季的冬小麦旱作生态系统,氧化铁的施用显著增强了全年稻麦轮作系统的碳汇功能。
Agroecosystems play a vital role in the global balance of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) and act as a main souce of GHGs emissions. Shift in agricultural production regime is considered to be a key factor influencing GHGs emissions from croplands, thus, to give an insight into GHGs emissions from cropping systems as affected by the shift in agricultural production regime and in turn to comprehensively evaluate the global warming potential (GWP), greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) and its relevant ecological benefits derived from agricultural production would be highly needed.
The paddy rice-winter wheat rotation, as one of the major cropping systems in Southeast China, was selected in the present study to simultaneously measure CO2, CH4and N2O fluxes with static opaque chamber-gas chromatograph method. The primary objective of this study was to gain an insight into the effect of water regime-specific conventional agricultural management on GHGs emissions, and in turn to explore the related processes and mechanisms involved. This study consists of five field experiments. In2010, we presented field measurements of CH4and N2O fluxes from rice seedling nurseries under the water regimes of continuous flooding and moist irrigation without waterlogging in Southeast China. Different N fertilizer sources were simultaneously integrated in this field experiment, which include inorganic N, organic N or combined organic/inorganic N fertilizers. The main objectives are to gain an insight into a complete accounting of CH4and N2O emissions from typical rice seedling nurseries and thereby to examine which water management and fertilizer regimes would be an effective option for mitigating climatic impacts of rice seedling nurseries on the perspective of GWP of CH4and N2O. In2011, field experiments were carried out both in conventional transplanted and direct seeded rice paddies, to examine the effects of rice cultivation pattern together with the application of chemical N fertilizer, slow-release N fertilizers, nitrification inhibitors and Fe (III) fertilizers on CH4and N2O emissions during the rice-growing season. The fertilizer sources consisted of urea (U), sulfur-coated urea (U-S), urea formaldehyde (UF), urea with ferrihydrite (U+Fe) or urea with dicyandiamide and hydroquinone (U+DCD+HQ). Five fertilizer treatments and a control treatment without fertilizer application under either rice cultivation pattern were simultaneously devised in this field experiment. In2007, a field experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of sewage irrigation on CH4and N2O emissions during the rice-growing season, where sewage and unpolluted rive water was simultaneously taken into account in this field experiment. In2007-08cropping rotation, a split-plot experiment was performed to study the effects of water regime during the rice-growing season and fertilizer application on N2O emissions over the annual rotation cycle. Water regime during the rice season consisted of continuous flooding (F), flooding-drainage-flooding (F-D-F) and flooding-drainage-flooding-moisture irrigation (F-D-F-M). Chemical N were applied at the rates of0,100,200or300kg N. hm'2in rice season and0,75,150or250kg N·hm-2in wheat season, respectively. In2009-10cropping rotation, ferric hydroxide and ferrihydrite in the form of amorphous granular selected as the iron fertilizer materials were amended in the rice-and wheat-cropping seasons, respectively. The objective was to gain an insight into a complete GHGs (including CO2, CH4and N2O) accounting of the net greenhouse gas balance (NGHGB) and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI) as affected by Fe (III) fertilization in paddy rice-winter wheat rotation systems. The Fe (III) fertilizer was applied identically at the rate of4and8t-ha"1for both rice and wheat growing seasons, respectively.
The results of this study are displayed as follows:
1. The total CH4emissions from the rice seedling nurseries were significantly affected by water regime and fertilizer. Relative to the continuous flooding (F), moist irrigation (M) decreased total CH4by50%,25%and14%for the inorganic N (IF), combined application of inorganic/organic manure N (CF) and organic manure N (OF) plots, respectively. Compared with IF applied plots, OF applied plots increased CH4by44%and148%in the rice seedling nurseries under the F and M irrigation regimes, respectively. Total N2O emissions from the rice seedling nurseries were significantly affected by water regime, but the effects of fertilizer and their interaction were not significant. Relative to the continuous flooding, total N2O emissions from moist irrigated plots were increased by186%,132%and72%for the IF, CF and OF plots, respectively. Total N2O emissions were equivalent to0.20-0.24%and0.41-0.57%of the N applied in the rice seedling nurseries under continuous flooding and moist irrigation regimes, respectively. Relative to the continuous flooding, moist irrigation decreased the net GWPs by13-46%over the20-year horizon or11-39%over the100-year horizon. Compared with inorganic fertilizer, organic manure application significant increased CH4emissions, but no significant effects on N2O emissions, which led to the net GWPs increased by43%and107-132%in the rice seedling nurseries under the continuous flooding and moist irrigation regimes, respectively. The results of this study suggest that moist irrigation instead of continuous waterlogging and decreased organic N fertilizer inputs that have been increasingly experienced in Chinese rice seedling nurseries would benefit for mitigating the combined global warming potentials of CH4and N2O in rice seedling nurseries in China.
2. Seasonal CH4emissions differed significantly (P=0.01) between conventional transplanted (TPR) and direct seeded rice (DSR) cultivation patterns, irrespective of various fertilizer sources applied. As compared to TPR production mode, DSR decreased CH4by59%. No pronounced relationship (P=0.14) was found across fertilizer treatments under either rice cultivation mode, and also the interaction between rice cultivation pattern and fertilizer application (P=0.40). The N2O emissions differed significantly (P=0.02) between the two rice cultivation methods. In comparision with TPR, seasonal amounts of N2O emissions during the rice growing season for DSR were enhanced by38%across different fertilizer treatments. Seasonal N2O emissions under either rice cultivation mode were significantly distinguished by fertilizer source (P<0.001). Under identical N input rates, in contrast with urea applied plots (U) treatment, N2O emissions were increased by12%and11%for the plots with urea and sulfur-coated urea (U-S), while decreased by38%and33%for the urea formaldehyde applied treatment (UF), and also decreased by54%and60%for plots with nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide and urease inhibitor hydrochinone (U+DCD+HQ) under TPR and DSR production modes, respectively. However, under the TPR mode, the treatment with urea and ferrihydrite (U+Fe) vs. the U treatment enhanced N2O by18%. Seasonal CH4and N2O emissions significantly correlated with the harvested rice above-ground biomass both under TPR and DSR production modes in the present study.
3. Sewage irrigation significantly increased seasonal amounts of CH4emissions. In contrast with river water irrigation, sewage irrigation increased seasonal CH4emissions by27%and33%for the plots with and without chemical N addition, respectively. Compared with the control without fertilizer application, chemical N fertilizer application decreased CH4emissions by8%and12%for the plots under sewage and river water irrigation, respectively. Seasonal amounts of N2O emissions were significantly affected by the water type of irrigation, fertilizer application (P<0.001) and tended to be affected by their interaction (P=0.06). Relative to river water irrigation, sewage irrigation increased N2O by68%and170%for the plots with and without N application, respectively. The direct emission factor of fertilizer N for N2O was estimated to be0.71%and0.52%for the plots under sewage and river water irrigation, accompanied by a seasonal N2O-N background emission of0.81kg·hm-2and0.30kg·hm-2, respectively. The sewage N induced indirect emission factor of N2O would be0.73-0.92%. In terms of the combined GWP of CH4and N2O as affected by irrigation type and N fertilization, compared with river water irrigation, sewage irrigation increased significantly the net GWPs whether over a20-year horizon or a100-year horizon. N application significantly increased N2O emissions, while it tended to decrease CH4emissions, the synthetic fertilizer application slightly increased the net GWPs over a100-year horizon, but this impact was not pronounced whether under river water irrigation or sewage irrigation. In contrast, the net GWPs in terms of rice yield were significantly decreased by nitrogen application. Overall, higher net GWPs in rice paddies irrigated by sewage suggests that sewage instead of unpolluted river water irrigation would intensify the radiative forcing derived from CH4and N2O emissions in rice production.
4. In contrast with the water regimes of flooding-drainage-flooding (F-D-F) and flooding-drainage-flooding-moisture (F-D-F-M), continuous flooding (F) greatly decreased N2O emissions in rice-growing season, but markedly enhanced N2O emissions in the following non-rice season (including following fallow period and wheat season). On the contrary, Midseason drainage and dry-wet episodes during rice season significantly increased N2O emissions in rice season, but cut down the N2O emissions in the following wheat season. However, under an identical N fertilizer application, annual total N2O emissions were generally comparable among the experimental plots experienced by various water regimes during the rice-growing season. The fertilizer-induced emission factor and background emission of N2O through the annual cropping rotation were closely correlated with the various water regimes practiced during the rice-growing season. Seasonal N2O emissions significantly increased with N inputs under each water regime except that the relationship between N2O emission and N input was not pronounced during the rice-growing season under continuous flooding. Over the whole annual cycle, however, the emission factor of N2O did not significantly differ among the plots under three water regime treatments, which was estimated to be0.87%,0.97%and0.85%for the plots experienced by the water regimes of F, F-D-F and F-D-F-M, respectively. Overall, the relationship between N2O emissions and N inputs estimated the emission factor and background emission of N2O to be, on average,0.89%and1.80kg N2O-N·hm-2in the rice-wheat rotation system experienced by various water regimes, respectively.
5. The CO2, CH4and N2O emissions during the rice-growing season were significantly correlated to Fe (Ⅲ) fertilizer application. Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization slightly or significantly decreased soil total CO2emissions across the rice-wheat cropping rotation. Compared with the control, Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization decreased annual soil CO2emissions by26%and32%for the medium (Fe-M) and high (Fe-H) Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization applied plots, respectively. Net ecosystem exchange of CO2(NEE) was significantly affected by Fe (Ⅲ) fertilizer application. The NEE estimates indicated that rice production system sequestrated atmospheric CO2more efficiently than winter wheat cropping system. Compared with the control, Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization significantly benefited for ecosystem CO2sequestration (F2,6=14.5, P0.01), with19-21%greater in the rice-growing season and57-90%greater in the non-rice season. In comparision with the control, Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization significantly decreased CH4emissions from rice paddies by27%nd44%or the Fe-M and Fe-H plots, respectively (F2,6=22.7, P<0.01).Aone-way ANOVA showed that Fe (III) fertilization significantly increased N2O emissions during the rice-growing season (F2,6=8.4, P=0.02), non-rice season (F2,6=23.4, P<0.0\) and over the whole annual cycle (F2,6=28.6, PO.001). Over the whole annual paddy rice-winter wheat rotation cycle, N2O emissions were65-100%greater in the Fe (III) fertilizer applied plots than in the non-amendment control plots. The annual NGHGB were negative for all the field treatments, suggesting that atmospheric CO2sequestrated into the agroecosystems exceeded the CO2-equivalents due to annual CH4and N2O emissions from paddy rice-winter wheat rotation systems. Although Fe (III) fertilizer application increased annual N2O emissions, it remarkably decreased CH4emission and increasingly sequestrated atmospheric CO2into agroecosystems, which led to the decease in the NGHGB over the100-year time. In conclusion:
First, the total CH4and N2O emissions from the rice seedling nurseries were significantly affected by water regime and fertilizer. The results suggest that moist irrigation instead of continuous waterlogging and decreased organic N fertilizer inputs that have been increasingly experienced in Chinese rice seedling nurseries would benefit for seedling growth while mitigating the combined global warming potentials of CH4and N2O in rice seedling nurseries in China. Second, seasonal CH4and N2O emissions differed significantly between conventional transplanted and direct seeded rice cultivation patterns. By integrating rice production benefits and the net GWPs from CH4and N2O, relative to direct seeded rice, all the fertilized plots under the transplanted rice cultivation mode exacerbated the net GWPs from CH4and N2O with different levels, particularly for the urea and urea formaldehyde applied plots. Moreover, transplanted rice vs. direct seeded rice greatly decreased grain yield in rice production. Third, relative to river water irrigation, sewage irrigation significantly intensified the radiative forcing derived from CH4and N2O emissions in rice production. Fourth, seasonal or annual N2O emissions differed greatly among various water regimes practiced during the rice-growing season. Continuous flooding greatly decreased N2O emissions in rice-growing season, but markedly enhanced N2O emissions in the following non-rice season (including following fallow period and wheat season); On the contrary, Midseason drainage and dry-wet episodes during rice season significantly increased N2O emissions in rice season, but cut down the N2O emissions in the following non-rice season. Finally, the CO2, CH4and N2O emissions across the annual rice-wheat cropping rotation were significantly correlated to Fe (Ⅲ) fertilizer application. The NEE and NGHGB estimates indicated that rice production system sequestrated atmospheric CO2more efficiently than winter wheat cropping system and Fe (Ⅲ) fertilization greatly benefited for ecosystem CO2sequestration.
引文
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