中国经济史上的农地产权制度变迁
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摘要
研究传统农业社会经济史上的制度变迁及其绩效,最根本、最核心的问题就是研究土地产权归属及其相互关系的处理。由于产权即财产权利包括所有权、使用权与收益权等,因此,考察土地产权制度就主要是考察土地所有权制度、土地耕作经营制度、土地收益分配制度等内容。
本文的主题是,通过对中国历史上土地产权制度变迁的描述与分析,运用新制度经济学原理来解释中国历史上土地产权制度变迁对中国历史进程的影响,并试图分析为什么一方面虽然中国早在14世纪就存在西方18世纪产业革命才具有的条件却终究没有发生产业革命,另一方面中国历史绵延几千年而中华文明从未间断因而成为人类古代文明的唯一完整保存者。
本文的结论是,土地产权制度的变迁贯穿中国社会经济发展和演变的始终,中国历史上的土地产权制度的变迁与中国经济史的演进息息相关。中国很早就出现了土地的私有制,土地产权的清晰,成为促使中国经济发展的重要激励制度。但自秦朝明确土地私有权和允许土地自由买卖以后,地权一直处于不稳定的状态,使得土地这种生产要素作为资本积累常常被打断。中国明清以来落后于西方的根本原因在于制度层面,在于土地产权制度即生产资料和劳动力的产权结合的层面上,中国地主型的土地制度对中国的整个经济发展造成了有害的影响,主要表现就是它阻碍了社会生产力的发展。中国传统社会的土地耕作经营模式随着历史的演进不断地变革,从“千耦其耘”的集中耕作、大小庄园的集体耕作、均田制下的家庭耕作、所有权与经营权相分离的契约租佃耕作,到地主雇工经营,这些制度的变迁,既是对当时社会政治军事形势变化的必然适应,也是社会历史前行的自然选择。小农家庭生产单位是中国历史上存续时间最长的一种经营模式,虽然从微观的生产单位(家庭或小农场)的层面来说,传统小农经济是一种比较有效率的经营模式,但从宏观的角度看,传统小农经济自身毕竟存在诸多局限性,不利于规模经营和更高技术的采用,对农业生产特别是封建社会后期和近代社会的农业生产起到了阻碍作用。中国至迟自秦汉时期即出现实物地租,明清时期普遍实行实物定额租制,而且货币地租也开始流行,这些都是有利于农业生产发展的重要制度创新;但在农业生产技术水平较低的封建社会,地租率超过50%显然偏高,超出佃农的承受能力,导致佃农无法进行农业积累,并且拥有土地所有权的高收益率使得购买和兼并土地有着巨大的利益冲动,这是自耕农失地破产的一个重要原因。这些就是中国封建社会经济既发展又不能充分发展,特别是近代以来出现停滞和逐渐落后于西方国家的根本原因。
本文的特点是,明确和系统地提出中国历史上土地产权的不稳定性是阻碍中国资本主义萌芽继续发展和资本积累的主要原因的观点,并从历史演进的角度探讨小农经济的效率,认为在传统农业社会,适应当时生产技术条件的小农经济(包括自耕农经济和租佃经济)是有效率的,但随着生产技术条件的改进,小农生产模式就落后和不适应了。本文对中国传统农业社会的租佃关系中地租率过高,使得农业内部的积累无法进行,只能维持甚至有时难以维持简单再生产的学术观点也作了论证。
本文的不足集中表现在对土地产权制度变迁的理论分析尚嫌肤浅,并且没有使用数理模型进行研究和论述,这使得本文的论证过程及其说服力受到影响。
To study the institutional change in economic history of traditional agricultural society, the most essential and central issue is to research the jurisdiction of the land tenure, including the land property rights and the landling of their mutual relations. Owing to property rights consisting of right of ownership, right of use, and right of revenue, to examine the institution of land tenure is principally to check the institution of land right of ownership, the institution of land right of use, the institution of land right of revenue,etc.
The theme of this dissertation is expressed by describing and analysing of the institutional change of land tenure in Chinese history, appling the principle of new institutional economics to interpret the influence of the institutional change of land tenure in the process of Chinese history, moreover attempting to analyse why, on one hand, although in the 14th long ago China had been the condition of the western industrial revolution in the 18th, China didn't take place industrial revolution. On the other hand, Chinese history has been stretched and unbroken for thousands of years, and the civilization of China exsists to be the only complete preserver in human ancient civilization.
The conclusion of this dissertation is that the change of land tenure run through the social economy development and evolution from beginning to end. There is a intimate relation between the change of land property rights institution in Chinese history and the evolution of Chinese economic history. Land private ownership appeared in China long ago, then the distinction of land tenure became an important encouragement institution to impel. Since Qin dynasty that land private ownership had been definite, meanwhile land had been permitted to be traded free, the land tenure had been standing in the unstable state continuously, capital accumulation of land as the essential factor of production had been usually broken.
The fundamental cause that China fell behind the western nations lay in institution aspect since Ming and Qing dynasty, and was determined by institution of land tenure, it is namely the aspect of property rights combination of productive means and productive forces. China landlordism's land institution had made deterimental influence upon the whole China economy development, its prime influence was that it hindered the development of social productive capacity of China. The land cultivation and management model of China traditional society had been transformed unceasingly with the evolution of China history, from ploughing side by side with thousands of farmers, to cultivating collectively in big or small manors, to family cultivating under equal land institution, to cultivating of lease-land by contract with management right separating from proprietary right, to landlords running their land by hiring laborer. These institutional changes were both certainly adapting to the change of social political military situation at that time, and natural choice of social history advance.
The small-scale production of peasant family was a management model that it continued to exist the longest time in China history. Although traditional peasant economy was an efficient production and management model in the aspect of micro-production unit, traditional peasant economy itself existed a lot of limit in the macroscopic aspect. It was unfavorable to adopt big-scale management and advanced technique, and it hindered the development of agricultural production especially in the later period of feudal society and modern society. Material land rent appeared in Qin-han dynasty period in China. The institution of material fixed amount land rent was executed universally in Ming-qing dynasty period. Furthermore, currency land rent began to prevail in that time. These were all important institution innovation that was favorable the development of agricultural production. However, land rent rate exceeded 50% in the feudal society of lower agricultural production technique. The land rent rate was obviously too high, and exceeded the bearing capacity of lease-land farmer. The high land rent rate led to lease-land fanners not to engage agricultural capital accumulation. The high revenue due to possessing land ownership made enormous benefit impulse by buying and mergering land. It was a major reason leading to self-tillage farmer lost land and came to naught. All these do be the basic reason that Chinese economy of feudal society was both developed and undeveloped, particularly, China emerged stagnation and gradually fell behind the western nations.
The distinctiveness of this dissertation is that the writer raises the views explicitly and systematically that the unstableness of land tenure in Chinese history was the prime reason that hindered Chinese capitalism sprout to continue developing and capital to accumulate. This dissertation probes that the peasant economy was efficient in China history evolution, and considers that the peasant economy, including self-tillage economy and lease-land economy, was efficient, because of it adapting to the condition of production and technique at that time in traditional agriculture society. However, with the improvement of production technique condition and the enhancement of management standard, the peasant economy model fell behind and became unadapted. This dissertation expounds the academic view that the land rent rate was so high that the agricultural accumulation not to be engaged in China traditional agriculture society, so far as to the simple reproduction wasn't kept sometimes.
The shortage of this dissertation is displayed concentratively that the theoretic analysis of institutional change of land tenure is superficial. This dissertation doesn't use mathematical model to research and discuss the theme. It makes the proving process and its persuasion to be discounted.
本文的主题是,通过对中国历史上土地产权制度变迁的描述与分析,运用新制度经济学原理来解释中国历史上土地产权制度变迁对中国历史进程的影响,并试图分析为什么一方面虽然中国早在14世纪就存在西方18世纪产业革命才具有的条件却终究没有发生产业革命,另一方面中国历史绵延几千年而中华文明从未间断因而成为人类古代文明的唯一完整保存者。
本文的结论是,土地产权制度的变迁贯穿中国社会经济发展和演变的始终,中国历史上的土地产权制度的变迁与中国经济史的演进息息相关。中国很早就出现了土地的私有制,土地产权的清晰,成为促使中国经济发展的重要激励制度。但自秦朝明确土地私有权和允许土地自由买卖以后,地权一直处于不稳定的状态,使得土地这种生产要素作为资本积累常常被打断。中国明清以来落后于西方的根本原因在于制度层面,在于土地产权制度即生产资料和劳动力的产权结合的层面上,中国地主型的土地制度对中国的整个经济发展造成了有害的影响,主要表现就是它阻碍了社会生产力的发展。中国传统社会的土地耕作经营模式随着历史的演进不断地变革,从“千耦其耘”的集中耕作、大小庄园的集体耕作、均田制下的家庭耕作、所有权与经营权相分离的契约租佃耕作,到地主雇工经营,这些制度的变迁,既是对当时社会政治军事形势变化的必然适应,也是社会历史前行的自然选择。小农家庭生产单位是中国历史上存续时间最长的一种经营模式,虽然从微观的生产单位(家庭或小农场)的层面来说,传统小农经济是一种比较有效率的经营模式,但从宏观的角度看,传统小农经济自身毕竟存在诸多局限性,不利于规模经营和更高技术的采用,对农业生产特别是封建社会后期和近代社会的农业生产起到了阻碍作用。中国至迟自秦汉时期即出现实物地租,明清时期普遍实行实物定额租制,而且货币地租也开始流行,这些都是有利于农业生产发展的重要制度创新;但在农业生产技术水平较低的封建社会,地租率超过50%显然偏高,超出佃农的承受能力,导致佃农无法进行农业积累,并且拥有土地所有权的高收益率使得购买和兼并土地有着巨大的利益冲动,这是自耕农失地破产的一个重要原因。这些就是中国封建社会经济既发展又不能充分发展,特别是近代以来出现停滞和逐渐落后于西方国家的根本原因。
本文的特点是,明确和系统地提出中国历史上土地产权的不稳定性是阻碍中国资本主义萌芽继续发展和资本积累的主要原因的观点,并从历史演进的角度探讨小农经济的效率,认为在传统农业社会,适应当时生产技术条件的小农经济(包括自耕农经济和租佃经济)是有效率的,但随着生产技术条件的改进,小农生产模式就落后和不适应了。本文对中国传统农业社会的租佃关系中地租率过高,使得农业内部的积累无法进行,只能维持甚至有时难以维持简单再生产的学术观点也作了论证。
本文的不足集中表现在对土地产权制度变迁的理论分析尚嫌肤浅,并且没有使用数理模型进行研究和论述,这使得本文的论证过程及其说服力受到影响。
To study the institutional change in economic history of traditional agricultural society, the most essential and central issue is to research the jurisdiction of the land tenure, including the land property rights and the landling of their mutual relations. Owing to property rights consisting of right of ownership, right of use, and right of revenue, to examine the institution of land tenure is principally to check the institution of land right of ownership, the institution of land right of use, the institution of land right of revenue,etc.
The theme of this dissertation is expressed by describing and analysing of the institutional change of land tenure in Chinese history, appling the principle of new institutional economics to interpret the influence of the institutional change of land tenure in the process of Chinese history, moreover attempting to analyse why, on one hand, although in the 14th long ago China had been the condition of the western industrial revolution in the 18th, China didn't take place industrial revolution. On the other hand, Chinese history has been stretched and unbroken for thousands of years, and the civilization of China exsists to be the only complete preserver in human ancient civilization.
The conclusion of this dissertation is that the change of land tenure run through the social economy development and evolution from beginning to end. There is a intimate relation between the change of land property rights institution in Chinese history and the evolution of Chinese economic history. Land private ownership appeared in China long ago, then the distinction of land tenure became an important encouragement institution to impel. Since Qin dynasty that land private ownership had been definite, meanwhile land had been permitted to be traded free, the land tenure had been standing in the unstable state continuously, capital accumulation of land as the essential factor of production had been usually broken.
The fundamental cause that China fell behind the western nations lay in institution aspect since Ming and Qing dynasty, and was determined by institution of land tenure, it is namely the aspect of property rights combination of productive means and productive forces. China landlordism's land institution had made deterimental influence upon the whole China economy development, its prime influence was that it hindered the development of social productive capacity of China. The land cultivation and management model of China traditional society had been transformed unceasingly with the evolution of China history, from ploughing side by side with thousands of farmers, to cultivating collectively in big or small manors, to family cultivating under equal land institution, to cultivating of lease-land by contract with management right separating from proprietary right, to landlords running their land by hiring laborer. These institutional changes were both certainly adapting to the change of social political military situation at that time, and natural choice of social history advance.
The small-scale production of peasant family was a management model that it continued to exist the longest time in China history. Although traditional peasant economy was an efficient production and management model in the aspect of micro-production unit, traditional peasant economy itself existed a lot of limit in the macroscopic aspect. It was unfavorable to adopt big-scale management and advanced technique, and it hindered the development of agricultural production especially in the later period of feudal society and modern society. Material land rent appeared in Qin-han dynasty period in China. The institution of material fixed amount land rent was executed universally in Ming-qing dynasty period. Furthermore, currency land rent began to prevail in that time. These were all important institution innovation that was favorable the development of agricultural production. However, land rent rate exceeded 50% in the feudal society of lower agricultural production technique. The land rent rate was obviously too high, and exceeded the bearing capacity of lease-land farmer. The high land rent rate led to lease-land fanners not to engage agricultural capital accumulation. The high revenue due to possessing land ownership made enormous benefit impulse by buying and mergering land. It was a major reason leading to self-tillage farmer lost land and came to naught. All these do be the basic reason that Chinese economy of feudal society was both developed and undeveloped, particularly, China emerged stagnation and gradually fell behind the western nations.
The distinctiveness of this dissertation is that the writer raises the views explicitly and systematically that the unstableness of land tenure in Chinese history was the prime reason that hindered Chinese capitalism sprout to continue developing and capital to accumulate. This dissertation probes that the peasant economy was efficient in China history evolution, and considers that the peasant economy, including self-tillage economy and lease-land economy, was efficient, because of it adapting to the condition of production and technique at that time in traditional agriculture society. However, with the improvement of production technique condition and the enhancement of management standard, the peasant economy model fell behind and became unadapted. This dissertation expounds the academic view that the land rent rate was so high that the agricultural accumulation not to be engaged in China traditional agriculture society, so far as to the simple reproduction wasn't kept sometimes.
The shortage of this dissertation is displayed concentratively that the theoretic analysis of institutional change of land tenure is superficial. This dissertation doesn't use mathematical model to research and discuss the theme. It makes the proving process and its persuasion to be discounted.
引文
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