太阳能电化学转化与储存中若干新型电极材料的研究
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摘要
由于化石能源在地球的储量有限而且其使用伴随温室效应等环境问题，利用可再生能源发电成为迫切需要。太阳能是总量巨大的清洁能源，太阳能发电被寄望在未来满足相当部分世界能源需求。在光伏技术中，新型太阳能电池如染料敏化太阳能电池因为制作工艺要求较低而光电转化效率相对较高而受到关注。目前高效敏化电池主要基于钌配合物，而纯有机染料的使用可以避免对贵金属资源的依赖，所需解决的是效率问题。另一方面，太阳能是间歇性能源，其不稳定性决定了其将来接入电网离不开高效的电蓄能系统。在现有的电化学储能技术中，锂二次电池具有突出的高能量密度，但电极材料成本有待降低；工作原理相似的镁二次电池的理论能量密度仅次于前者，且具有潜在的成本优势，但目前能量密度受制于正极材料。
本文针对高效低成本的太阳能电化学转化与储存，围绕有机染料敏化太阳能电池、有机锂二次电池和镁二次电池等三种潜在廉价的电池技术，对其中若干新型电极材料的设计进行了研究，主要内容和结果包括：
（1）太阳能电池的光电转化效率由短路电流、开路电压（V_(OC)）和填充因子决定。通过纯有机染料的分子设计提高光电流已有较多进展，而分子结构对V_(OC)的影响则研究较少。为了研究有机染料分子结构和染料敏化太阳能电池V_(OC)的关系，设计合成并比较了一系列三苯胺基有机光敏染料。对V_(OC)的变化原因从TiO_2导带带边的移动和界面电荷复合两方面进行了探讨。第一，考察了吸附模式的影响。以氰基丙烯酸为吸附基团的两个染料（TC染料）采取直立吸附模式；相比起以躺卧模式吸附的以绕丹宁-3-乙酸为吸附基的TR染料，前者能在TiO_2表面施加更大的偶极电势，会直接提高V_(OC)。TR染料因为表面阻挡效率低且与I_3~-的结合物与TiO_2表面更接近而会引起比TC染料更多的电子复合。第二，借助含N-烷基吲哚鎓电子受体结构的TI染料探讨了基于有机离子型染料的敏化电池通常V_(OC)较低的原因。发现TI染料因为导致界面电荷复合加剧和TiO_2导带正移而使V_(OC)比非离子型染料低。实验和理论分析表明离子型染料分子中独特的电荷分布形式不利于高效染料的构筑。第三，在三苯胺染料中引入3,4-丙撑基二氧噻吩共轭桥能同时改善光谱吸收、抑制染料聚集和显著缓解电荷复合。合成的OR染料取得了高达800mV的V_(OC)值，显示了其三维枝化结构对分子的有效自钝化作用。
（2）有机羰基化合物是潜在低成本和高能量密度的锂二次电池正极材料，但目前系统的设计原则尚未确立，因此成为本论文的研究对象之一。首先通过向大共轭体系插入前芳香性的1,2-二羰基结构，设计并合成了一系列分子基羰基正极材料，它们同时具备了所有已知的稳定因素，能发生多达四电子还原。其中两个新的羰基电极化合物芘-4,5,9,10-四酮和1,10-菲啰啉-5,6-二酮分别展现了360mA h g~(-1)的可逆容量和2.74V的平均工作电压，为设计高能有机电极材料用于能量储存提供了思路。理论模拟显示，分子轨道图样和能级能量可应用于羰基利用率的预测和氧化还原电位的调节。在此基础上进一步系统研究了芳香杂环基团对有机电极材料电池性能的影响。另一方面，向锂二次电池中的羰基正极材料分子中引入芳杂环结构能同时提高质量比容量、工作电压、倍率性能和循环性能。其中苯并呋喃[5,6-b]呋喃-4,8-二酮取得了539W h kg~(-1)的能量密度、3278W kg~(-1)的功率密度和100次充放电循环后86%的容量保持。结果表明，跟其它有机功能电子器件材料一样，芳香杂环结构修饰是提高有机电极性能的有效手段。
（3）层状硫属化合物是典型的离子嵌入材料，但目前在镁二次电池的表现差强人意，同时镁负极在一些电解液体系中的钝化也限制了电池性能。本论文以纳米技术为依托，在溶剂热条件下合成了高度剥离、平均厚度小于4层的石墨烯状二硫化钼（G-MoS_2），并通过离子液体辅助的溶液还原法合成了平均粒径为2.5nm的超细纳米镁颗粒（N-Mg）。这两种新型纳米材料展示了比相应的微米级材料远为优异的电化学性能。分别以G-MoS_2和N-Mg为正负极组装的镁二次电池取得了高达1.8V的工作电压和170mAh g~(-1)的可逆比容量，50次充放电循环后容量仍保持95%。借助理论模拟初步研究了G-MoS_2的储镁机制并解释了其性能优于块体二硫化钼的原因。突出的电池性能使得G-MoS_2N-Mg成为最成功的镁二次电池构型之一，表明合理的电极材料形貌调控将是设计高效镁二次电池的有效途径。
The limited resource and environment issues related to fossil fuels haveprompted the power generation by renewable energies. Solar energy is clean andinfinite, and solar electricity is expected to meet a considerable portion of globalpower desire. Among photovoltaic technologies, new-generation inexpensive onessuch as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) have aroused world-wide research interests.While current high-efficiency DSCs are predominantly based on Ru complexes, pureorganic DSCs have provided noble metal-free alternatives with their efficienciespending for improvement. On the other hand, solar energy is known as intermittentand its non-stability has placed enormous demands on the grid system. Efficientenergy storage system is necessary for the future power generation from renewableenergies into the grid. Rechargeable lithium batteries, with their outstanding energydensities, are attractive candidates for such applications given that lower costs ofelectrode materials could be realized.
Towards cost-effective solar electrochemical conversion and storage, thisdissertation has dealt with three potentially low-cost electrochemical technologiesincluding DSCs, organic rechargeable lithium batteries and rechargeable magnesiumbatteries, with particular focus on the design of novel electrode materials. The mainresults and conclusions include
(1) The efficiency of a solar cell depends on short-circuit density, open-circuitvoltage (V_(OC)), and fill factor. While accomplishments have been made by moleculardesign of organic dyes to increase short-circuit densities of DSCs, studies on V_(OC)areby far less. In order to study the relationship between molecular structure of organicdyes and the V_(OC)of DSCs, a series of triphenylamine-based organic sensitizers wereengineered and compared. The origin of V_(OC)variance was exmined in terms ofband-edge movement of TiO_2conduction band (CB) and interfacial chargerecombination. Firstly, the influence of adsorption behavior was investigated. Thetwo dyes with cyanoacrylic acid as anchoring group (TC-dyes) adopt a standing adsorption mode and exert larger surface dipole potential on TiO_2than theircounterparts bearing rhodanine-3-acetic acid (TR-dyes) which lie along the surface.TR-dyes exhibit greater extent of charge recombination than TC-dyes because of thelow surface-blocking efficiency of the dye layer and the intimacy between theI_3~-bound dyes and TiO_2. Secondly, two ionic dyes (TI dyes) featuring a1,1-diphenylvinyl auxiliary electron donor and N-alkyl indolium carboxylic acidacceptors have been synthesized to investigate the generally low V_(OC)values DSCsbased on organic ionic dyes. TI dyes have shown much lower V_(OC)values than that ofnon-ionic ones, suffering from serious interfacial charge recombination anddownward shift of the TiO_2CB. Through combined experimental and computationalanalysis, it was concluded that the electronic distribution over ionic dye molecules isintrinsically not ideal for the construction of efficient sensitizers. Thirdly, introductionof rationally modified3,4-propylenedioxythiophene units into triphenylamine dyeswas found to enhance light capturing, suppress dye aggregation, and remarkablyretard charge recombination in dye-sensitized solar cells. V_(OC)values for these dyes(~800mV) are much higher than that for a thiophene congener (720mV) undersimilar conditions, as a result of self-passivation benefited from theirthree-dimensional branched structures.
(2) Organic carbonyl compounds are potentially low-cost andhigh-energy-density cathode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries, generaldesign rules of which are not yet established. By embedding pre-aromatic1,2-dicarbonyl moieties into extended conjugated systems, a series of organiccarbonyl-based molecular cathode materials integrating all known stabilizing factorsand enabling up to four-electron reduction were designed and synthesized.Remarkably, two new carbonyl electrodes, pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone and1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione, have delivered a reversible capacity of360mA h g~(-1)and an average working potential of2.74V, respectively, providing insights indesigning high-energy organic positive electrodes for energy storage. Theoreticalmodeling revealed that molecular orbital profiles and energetics can be applied for theprediction of carbonyl utilization and modulation of redox potentials. The influenceof heteroaromatic building blocks on the electrochemical behavior of organic electrode materials was further demonstrated in a systematic way. The structuralincorporation of heteroaromatics improves the cell performance of carbonyl-basedmolecular cathode materials in rechargeable lithium batteries in terms of specificgravimetric capacity, working potential, rate capability, and cyclability. In particular,benzofuro[5,6-b]furan-4,8-dione has achieved an energy density of up to539W hkg~(-1), a power density of up to3278W kg~(-1), and a capacity retention of86%after100discharge charge cycles. Functionalization with heteroaromatic structures, in parallelto various families of organic functional electronic materials, are therefore recognizedas a versatile strategy to improve the performance of organic electrodes.
(3) Layered chalcogenides are typical ion intercalation material but so faroperate moderately in rechargeable magnesium batteries. The passivation of metallicmagnesium in some electrolyte systems has also restricted the battery performance.With the advent of nanoengineering, highly exfoliated graphene-like MoS_2(G-MoS_2)was synthesized via solvo-thermal conditions with an average layer number of≤4,and ultrasmall magnesium nanoparticles (N-Mg) with an average diameter of2.5nmwere prepared through ionic liquid-assisted reduction. These two novel nanomaterialsshow significantly superior electrochemical performance to their micro-structuredcounterparts. Rechargeable magnesium batteries with G-MoS_2as cathode and N-Mgas anode were fabricated, showing a high working potential of1.8V and a reversiblespecific capacity of170mA h g~(-1), of which95%was preserved after50discharge charge cycles. The magnesium storage mechanism was preliminarilystudied by theoretical modeling, which explains the enhanced capacity of G-MoS_2over bulk MoS_2. These results highlight the G-MoS_2N-Mg combination as one ofthe most successful configurations for rechargeable magnesium batteries, and suggestthat rational morphological design of electrode materials should be a promisingpathway towards high performance magnesium batteries.
本文针对高效低成本的太阳能电化学转化与储存，围绕有机染料敏化太阳能电池、有机锂二次电池和镁二次电池等三种潜在廉价的电池技术，对其中若干新型电极材料的设计进行了研究，主要内容和结果包括：
（1）太阳能电池的光电转化效率由短路电流、开路电压（V_(OC)）和填充因子决定。通过纯有机染料的分子设计提高光电流已有较多进展，而分子结构对V_(OC)的影响则研究较少。为了研究有机染料分子结构和染料敏化太阳能电池V_(OC)的关系，设计合成并比较了一系列三苯胺基有机光敏染料。对V_(OC)的变化原因从TiO_2导带带边的移动和界面电荷复合两方面进行了探讨。第一，考察了吸附模式的影响。以氰基丙烯酸为吸附基团的两个染料（TC染料）采取直立吸附模式；相比起以躺卧模式吸附的以绕丹宁-3-乙酸为吸附基的TR染料，前者能在TiO_2表面施加更大的偶极电势，会直接提高V_(OC)。TR染料因为表面阻挡效率低且与I_3~-的结合物与TiO_2表面更接近而会引起比TC染料更多的电子复合。第二，借助含N-烷基吲哚鎓电子受体结构的TI染料探讨了基于有机离子型染料的敏化电池通常V_(OC)较低的原因。发现TI染料因为导致界面电荷复合加剧和TiO_2导带正移而使V_(OC)比非离子型染料低。实验和理论分析表明离子型染料分子中独特的电荷分布形式不利于高效染料的构筑。第三，在三苯胺染料中引入3,4-丙撑基二氧噻吩共轭桥能同时改善光谱吸收、抑制染料聚集和显著缓解电荷复合。合成的OR染料取得了高达800mV的V_(OC)值，显示了其三维枝化结构对分子的有效自钝化作用。
（2）有机羰基化合物是潜在低成本和高能量密度的锂二次电池正极材料，但目前系统的设计原则尚未确立，因此成为本论文的研究对象之一。首先通过向大共轭体系插入前芳香性的1,2-二羰基结构，设计并合成了一系列分子基羰基正极材料，它们同时具备了所有已知的稳定因素，能发生多达四电子还原。其中两个新的羰基电极化合物芘-4,5,9,10-四酮和1,10-菲啰啉-5,6-二酮分别展现了360mA h g~(-1)的可逆容量和2.74V的平均工作电压，为设计高能有机电极材料用于能量储存提供了思路。理论模拟显示，分子轨道图样和能级能量可应用于羰基利用率的预测和氧化还原电位的调节。在此基础上进一步系统研究了芳香杂环基团对有机电极材料电池性能的影响。另一方面，向锂二次电池中的羰基正极材料分子中引入芳杂环结构能同时提高质量比容量、工作电压、倍率性能和循环性能。其中苯并呋喃[5,6-b]呋喃-4,8-二酮取得了539W h kg~(-1)的能量密度、3278W kg~(-1)的功率密度和100次充放电循环后86%的容量保持。结果表明，跟其它有机功能电子器件材料一样，芳香杂环结构修饰是提高有机电极性能的有效手段。
（3）层状硫属化合物是典型的离子嵌入材料，但目前在镁二次电池的表现差强人意，同时镁负极在一些电解液体系中的钝化也限制了电池性能。本论文以纳米技术为依托，在溶剂热条件下合成了高度剥离、平均厚度小于4层的石墨烯状二硫化钼（G-MoS_2），并通过离子液体辅助的溶液还原法合成了平均粒径为2.5nm的超细纳米镁颗粒（N-Mg）。这两种新型纳米材料展示了比相应的微米级材料远为优异的电化学性能。分别以G-MoS_2和N-Mg为正负极组装的镁二次电池取得了高达1.8V的工作电压和170mAh g~(-1)的可逆比容量，50次充放电循环后容量仍保持95%。借助理论模拟初步研究了G-MoS_2的储镁机制并解释了其性能优于块体二硫化钼的原因。突出的电池性能使得G-MoS_2N-Mg成为最成功的镁二次电池构型之一，表明合理的电极材料形貌调控将是设计高效镁二次电池的有效途径。
The limited resource and environment issues related to fossil fuels haveprompted the power generation by renewable energies. Solar energy is clean andinfinite, and solar electricity is expected to meet a considerable portion of globalpower desire. Among photovoltaic technologies, new-generation inexpensive onessuch as dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) have aroused world-wide research interests.While current high-efficiency DSCs are predominantly based on Ru complexes, pureorganic DSCs have provided noble metal-free alternatives with their efficienciespending for improvement. On the other hand, solar energy is known as intermittentand its non-stability has placed enormous demands on the grid system. Efficientenergy storage system is necessary for the future power generation from renewableenergies into the grid. Rechargeable lithium batteries, with their outstanding energydensities, are attractive candidates for such applications given that lower costs ofelectrode materials could be realized.
Towards cost-effective solar electrochemical conversion and storage, thisdissertation has dealt with three potentially low-cost electrochemical technologiesincluding DSCs, organic rechargeable lithium batteries and rechargeable magnesiumbatteries, with particular focus on the design of novel electrode materials. The mainresults and conclusions include
(1) The efficiency of a solar cell depends on short-circuit density, open-circuitvoltage (V_(OC)), and fill factor. While accomplishments have been made by moleculardesign of organic dyes to increase short-circuit densities of DSCs, studies on V_(OC)areby far less. In order to study the relationship between molecular structure of organicdyes and the V_(OC)of DSCs, a series of triphenylamine-based organic sensitizers wereengineered and compared. The origin of V_(OC)variance was exmined in terms ofband-edge movement of TiO_2conduction band (CB) and interfacial chargerecombination. Firstly, the influence of adsorption behavior was investigated. Thetwo dyes with cyanoacrylic acid as anchoring group (TC-dyes) adopt a standing adsorption mode and exert larger surface dipole potential on TiO_2than theircounterparts bearing rhodanine-3-acetic acid (TR-dyes) which lie along the surface.TR-dyes exhibit greater extent of charge recombination than TC-dyes because of thelow surface-blocking efficiency of the dye layer and the intimacy between theI_3~-bound dyes and TiO_2. Secondly, two ionic dyes (TI dyes) featuring a1,1-diphenylvinyl auxiliary electron donor and N-alkyl indolium carboxylic acidacceptors have been synthesized to investigate the generally low V_(OC)values DSCsbased on organic ionic dyes. TI dyes have shown much lower V_(OC)values than that ofnon-ionic ones, suffering from serious interfacial charge recombination anddownward shift of the TiO_2CB. Through combined experimental and computationalanalysis, it was concluded that the electronic distribution over ionic dye molecules isintrinsically not ideal for the construction of efficient sensitizers. Thirdly, introductionof rationally modified3,4-propylenedioxythiophene units into triphenylamine dyeswas found to enhance light capturing, suppress dye aggregation, and remarkablyretard charge recombination in dye-sensitized solar cells. V_(OC)values for these dyes(~800mV) are much higher than that for a thiophene congener (720mV) undersimilar conditions, as a result of self-passivation benefited from theirthree-dimensional branched structures.
(2) Organic carbonyl compounds are potentially low-cost andhigh-energy-density cathode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries, generaldesign rules of which are not yet established. By embedding pre-aromatic1,2-dicarbonyl moieties into extended conjugated systems, a series of organiccarbonyl-based molecular cathode materials integrating all known stabilizing factorsand enabling up to four-electron reduction were designed and synthesized.Remarkably, two new carbonyl electrodes, pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone and1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione, have delivered a reversible capacity of360mA h g~(-1)and an average working potential of2.74V, respectively, providing insights indesigning high-energy organic positive electrodes for energy storage. Theoreticalmodeling revealed that molecular orbital profiles and energetics can be applied for theprediction of carbonyl utilization and modulation of redox potentials. The influenceof heteroaromatic building blocks on the electrochemical behavior of organic electrode materials was further demonstrated in a systematic way. The structuralincorporation of heteroaromatics improves the cell performance of carbonyl-basedmolecular cathode materials in rechargeable lithium batteries in terms of specificgravimetric capacity, working potential, rate capability, and cyclability. In particular,benzofuro[5,6-b]furan-4,8-dione has achieved an energy density of up to539W hkg~(-1), a power density of up to3278W kg~(-1), and a capacity retention of86%after100discharge charge cycles. Functionalization with heteroaromatic structures, in parallelto various families of organic functional electronic materials, are therefore recognizedas a versatile strategy to improve the performance of organic electrodes.
(3) Layered chalcogenides are typical ion intercalation material but so faroperate moderately in rechargeable magnesium batteries. The passivation of metallicmagnesium in some electrolyte systems has also restricted the battery performance.With the advent of nanoengineering, highly exfoliated graphene-like MoS_2(G-MoS_2)was synthesized via solvo-thermal conditions with an average layer number of≤4,and ultrasmall magnesium nanoparticles (N-Mg) with an average diameter of2.5nmwere prepared through ionic liquid-assisted reduction. These two novel nanomaterialsshow significantly superior electrochemical performance to their micro-structuredcounterparts. Rechargeable magnesium batteries with G-MoS_2as cathode and N-Mgas anode were fabricated, showing a high working potential of1.8V and a reversiblespecific capacity of170mA h g~(-1), of which95%was preserved after50discharge charge cycles. The magnesium storage mechanism was preliminarilystudied by theoretical modeling, which explains the enhanced capacity of G-MoS_2over bulk MoS_2. These results highlight the G-MoS_2N-Mg combination as one ofthe most successful configurations for rechargeable magnesium batteries, and suggestthat rational morphological design of electrode materials should be a promisingpathway towards high performance magnesium batteries.
引文
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