国际海底资源分配与美国的政策选择
摘要
本文主要探讨国际海底资源的分配与美国的政策选择问题。国际公共资源分配制度可以分为市场型和权威型两种模式。前者强调资源开发的效率,后者关注资源分配的公平。在海底公共资源分配领域,这两种制度模式的演变决定了美国海底资源分配政策的调整和变化。
上个世纪40年代,为满足战后经济发展的需要,美国联邦政府单方面宣布开发近海石油资源,拉开了二战后海底资源利益纷争的序幕,各国对海底资源的利益诉求导致了世界海洋秩序的紊乱。第一次海洋法会议通过的《大陆架公约》以技术开发能力作为海底资源分配的标准,实际上确立了市场型的资源分配制度。美国在海底资源开发上拥有明显的技术与资本优势,也就决定了美国是这一海底资源分配制度的主要受益者和维护者。
1967年,联合国大会通过了阿维德·帕多(Avid Pardo)的一项提案,确立了“人类共同遗产”原则。原有的市场型资源分配制度受到了挑战。在国际社会的压力下,尼克松政府虽极力回避“人类共同遗产”原则,但也同意通过召开第三次海洋法会议解决海底问题,这就为海底资源分配制度的转型提供了可能。在“人类共同遗产”原则基础上,第三次海洋法会议最终确立了以国际海底管理局为中心的权威型资源分配制度,美国因此失去了海底资源分配的主导权。美国以公海自由原则为由拒绝批准《联合国海洋法公约》,在国内单方面制定了“深海底固体矿产资源法”。在国际上,美国在《海洋法公约》之外与其他发达国家签订“互惠国协定”,公开与国际海底资源开发制度相抗衡。
冷战结束后,在联合国秘书长的支持下,国际社会为修订公约中有关深海底采矿的条款共举行了两轮15次非正式磋商会议。联合国大会于1994年7月通过了《关于执行1982年12月10日<联合国海洋法公约>第十一部分的协定》。《执行协定》对海底管理局的决策程序、审查会议、技术转让、生产政策等一系列重大海底制度的内容都进行了修正,这一修正完成了海底开发由权威型向市场型的转变。1994年8月,美国正式签署《执行协定》,此举表明美国重新回到国际多边海底开发制度中来。
This article discusses the relationship between the allocation of seabed public resources and the United States's policy. Global public resources can be divided into two categories:market-oriented allocation and authority-dominated allocation. A market-oriented allocation institution is the one in which the allocation of resources is determined by the endowments and preferences of individual actors who have the rights to alienate their property according to their own estimations of their own best interests. Authority-dominated allocation involves directly or indirectly limiting the property rights of states and non-state actors by international political authorities. The former emphasizes efficiency of distribution, while the latter pays more attention to the equity of resource distribution. The transformation of these two institutions determines the adjustments and changes that are made by the United States on its seabed policy.
During the 1940s, the United States government unilaterally decided to explore the continental oil resources to meet the economic demands of post-World WarⅡ. Immediately, following the Truman Proclamation, more and more nation states started claiming seabed rights, which resulted into chaos of the ocean order. As the international response, the international society called on the first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Seas to define the continental shelf and the allocation of seabed resources. In 1958, the first UN Conference on the Law of the Seas established the exploitation criterion in Continental Shelf Convention, which formed the marker-oriented allocation institution. As the world's biggest developed nation, the United States mastered the technique and capitalizes on the advantages of seabed exploration and development, which stated that the United States becomes the major beneficiary and safe-guarder.
On August 17,1967, Ambassador Avid Pardo of Malta undertook an independent initiative which declared the use of the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction in the interests of mankind. The passage of Resolution 2340 in December, 1967 on the basis of Pardo Proposal was the first step of authoritative allocation, which formed a challenge to the former resource allocation. Under the pressure of international society, United States agreed to call on the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Seas (third UNCLOS) despite the US trying its best to avoid the term of "common heritage of mankind". The Third UNCLOS established the authority-dominated allocation institution at the center of International Sea-Bed Authority (ISBA). As a result, the United States lost her leading position in the distribution of seabed resources. In the 1980s, the United States refused to approve the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas on the grounds of the High Seas Freedom. The United States enacted the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resource Act initially as an internal arrangement in 1980 and externally signed the Reciprocating State treaties with other industrialized countries to confront openly the Development System of international seabed area.
From 1990 to 1994, through the support of the UN Secretary-General, the international society took the initiative to convene informal consultations to attempt to meet the objectives of the industrialized states. This resulted in the crafting of the Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the Untied Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas of 10 December 1982 (1994 Implementation Agreement). The 1994 Agreement substantially had modified the 1982 Convention in many provisions for instance decision-making, review conference, mandatory transfer of technology and production limitation. Those modifications completed the transformation from authoritative allocation to market-oriented allocation, which accommodated the objectives of the United States to the deep seabed mining provisions of the Law of the Seas Convention. In 1994, the United States returned to the international multilateral seabed development system by signing the new Agreement.
上个世纪40年代,为满足战后经济发展的需要,美国联邦政府单方面宣布开发近海石油资源,拉开了二战后海底资源利益纷争的序幕,各国对海底资源的利益诉求导致了世界海洋秩序的紊乱。第一次海洋法会议通过的《大陆架公约》以技术开发能力作为海底资源分配的标准,实际上确立了市场型的资源分配制度。美国在海底资源开发上拥有明显的技术与资本优势,也就决定了美国是这一海底资源分配制度的主要受益者和维护者。
1967年,联合国大会通过了阿维德·帕多(Avid Pardo)的一项提案,确立了“人类共同遗产”原则。原有的市场型资源分配制度受到了挑战。在国际社会的压力下,尼克松政府虽极力回避“人类共同遗产”原则,但也同意通过召开第三次海洋法会议解决海底问题,这就为海底资源分配制度的转型提供了可能。在“人类共同遗产”原则基础上,第三次海洋法会议最终确立了以国际海底管理局为中心的权威型资源分配制度,美国因此失去了海底资源分配的主导权。美国以公海自由原则为由拒绝批准《联合国海洋法公约》,在国内单方面制定了“深海底固体矿产资源法”。在国际上,美国在《海洋法公约》之外与其他发达国家签订“互惠国协定”,公开与国际海底资源开发制度相抗衡。
冷战结束后,在联合国秘书长的支持下,国际社会为修订公约中有关深海底采矿的条款共举行了两轮15次非正式磋商会议。联合国大会于1994年7月通过了《关于执行1982年12月10日<联合国海洋法公约>第十一部分的协定》。《执行协定》对海底管理局的决策程序、审查会议、技术转让、生产政策等一系列重大海底制度的内容都进行了修正,这一修正完成了海底开发由权威型向市场型的转变。1994年8月,美国正式签署《执行协定》,此举表明美国重新回到国际多边海底开发制度中来。
This article discusses the relationship between the allocation of seabed public resources and the United States's policy. Global public resources can be divided into two categories:market-oriented allocation and authority-dominated allocation. A market-oriented allocation institution is the one in which the allocation of resources is determined by the endowments and preferences of individual actors who have the rights to alienate their property according to their own estimations of their own best interests. Authority-dominated allocation involves directly or indirectly limiting the property rights of states and non-state actors by international political authorities. The former emphasizes efficiency of distribution, while the latter pays more attention to the equity of resource distribution. The transformation of these two institutions determines the adjustments and changes that are made by the United States on its seabed policy.
During the 1940s, the United States government unilaterally decided to explore the continental oil resources to meet the economic demands of post-World WarⅡ. Immediately, following the Truman Proclamation, more and more nation states started claiming seabed rights, which resulted into chaos of the ocean order. As the international response, the international society called on the first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Seas to define the continental shelf and the allocation of seabed resources. In 1958, the first UN Conference on the Law of the Seas established the exploitation criterion in Continental Shelf Convention, which formed the marker-oriented allocation institution. As the world's biggest developed nation, the United States mastered the technique and capitalizes on the advantages of seabed exploration and development, which stated that the United States becomes the major beneficiary and safe-guarder.
On August 17,1967, Ambassador Avid Pardo of Malta undertook an independent initiative which declared the use of the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction in the interests of mankind. The passage of Resolution 2340 in December, 1967 on the basis of Pardo Proposal was the first step of authoritative allocation, which formed a challenge to the former resource allocation. Under the pressure of international society, United States agreed to call on the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Seas (third UNCLOS) despite the US trying its best to avoid the term of "common heritage of mankind". The Third UNCLOS established the authority-dominated allocation institution at the center of International Sea-Bed Authority (ISBA). As a result, the United States lost her leading position in the distribution of seabed resources. In the 1980s, the United States refused to approve the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas on the grounds of the High Seas Freedom. The United States enacted the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resource Act initially as an internal arrangement in 1980 and externally signed the Reciprocating State treaties with other industrialized countries to confront openly the Development System of international seabed area.
From 1990 to 1994, through the support of the UN Secretary-General, the international society took the initiative to convene informal consultations to attempt to meet the objectives of the industrialized states. This resulted in the crafting of the Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the Untied Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas of 10 December 1982 (1994 Implementation Agreement). The 1994 Agreement substantially had modified the 1982 Convention in many provisions for instance decision-making, review conference, mandatory transfer of technology and production limitation. Those modifications completed the transformation from authoritative allocation to market-oriented allocation, which accommodated the objectives of the United States to the deep seabed mining provisions of the Law of the Seas Convention. In 1994, the United States returned to the international multilateral seabed development system by signing the new Agreement.
引文
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53 [美]约瑟夫·奈,约翰·唐纳胡主编.全球化世界的治理[C].王勇,门洪华等译,北京：l廿=界知识出版社,2003：260.
54 Hinsley F.H., Power and the Pursuit of Peace, Cambridge:Cambridge University,1963, p.161.
55 Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict:The Third World against Global Liberalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1985, p.74.
56 Soroos Marivn, The Commons in the Sky:The Radio spectrum and Geosynchronous Orbits as Issues in Global Policy, International Organization, vol.36, No.3, Summer 1982, p.674; Wijkman Magnus, Managing the Global Commons, International Organization, Vol.36, No.3, Summer 1982, p.535.
57 New York Times, May 3,1982, p.3.
58 [英]爱德华·卡尔.20年危机(1919-1939)：国际关系研究导论[M].秦亚青译,北京：世界知识出版社,2005：190.
59 Robert Dahl, "The Concept of Power," Behavioral Science, vol.2, No.3, July 1957, pp.202-203.
60 A.W. Sijthoff-Leyden, Legal Regime of the Sea-bed and the Developing Countries, New Delhi(India):Tomson Press,1976, pp.19-22.
61 A.W. Sijthoff-Leyden, Legal Regime of the Sea-bed and the Developing Countries, New Delhi(India):Tomson Press,1976, pp.24-26.
62 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, April 1974", FRUS1969-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
63 P. Fauchile, Iraite de droit International Public, Vol.1, Paris:Roussean & Cie,1925, p.19.
64 [英]劳特派特修订.奥本海国际法[M].上卷,第二分册,石蒂、陈健译,北京：商务印书馆,1972： 154.
65 魏敏主编.海洋法[M].北京：法律出版社,1978：7-10.
1 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.11.
2 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, n.12.
3 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.2.
4 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, April 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
5 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].门洪华译,北京：北京大学出版 社,2002：99.
6 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982：244.
7 1937年2月,在美日渔业争端谈判期间,阿拉斯加钻石代表团(Delegation Diamond of Alaska)在众议院提出了钻石法案,要求禁止外国渔民在美国大陆架附近捕鱼,授权联邦政府没收外来非法渔船的权利,这一法案在国务卿科德尔·赫尔(Cordell Hull)劝阻下没有生效。
8 Leonard M. Fanning, Ed., Our Resources, New York:McGraw-Hill,1945, pp.123-124.
9 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].门洪华译,北京：北京大学出版社,2002：99.
10 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982:248.
11 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, pp.7-8.
12 Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed, A New International Issue, London:Heinemann,1974, p.36.
13 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.24.
14 国际法委员会是联合国在1947年建立的。它由15名成员组成,具体任务主要是负责草拟和讨论各种国际法、公约的制定,最后提交联合国通过并生效。
15 Herbert W. Briggs, The International Law Commission, Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1965.
16 等深线(isobath):在海洋或湖泊中,相同深度的各点连结成封闭曲线,按比例缩小后垂直投影到平面上,所形成的曲线,称为等深线。在同一条等深线上各点深度相等。在地形图上,等深线可表示海洋或湖泊的深度,海底或湖底地形的起伏。在等深线上标注的数字为该等深线距海平面的距离。
17 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.20.
18 ILC Report for 1951, United Nations A/1858, pp.17-20, Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.20
19 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975 p.37.
20 ILC Report for 1951, United Nations A/1858, pp.17-20. Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y. Praeger Publishers,1976, p.22.
21 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S.Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,197 p.38.
22 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Right:Developing U.S.Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.39.
23 1956年3月泛美组织国家在多米尼加共和国特鲁希城举行大陆架及海洋资源养护特别会议,会议不满意国际法委员会1953年建议的“200米等深线”界限,认为超过这一界限只要上覆水深容许开发的海床和底土,就属于沿海国家并受该国的管辖和控制。这一会议为大陆架界限的发展演变增添了一个曲折。
24 Resolution 899(ⅠⅩ) of December 14,1954, Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, pp.22-23.
25 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.15.
26 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982：46.
27 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.39.
28 Doc.A/CONF.13/C.4/L.1.
29 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.41.
30 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, pp.52-53.
31 Marjorie M. Whiteman, "Conference on the Law of the Sea Convention on the Continental Shelf," American Journal of International Law, No.4,1958, p.637.
32 《大陆架公约》第二条第4款。
33 《大陆架公约》第二条第3款。
34 Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed, A New International Issue, London:Heinemann,1974, pp.39-40.
35 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.45
36 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.24.
37 Harold Ickes, "Underwater Wealth", Collier's, February 23,1946, p.20.
38 即国防部的前身。
39 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, pp.46-47.
40 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.47.
41 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982年第254页。
42 "Letter From the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Nitze) to Secretary of State(Rusk), January 6, 1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.332.
43 Oil and Gas Journal, May 12,1969, p.105.
44 Proceedings of the fourth Annual Congerence of the Law of the Sea Institute, Kingston: University of Rhode Island,1970, p.281.
45 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, pp.50-51.
1 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.53.
2 Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict:The Third World against Global Liberalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1985, p.74.
3 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, April 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
4 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics,61.
5 Edward A. Gullion, ed., Use of the Seas, N.J.:Prentice Hall,1968, p.167.
6 M. D Shulman, The Soviet Turn to the Sea, quoted from Edward A. Gullion ed., Use of the Seas, N.J.:Prentice Hall.1968. pp.145-146.
7 Barrv Buzan. Seabed Politics, p.57.
8 Mina Mashaveki, The Present Legal Status of Deep Sea Bed Mining, Journal of World Trade Law, Vol.19,1985, p.236.
9 Shigeru Oda, The Law of the Sea in Our Time, New Development, Vol. I,1966-1975, pp.13-14
10 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.82.
11 U.N. Doc. A/6695XXII, December 18,1967.
12 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency. Washington, April 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
13 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, p.68.
14 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2340 (ⅩⅩⅡ), Dec 18,1967.
15 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.72.
16 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2467A. Dec 21.1968.
17 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.75.
18 Luard Evan, The Control of the Sea-bed:Who Owns the Resources of the Ocean, London: Heinemann,1974, pp.94-95. 19 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, pp.75-76.
20 Nigel Calder, Unless Peace Comes:a Scientific Forecast of New Weapons, New York:Viking Press,1968, p.117.
21 "Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, February 5,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.63.
22 Doc.A/AC.138/12.
23 Evan Luand, The Control of the Sea-bed:Who Owns the Resources of the Oceans? London: Heinemann,1974, p.139-142.
24 赵理海.“人类共同继承财产”是当代国际法的一项重要原则[J].当代国际法问题,中国法制出版社,1993：264～265.
25 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2750 (ⅩⅩⅤ), Dec 17,1970.
26 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.97.
27 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1983, pp.97-98.
28 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1983, p.98.
29 National Petroleum Council, Petroleum Resources under the Ocean Floor, March 1969, pp.55-78, Laursen Finn. Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1983, pp.53-54.
30 Hollick Ann L., United States Oceans Politics, San Diego Law, Vol.10, No.3, pp.467-501. Hollick Ann L., U.S. Foreign Policy and the Law of the Sea, Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1981, p.263.
31 金永明.国际海底区域的法律地位与资源开发制度研究[D].上海：华东政法学院,2005： 121.
32 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1983, pp.55-56.
33 赵理海.海洋法问题研究[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：111.
34 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed, first session of 93rd Congress, S.1134 p.517, Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.99.
35 Lee Wei-Chin, Sovereignty and the Law of the Sea:A Comparison Between United States and The People's Republic of China, University of Oregon, Ph.D.,1986, p.139.
36 R. Sweeney, R. Tollinson, T. Willett, Market Failure, The Common-Pool Problem and Ocean Resource Exploitation, Journal of Law and Economics, Vol.17, No.2, April 1974, pp.143-178.
37 George A. Doumani, Science, Technology, and American Diplomacy, Exploiting the Resources of the Seabed, Prepared for the Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific Development of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, July 1971, pp.61-63.
38 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S.Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.24.
39 Federal Records Center, "Letter of Morris to Secretary Udall, May 2,1962," Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.68. 40 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.69.
41 House Appropriations Committee, Subcommittee on the Department of Defense, "Department of Defense Appropriations for 1960", Congressional Report,88th congress,1st session, Part 1, Washington:U.S. Government Printing Office,1960, pp.757-758.
Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.70.
43 Nigel Calder, Unless Peace Comes:a Scientific Forecast of New Weapons, New York:Viking Press,1968, p.117.
44 "Letter From the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatric) to Under Secretary of State (Bowles), May 25,1961", FRUS,1961～1963, Vol. ⅩⅩⅤ, Law of the Sea, Doc.490, available at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/ⅩⅩⅤ/6029.htm.
45 "Letter from the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Nitze) to Rusk, January 6,1969", FRUS, 1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.332.
46 "Memorandum from Laird to Kissinger, July 1,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.343.
47 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.97.
48 "Letter From the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Nitze) to Secretary of State(Rusk), January 6, 1969", FRUS,1969-1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.332.
49 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.68.
Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed:A New International Issue, London:Morrison & Gibb Limited,1974, pp.83-90.
51 Barrv Buzan. Seabed Politics, p.105.
52 Our Nation and the Sea:A Plan for National Action, Report of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, January 1976, pp.155-157.转引自金永明.国际海底区域的法律地位与资源开发制度研究[D].上海：华东政法学院,2005：122.
53 "Memorandum from Rogers to Kissinger, July 9,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.346.
54 "Memorandum from Aldrich to Johnson, May 29,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.340.
55 "Letter from Johnson to Members of the Committee on International Policy in the Marine Environment, August 11,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.353.
56 "Memorandum From Robert Osgood of the National Security Council Staff to Kissinger, June 12,1969",FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.341.
BarryBuzan, Seabed Politics, p.96.
58 "Airgram CA-5062 From the Department of State to the Mission of the United Nations, September 30,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.382.
59 "Memorandum from F. Allen Harris to Department of State, December 2,1969", FRUS, 1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.359.
60 "Memorandum from Robert Osgood to Kissinger, January 20,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.363.
61 "Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, May 8,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.373.
62 "National Security Decision Memorandum 62, Washington, May 22,1970", FRUS,1969～ 1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.375.
63 "Statement Issued by President Nixon, Washington, May 23,1970", FRUS,1969 ～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.376.
64 "Statement Issued by President Nixon, May 23,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.376.
65 BarrvBuzan. Seabed Politics, p.105.
66 U.N.General Assembly Resolution 2574 (ⅩⅩⅩⅣ), Dec 15,1969.
67 "Memorandum from the Legal Adviser of the Department of State (Stevenson) to Rogers, July 29,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.379.
68 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea, N. Y.:Praeger Publishers,1983, p.38.
69 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.119.
70 Doc. A/AC.138/SR.34, p.64.
71 Doc. A/AC.138/SR.35, p.72.
72 Doc. A/AC.138/SR.46, pp.20-21.
73 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics,p.101. 74 "Memorandum From Rogers to Kissinger, July 9,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1,
Chapter 6, Doc.346.
75 "Memorandum From Rogers to Kissinger, July 9,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.385.
1 "Circular Airgram CA-2554 From the Department of State to All Diplomatic Posts, Washington, May 28,1971", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.393.
2 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, pp.166-167.
3 "Airgram CA-5062 From the Department of State to the Mission to the United Nations, September 30,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.382.
4 "Circular Airgram CA-2554 From the Department of State to All Diplomatic Posts, Washington, May 28,1971", FRUS,1969-1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.393.
5 "National Security Decision Memorandum 122, Washington, July 22,1971", FRUS,1969～ 1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.405.
6 "National Security Decision Memorandum 157, Washington, March 13,1972", FRUS,1969～ 1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.424.
7 Business Week, June 16,1973.
8 "Airgram CA-5062 From the Department of State to the Mission to the United Nations, September 30,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.382.
9 "Memorandum Prepared by the Chairman of the Inter-Agency Task Force on the Law of the Sea (Stevenson), undated", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.412.
10 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed,93rd Congress, first session on S.1134, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1971, pp.2-14.
11 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed,93rd Congress, first session on S.1134, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1971,pp.232-233.
12 U.S. Senate, The Law of the Sea Crisis, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Offic 1972, p.10.
13 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed,93rd Congress, first session on S.1134, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1971, p.230.
14 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.212.
15 Benhalilou Faycal, The Emerging Law of the Deep Seabed beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction, University of Miami,1985, p.122.
16 Doc. A/CONE.62/6 and Doc. A/CONE.62/7.
17 联合国新闻署.《联合国海洋法公约》评介[F].高之国译,北京：海洋出版社,1986：11.
18 赵理海.海洋法的新发展[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1984：145～146.
19 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.226.
20 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea:Official Records, Vol.2,1975, p.74.
21 "Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Ford, Washington, July 8,1975", FRUS,1973-1976, Doc.19.
22 "Telegram 85109 From the Department of State to All Diplomatic Posts, April 8,1976", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.27.
23 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：420.
24 "Minutes of the Acting Secretary of State's Analytical Staff Meeting, Washington, June 17 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.13.
23 "Telegram 3788 from the Mission to the United Nations to the Department of State, September 17,1976", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.49.
26 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：421.
27 Edward L. Miles, Global Ocean Politics:the Decision Process at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,1973-1982, the Hague/Boston/London:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1998, pp.283-286.
28 Edward L. Miles, Global Ocean Politics:the Decision Process at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,1973-1982, the Hague/Boston/London:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1998, p.338.
29 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Volume XVI, Eleventh Session, New York,8 March-30 April,1982, p.154.
30 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 136.
31 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 133.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 137.
33 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 135.
34 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex ⅢIII, Article 8.
35 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 150.
36 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 150.
37 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 151.
38 计算镍最高生产限额所用的曲线数值应为发给生产许可的年度中计算的曲线图的镍年消费量数值。曲线图应从能够取得数据的最近十五年期间的实际镍消费量,取其对数值,以时间为自变量,用线性回归法导出。这一曲线称为原曲线。如果全球镍消费量的原曲线年增长率少于百分之三,则以百分之三的曲线作为计算最高生产限额的下限。
39 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 151.
40 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 144.
41 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex Ⅲ, Article 5.
42 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex Ⅲ, Article 6(c).
43 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 154.
44 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 155, para.1.
45 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 155, para.4.
46 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 164.
47 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 165.
48 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex IV, Article 1-6.
49 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex IV, Article 11.
50 "Memorandum NSC-U/DM-109B From the Chairman of the National Security Council Under Secretaries Committee (Rush) to President Nixon, Washington, May 14,1974", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.12.
51 "Memorandum NSC-U/DM-109B From the Chairman of the National Security Council Under Secretaries Committee (Rush) to President Nixon, Washington, May 14,1974", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.12.
52 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Vol.2,1975, p.74
53 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.227.
54 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Vol.2,1975, pp.101-106.
55 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, pp.100-101.
56 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：421.
57 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, pp.110-111.
58 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, pp.112-113.
Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, p.117.
60 刘书剑译.外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法[M].北京：法律出版社,1986：1-10.
61 刘书剑译.外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法[M].北京：法律出版社,1986：2.
62 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, p.136.
63 Statement by the Special Representative of the President, New York Times, Jan.23,1982, quoted from Bernard H. Oxman, the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, American Journal of International Law, Vol.76, Jan.1982, pp.1-23.
64 赵理海.海洋法问题研究[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：137.
65 Statement by the President, New York Times, Feb.21,1983. Myron H. Nordquist, Choon-ho Park, ed., Reports of the United States Delegation to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Honolulu:University of Hawaii,1983, pp.554-555. Also in Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, p.143.
66 Ambassador Malone's Statement, February 23,1982, quoted from Myron H. Nordquist, Choon-ho Park, ed., Reports of the United States Delegation to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Honolulu:University of Hawaii,1983, pp.556-562.
67 President's Statement, July 9,1982, Department of State Bulletin 82, August 1982, quoted from Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, p.148.
68 US statement made in Plenary, April 30,1982, quoted from Myron H. Nordquist, Choon-ho Park, ed., Reports of the United States Delegation to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Honolulu:University of Hawaii,1983, pp.594-597.
69 立法前勘探者,系指在任何协定国最早一个颁发国内立法之日以前已经从事深海底多金属结核矿的勘探,并对中请区域进行过大量的调查活动的实体。
70 Agreement Concerning Interim Arrangements Relating to Polymetallic Nodules of the Deep Sea-bed, available at:www.imli.org/legal_docs/docs/A133参考：刘书剑译.外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法[M].北京：法律出版社,1986：103-111.
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72 李红云.国际海底与国际法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：25-26.
73 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex Ⅱ, Resolution Ⅱ, para.1-5.
74 刘书剑译：《外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法》,北京：法律出版社,1986年,第112-115页。
75 Markus G. Schmidt, Common Heritage or Common Burdon:the United States Position on the Development of a Regime for Deep Sea-Bed Mining in the Law of the Sea Convention, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1989, p.281-283.
76 李红云.国际海底与国际法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：65.
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23 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 2, para.l.
24 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 2, para.2.
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42 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 1, para.15(b).
43 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 1, para.15(c).
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2 到2001年已有34个国家提出了外大陆架划界中请,到2009年5月13日,这一数字上升到50个。
3 Doc. ISBA/16/A/6参见金建才,毛彬主编： 《国际海底管理局十年》,北京：海洋出版社,2005：125.
4 [美]彼得·卡赞斯坦,罗伯特·基欧汉,斯蒂芬·克拉斯纳编.世界政治理论的探索与争鸣[M].秦亚青等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：7.
5 Robert Keohane, International Institutions:Two approaches, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.4, De ,1988, pp.376-379; Robert O. Keohane, International Institutions and State Power:Essays on International Relations Theory, Boulder:Westview Press,1989, p.3-4.
6 Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1996, p.12.
7 [美]罗伯特·基欧汉,海伦·米尔纳主编.国际化与国内政治[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2003：16-22.
8 [美]罗伯特·基欧汉,海伦·米尔纳主编.国际化与国内政治[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2003：16-22页.
9 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982.
10 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.49.
11 Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed:A New International Issue, London:Morrison & Gibb Limited.1974.
12 Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed:Who Owns the Resources of the Ocean, London: Heinemann.1974.
13 Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy:Understanding the International Economic Order, N.J.:Princeton University Press,2001; Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Beijing: Peking University Press,2005.
14 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.55.
15 A.W. Sijthoff-Leyden, Legal Regime of the Sea-bed and the Developing Countries, New Delhi(India):Tomson Press,1976.
16 王逸舟.《联合国海洋法公约》与国际关系[J],海洋开发与管理,1996：37-39.
17 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].门洪华译,北京：北京大学出版社,2002：52.
18 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].门洪华译,北京：北京大学出版社,2002：151-154.
19 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, Praeger, N.Y:Praeger Publishers, 1975.
20 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983.
21 Graham T. Allison, Philip Zelikow, Essence of Decision:Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis, Beijing:Peking University Press,2008.
22 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983.
23 [美]詹姆斯·多尔蒂等著.争论中的国际关系理论[M].阎学通等译,北京：世界知识出版社,2003： 94.
24 [美]约翰·伊肯伯里主编.美国无敌：均势的未来[M].韩召颖译,北京：北京大学出版社,2005；Keohane Robert, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, N.J.:Princeton University Press,1984.Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers:Economics Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, N.Y.:Random House,1987; Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy:Understanding the International Economic Order, N.J.:Princeton University Press,2001; Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Beijing: Peking University Press,2005; Joseph S. Nye, Recovering American Leadership, Survival, Vol.50, No.1.2008.
25 Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict:The Third World against Global Liberalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1985.
26 Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, New Series, Vol.162, No.3859, Dec. 13,1968, pp.1243-1248; Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society:A Study of Order in World Politics, N.Y.:Columbia University Press,1977, p.13.
1 Robert Keohane, International Institutions and State Power:Essays on International Relations Theory, Boulder:Westview,1989, pp.3-4.
2 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2002：3.
3 苏长和.全球公共问题与国际合作：一种制度的分析[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2000：112.
4 Charles P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression,1929-1933, London:The Penguin Press, 1973, p25-30.
5 [英]昂内尔·罗宾斯.经济科学的性质和意义[M].北京：商务印书馆,2000： 16-20.
6 Barry Hughes, Continuity and Change in World Politics:the Clash of Perspectives, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., p.251-255.
7John H. Makin, Donald C. Hellmen, Sharing World Leadership? A New Era for America and Japan, Washington D.C.:American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research,1989, pp.29-31.
8 Magnus Wijkman, Managing the Global Commons, International Organization, Vol.36, No.3, Summer,1982, pp.511-536
9 [美]埃里克·弗鲁伯顿,[德]鲁道夫·芮切特.新制度经济学：一个交易费用的分析范式[M].姜建强等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：54-55.
10 [美]爱伦·斯密德.财产、权力和公共选择：对法和经济学的进一步思考[M].黄祖辉等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：136.
11 [美]埃里克·弗鲁伯顿,[德]鲁道夫·芮切特.新制度经济学：一个交易费用的分析范式[M].姜建强等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：1.
12 Coase R.H., The Nature of the Firm, Economica, New Series, Vol.4, No.16, Nov.,1937, pp. 386-405; Coase R.H., The Problem of Social Cost, Journal of Law and Economics, Vol.3, Oct., 1960, pp.1-44
13 [美]埃里克·弗鲁伯顿,[德]鲁道夫·芮切特.新制度经济学：一个交易费用的分析范式[M].姜建强等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：6.
14 [美]道格拉斯·诺斯.经济史上的结构和变迁[M].厉以平译,北京：商务印书馆,2007：9.
15 [美]埃里克·弗鲁伯顿,[德]鲁道夫·芮切特.新制度经济学：一个交易费用的分析范式[M].姜建强等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：1.
16 [美]乔治·斯蒂格勒.价格理论[M].施仁译,北京：北京经济学院出版社,1990年：125.
17 [美]罗纳德·科斯.生产的制度结构[J].经济社会体制比较,1992,3:56-60. Ronald Coase, The New Institutional Economics, The American Economic Review, Vol.88, No.2, May,1998, pp. 72-74; R. H. Coase, The Nature of the Firm:Origin, Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, Vol.4, No.1, Spring,1988, pp.3-17; R. H. Coase, The Nature of the Firm: Meaning, Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, Vol.4, No.1, Spring,1988, pp.19-32; R. H. Coase, The Nature of the Firm:Influence, Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, Vol. 4, No.1, Spring,1988, pp.33-47.
18 [美]道格拉斯·诺斯.经济史上的结构和变迁[M].厉以平译,北京：商务印书馆,2007：11.
19 [美]道格拉斯·诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].杭行译,上海：上海人民出版社,2008：81-82.
20 R.科斯,A.阿尔钦,D.诺斯.财产权利和制度变迁——产权学派与新制度学派论文集[C].上海：三联书店,1994： 329.
21 [美]道格拉斯·诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].杭行译,上海：上海人民出版社,2008：3.
22 [美]道格拉斯·诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].杭行译,上海：上海人民出版社,2008：5-6.
23 Robert Keohane, International Institutions:Can Interdependence Work? Foreign Policy, Spring 1998, p.83.
24 Stephen D. Kransner, ed., International Regimes, Beijing:Peking University,2005, p.2.
25 Robert Keohane, International Institutions:Two approaches, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.32, No.4, Dec,1988, pp.376-379.
26 Robert Keohane, International Institutions and State Power:Essays on International Relations Theory, Boulder:Westview,1989, pp.3-4.
27 Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict:The Third World against Global Liberalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1985, p.5.
28 [美]罗伯特·基尔平.全球政治经济学：解读国际经济秩序[M].杨宇光等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：48.
29 Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, New Series, Vol.162, No.3859, Dec. 13,1968, pp.1243-1248;[美]文森特·奥斯特罗姆编.制度分析与发展的反思[C].北京：商务印书馆,1996：89.
30 Robert Keohane, Governance in a Partially Globalized World, American Political Science Review, Vol.95, No.1, Mar.,2001, pp.1-13.
31 Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy:Understanding the International Economic Order N.J.:Princeton University Press,2001, p.8.
32 [美]约瑟夫·格里科,约翰·伊肯伯里.国家权力与世界市场：国际政治经济学[M].王展鹏译,北京：北京大学出版社,2008：109-178.
33 [瑞士]布鲁诺·弗雷.国际政治经济学[M].吴元湛泽,重庆：重庆出版社,1987：109.
34 John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, N.Y.:Norton,2001, p.55.
35 Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Beijing:Peking University Press,2005 p.225.
36 Josson Christer, Sphere of Flying:The Politics of International Aviation, International Organization, Vol.35, No.2, Spring,1981, pp.278-279.
37 [美]埃里克·弗鲁伯顿,[德]鲁道夫·芮切特.新制度经济学：一个交易费用的分析范式[M].姜建强等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：348页.
38 [美]罗伯特·基尔平.全球政治经济学：解读国际经济秩序[M].杨宇光等译,上海：上海人民出版社,2006：71.
39 [美]赫尔曼·施瓦茨.国家与市场：全球经济的兴起[M].徐佳译,南京：江苏人民出版社,2008：54.
40 [美]斯坦利·霍夫曼.当代国际关系理论[M].林伟成等译,北京：中国社会科学出版社,1990：3.
41 Charles P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression,1929-1933, London:The Penguin Press, 1973, p.305.
42 Robert Keohane, After Hegemony:Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1984, pp.33-34.
43 Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State:The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996, p.161.
44 Susan Strange, The Retreat of the Stat:The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996, p.162.
45 Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth Simmons, Handbook of International Relatio London:Sage Publications,2002, pp.100-101.
46 Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society——A Study of Order in Would Politics, N.Y.:Columbia University Press,1977, pp.15-16.
47 Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Beijing:Peking University Press,2005, p.34.
48 Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, Beijing:Peking University Press,2005, p.28.
49 Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1996, p.12.
50 [美]迈克尔·巴尼特,玛莎·芬尼莫尔.为世界定规则：全球政治中的国际组织[M].薄燕译,上海：上海人民出版社,2009：1.
51 [美]迈克尔·巴尼特,玛莎·芬尼莫尔.为世界定规则：全球政治中的国际组织[M].薄燕译,上海：上海人民出版社,2009：32-33.
52 Robert A. Klein, Sovereign Equality among States:The History of an Idea, Toronto:University of Toronto,1974, pp.46-49.
53 [美]约瑟夫·奈,约翰·唐纳胡主编.全球化世界的治理[C].王勇,门洪华等译,北京：l廿=界知识出版社,2003：260.
54 Hinsley F.H., Power and the Pursuit of Peace, Cambridge:Cambridge University,1963, p.161.
55 Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict:The Third World against Global Liberalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1985, p.74.
56 Soroos Marivn, The Commons in the Sky:The Radio spectrum and Geosynchronous Orbits as Issues in Global Policy, International Organization, vol.36, No.3, Summer 1982, p.674; Wijkman Magnus, Managing the Global Commons, International Organization, Vol.36, No.3, Summer 1982, p.535.
57 New York Times, May 3,1982, p.3.
58 [英]爱德华·卡尔.20年危机(1919-1939)：国际关系研究导论[M].秦亚青译,北京：世界知识出版社,2005：190.
59 Robert Dahl, "The Concept of Power," Behavioral Science, vol.2, No.3, July 1957, pp.202-203.
60 A.W. Sijthoff-Leyden, Legal Regime of the Sea-bed and the Developing Countries, New Delhi(India):Tomson Press,1976, pp.19-22.
61 A.W. Sijthoff-Leyden, Legal Regime of the Sea-bed and the Developing Countries, New Delhi(India):Tomson Press,1976, pp.24-26.
62 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, April 1974", FRUS1969-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
63 P. Fauchile, Iraite de droit International Public, Vol.1, Paris:Roussean & Cie,1925, p.19.
64 [英]劳特派特修订.奥本海国际法[M].上卷,第二分册,石蒂、陈健译,北京：商务印书馆,1972： 154.
65 魏敏主编.海洋法[M].北京：法律出版社,1978：7-10.
1 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.11.
2 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, n.12.
3 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.2.
4 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, April 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
5 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].门洪华译,北京：北京大学出版 社,2002：99.
6 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982：244.
7 1937年2月,在美日渔业争端谈判期间,阿拉斯加钻石代表团(Delegation Diamond of Alaska)在众议院提出了钻石法案,要求禁止外国渔民在美国大陆架附近捕鱼,授权联邦政府没收外来非法渔船的权利,这一法案在国务卿科德尔·赫尔(Cordell Hull)劝阻下没有生效。
8 Leonard M. Fanning, Ed., Our Resources, New York:McGraw-Hill,1945, pp.123-124.
9 [美]约瑟夫·奈,罗伯特·基欧汉.权力与相互依赖[M].门洪华译,北京：北京大学出版社,2002：99.
10 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982:248.
11 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, pp.7-8.
12 Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed, A New International Issue, London:Heinemann,1974, p.36.
13 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.24.
14 国际法委员会是联合国在1947年建立的。它由15名成员组成,具体任务主要是负责草拟和讨论各种国际法、公约的制定,最后提交联合国通过并生效。
15 Herbert W. Briggs, The International Law Commission, Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1965.
16 等深线(isobath):在海洋或湖泊中,相同深度的各点连结成封闭曲线,按比例缩小后垂直投影到平面上,所形成的曲线,称为等深线。在同一条等深线上各点深度相等。在地形图上,等深线可表示海洋或湖泊的深度,海底或湖底地形的起伏。在等深线上标注的数字为该等深线距海平面的距离。
17 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.20.
18 ILC Report for 1951, United Nations A/1858, pp.17-20, Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.20
19 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975 p.37.
20 ILC Report for 1951, United Nations A/1858, pp.17-20. Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y. Praeger Publishers,1976, p.22.
21 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S.Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,197 p.38.
22 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Right:Developing U.S.Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.39.
23 1956年3月泛美组织国家在多米尼加共和国特鲁希城举行大陆架及海洋资源养护特别会议,会议不满意国际法委员会1953年建议的“200米等深线”界限,认为超过这一界限只要上覆水深容许开发的海床和底土,就属于沿海国家并受该国的管辖和控制。这一会议为大陆架界限的发展演变增添了一个曲折。
24 Resolution 899(ⅠⅩ) of December 14,1954, Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, pp.22-23.
25 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.15.
26 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982：46.
27 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.39.
28 Doc.A/CONF.13/C.4/L.1.
29 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.41.
30 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, pp.52-53.
31 Marjorie M. Whiteman, "Conference on the Law of the Sea Convention on the Continental Shelf," American Journal of International Law, No.4,1958, p.637.
32 《大陆架公约》第二条第4款。
33 《大陆架公约》第二条第3款。
34 Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed, A New International Issue, London:Heinemann,1974, pp.39-40.
35 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.45
36 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.24.
37 Harold Ickes, "Underwater Wealth", Collier's, February 23,1946, p.20.
38 即国防部的前身。
39 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, pp.46-47.
40 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.47.
41 [美]杰拉尔德·丁·曼贡.美国海洋政策[M].张继先译,北京：海洋出版社,1982年第254页。
42 "Letter From the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Nitze) to Secretary of State(Rusk), January 6, 1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.332.
43 Oil and Gas Journal, May 12,1969, p.105.
44 Proceedings of the fourth Annual Congerence of the Law of the Sea Institute, Kingston: University of Rhode Island,1970, p.281.
45 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, pp.50-51.
1 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.53.
2 Stephen D. Krasner, Structural Conflict:The Third World against Global Liberalism, Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1985, p.74.
3 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency, Washington, April 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
4 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics,61.
5 Edward A. Gullion, ed., Use of the Seas, N.J.:Prentice Hall,1968, p.167.
6 M. D Shulman, The Soviet Turn to the Sea, quoted from Edward A. Gullion ed., Use of the Seas, N.J.:Prentice Hall.1968. pp.145-146.
7 Barrv Buzan. Seabed Politics, p.57.
8 Mina Mashaveki, The Present Legal Status of Deep Sea Bed Mining, Journal of World Trade Law, Vol.19,1985, p.236.
9 Shigeru Oda, The Law of the Sea in Our Time, New Development, Vol. I,1966-1975, pp.13-14
10 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.82.
11 U.N. Doc. A/6695XXII, December 18,1967.
12 "Analytical Study OPR-3 Prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency. Washington, April 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.11.
13 Buzan Barry, Seabed Politics, p.68.
14 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2340 (ⅩⅩⅡ), Dec 18,1967.
15 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.72.
16 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2467A. Dec 21.1968.
17 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.75.
18 Luard Evan, The Control of the Sea-bed:Who Owns the Resources of the Ocean, London: Heinemann,1974, pp.94-95. 19 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, pp.75-76.
20 Nigel Calder, Unless Peace Comes:a Scientific Forecast of New Weapons, New York:Viking Press,1968, p.117.
21 "Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, February 5,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.63.
22 Doc.A/AC.138/12.
23 Evan Luand, The Control of the Sea-bed:Who Owns the Resources of the Oceans? London: Heinemann,1974, p.139-142.
24 赵理海.“人类共同继承财产”是当代国际法的一项重要原则[J].当代国际法问题,中国法制出版社,1993：264～265.
25 U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2750 (ⅩⅩⅤ), Dec 17,1970.
26 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.97.
27 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1983, pp.97-98.
28 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1983, p.98.
29 National Petroleum Council, Petroleum Resources under the Ocean Floor, March 1969, pp.55-78, Laursen Finn. Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1983, pp.53-54.
30 Hollick Ann L., United States Oceans Politics, San Diego Law, Vol.10, No.3, pp.467-501. Hollick Ann L., U.S. Foreign Policy and the Law of the Sea, Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1981, p.263.
31 金永明.国际海底区域的法律地位与资源开发制度研究[D].上海：华东政法学院,2005： 121.
32 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1983, pp.55-56.
33 赵理海.海洋法问题研究[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：111.
34 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed, first session of 93rd Congress, S.1134 p.517, Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.99.
35 Lee Wei-Chin, Sovereignty and the Law of the Sea:A Comparison Between United States and The People's Republic of China, University of Oregon, Ph.D.,1986, p.139.
36 R. Sweeney, R. Tollinson, T. Willett, Market Failure, The Common-Pool Problem and Ocean Resource Exploitation, Journal of Law and Economics, Vol.17, No.2, April 1974, pp.143-178.
37 George A. Doumani, Science, Technology, and American Diplomacy, Exploiting the Resources of the Seabed, Prepared for the Subcommittee on National Security Policy and Scientific Development of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, July 1971, pp.61-63.
38 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S.Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.24.
39 Federal Records Center, "Letter of Morris to Secretary Udall, May 2,1962," Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.68. 40 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.69.
41 House Appropriations Committee, Subcommittee on the Department of Defense, "Department of Defense Appropriations for 1960", Congressional Report,88th congress,1st session, Part 1, Washington:U.S. Government Printing Office,1960, pp.757-758.
Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.70.
43 Nigel Calder, Unless Peace Comes:a Scientific Forecast of New Weapons, New York:Viking Press,1968, p.117.
44 "Letter From the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatric) to Under Secretary of State (Bowles), May 25,1961", FRUS,1961～1963, Vol. ⅩⅩⅤ, Law of the Sea, Doc.490, available at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/kennedyjf/ⅩⅩⅤ/6029.htm.
45 "Letter from the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Nitze) to Rusk, January 6,1969", FRUS, 1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.332.
46 "Memorandum from Laird to Kissinger, July 1,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.343.
47 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.97.
48 "Letter From the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Nitze) to Secretary of State(Rusk), January 6, 1969", FRUS,1969-1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.332.
49 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.68.
Evan Luard, The Control of the Sea-bed:A New International Issue, London:Morrison & Gibb Limited,1974, pp.83-90.
51 Barrv Buzan. Seabed Politics, p.105.
52 Our Nation and the Sea:A Plan for National Action, Report of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, January 1976, pp.155-157.转引自金永明.国际海底区域的法律地位与资源开发制度研究[D].上海：华东政法学院,2005：122.
53 "Memorandum from Rogers to Kissinger, July 9,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.346.
54 "Memorandum from Aldrich to Johnson, May 29,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.340.
55 "Letter from Johnson to Members of the Committee on International Policy in the Marine Environment, August 11,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.353.
56 "Memorandum From Robert Osgood of the National Security Council Staff to Kissinger, June 12,1969",FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.341.
BarryBuzan, Seabed Politics, p.96.
58 "Airgram CA-5062 From the Department of State to the Mission of the United Nations, September 30,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.382.
59 "Memorandum from F. Allen Harris to Department of State, December 2,1969", FRUS, 1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.359.
60 "Memorandum from Robert Osgood to Kissinger, January 20,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.363.
61 "Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, Washington, May 8,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.373.
62 "National Security Decision Memorandum 62, Washington, May 22,1970", FRUS,1969～ 1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.375.
63 "Statement Issued by President Nixon, Washington, May 23,1970", FRUS,1969 ～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.376.
64 "Statement Issued by President Nixon, May 23,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.376.
65 BarrvBuzan. Seabed Politics, p.105.
66 U.N.General Assembly Resolution 2574 (ⅩⅩⅩⅣ), Dec 15,1969.
67 "Memorandum from the Legal Adviser of the Department of State (Stevenson) to Rogers, July 29,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.379.
68 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea, N. Y.:Praeger Publishers,1983, p.38.
69 Lawrence Juda, Ocean Space Rights:Developing U.S. Policy, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1975, p.119.
70 Doc. A/AC.138/SR.34, p.64.
71 Doc. A/AC.138/SR.35, p.72.
72 Doc. A/AC.138/SR.46, pp.20-21.
73 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics,p.101. 74 "Memorandum From Rogers to Kissinger, July 9,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1,
Chapter 6, Doc.346.
75 "Memorandum From Rogers to Kissinger, July 9,1969", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Doc.385.
1 "Circular Airgram CA-2554 From the Department of State to All Diplomatic Posts, Washington, May 28,1971", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.393.
2 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, pp.166-167.
3 "Airgram CA-5062 From the Department of State to the Mission to the United Nations, September 30,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.382.
4 "Circular Airgram CA-2554 From the Department of State to All Diplomatic Posts, Washington, May 28,1971", FRUS,1969-1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.393.
5 "National Security Decision Memorandum 122, Washington, July 22,1971", FRUS,1969～ 1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.405.
6 "National Security Decision Memorandum 157, Washington, March 13,1972", FRUS,1969～ 1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.424.
7 Business Week, June 16,1973.
8 "Airgram CA-5062 From the Department of State to the Mission to the United Nations, September 30,1970", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.382.
9 "Memorandum Prepared by the Chairman of the Inter-Agency Task Force on the Law of the Sea (Stevenson), undated", FRUS,1969～1972, Vol. E-1, Chapter 6, Oceans Policy, Doc.412.
10 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed,93rd Congress, first session on S.1134, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1971, pp.2-14.
11 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed,93rd Congress, first session on S.1134, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1971,pp.232-233.
12 U.S. Senate, The Law of the Sea Crisis, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Offic 1972, p.10.
13 U.S. Senate, Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed,93rd Congress, first session on S.1134, Washington, D.C.:U.S. Government Printing Office,1971, p.230.
14 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.212.
15 Benhalilou Faycal, The Emerging Law of the Deep Seabed beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction, University of Miami,1985, p.122.
16 Doc. A/CONE.62/6 and Doc. A/CONE.62/7.
17 联合国新闻署.《联合国海洋法公约》评介[F].高之国译,北京：海洋出版社,1986：11.
18 赵理海.海洋法的新发展[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1984：145～146.
19 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, p.226.
20 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea:Official Records, Vol.2,1975, p.74.
21 "Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Ford, Washington, July 8,1975", FRUS,1973-1976, Doc.19.
22 "Telegram 85109 From the Department of State to All Diplomatic Posts, April 8,1976", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.27.
23 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：420.
24 "Minutes of the Acting Secretary of State's Analytical Staff Meeting, Washington, June 17 1974", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.13.
23 "Telegram 3788 from the Mission to the United Nations to the Department of State, September 17,1976", FRUS,1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.49.
26 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：421.
27 Edward L. Miles, Global Ocean Politics:the Decision Process at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,1973-1982, the Hague/Boston/London:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1998, pp.283-286.
28 Edward L. Miles, Global Ocean Politics:the Decision Process at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,1973-1982, the Hague/Boston/London:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1998, p.338.
29 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Volume XVI, Eleventh Session, New York,8 March-30 April,1982, p.154.
30 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 136.
31 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 133.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 137.
33 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 135.
34 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex ⅢIII, Article 8.
35 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 150.
36 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 150.
37 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 151.
38 计算镍最高生产限额所用的曲线数值应为发给生产许可的年度中计算的曲线图的镍年消费量数值。曲线图应从能够取得数据的最近十五年期间的实际镍消费量,取其对数值,以时间为自变量,用线性回归法导出。这一曲线称为原曲线。如果全球镍消费量的原曲线年增长率少于百分之三,则以百分之三的曲线作为计算最高生产限额的下限。
39 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 151.
40 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 144.
41 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex Ⅲ, Article 5.
42 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex Ⅲ, Article 6(c).
43 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 154.
44 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 155, para.1.
45 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 155, para.4.
46 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 164.
47 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Article 165.
48 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex IV, Article 1-6.
49 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex IV, Article 11.
50 "Memorandum NSC-U/DM-109B From the Chairman of the National Security Council Under Secretaries Committee (Rush) to President Nixon, Washington, May 14,1974", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.12.
51 "Memorandum NSC-U/DM-109B From the Chairman of the National Security Council Under Secretaries Committee (Rush) to President Nixon, Washington, May 14,1974", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.12.
52 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Vol.2,1975, p.74
53 Barry Buzan, Seabed Politics, N.Y.:Praeger Publishers,1976, p.227.
54 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Vol.2,1975, pp.101-106.
55 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, pp.100-101.
56 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：421.
57 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, pp.110-111.
58 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, pp.112-113.
Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, p.117.
60 刘书剑译.外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法[M].北京：法律出版社,1986：1-10.
61 刘书剑译.外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法[M].北京：法律出版社,1986：2.
62 Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, N.Y.:Praeger,1983, p.136.
63 Statement by the Special Representative of the President, New York Times, Jan.23,1982, quoted from Bernard H. Oxman, the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, American Journal of International Law, Vol.76, Jan.1982, pp.1-23.
64 赵理海.海洋法问题研究[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：137.
65 Statement by the President, New York Times, Feb.21,1983. Myron H. Nordquist, Choon-ho Park, ed., Reports of the United States Delegation to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Honolulu:University of Hawaii,1983, pp.554-555. Also in Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, p.143.
66 Ambassador Malone's Statement, February 23,1982, quoted from Myron H. Nordquist, Choon-ho Park, ed., Reports of the United States Delegation to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Honolulu:University of Hawaii,1983, pp.556-562.
67 President's Statement, July 9,1982, Department of State Bulletin 82, August 1982, quoted from Laursen Finn, Superpower at Sea:U.S. Ocean Policy, p.148.
68 US statement made in Plenary, April 30,1982, quoted from Myron H. Nordquist, Choon-ho Park, ed., Reports of the United States Delegation to the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Honolulu:University of Hawaii,1983, pp.594-597.
69 立法前勘探者,系指在任何协定国最早一个颁发国内立法之日以前已经从事深海底多金属结核矿的勘探,并对中请区域进行过大量的调查活动的实体。
70 Agreement Concerning Interim Arrangements Relating to Polymetallic Nodules of the Deep Sea-bed, available at:www.imli.org/legal_docs/docs/A133参考：刘书剑译.外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法[M].北京：法律出版社,1986：103-111.
71 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：408.
72 李红云.国际海底与国际法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：25-26.
73 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex Ⅱ, Resolution Ⅱ, para.1-5.
74 刘书剑译：《外国深海海底矿物资源勘探和开发法》,北京：法律出版社,1986年,第112-115页。
75 Markus G. Schmidt, Common Heritage or Common Burdon:the United States Position on the Development of a Regime for Deep Sea-Bed Mining in the Law of the Sea Convention, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1989, p.281-283.
76 李红云.国际海底与国际法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：65.
1 赵理海.海洋法问题研究[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：159-160.
2 D. H. Anderson, Further Efforts to Ensure Universal Participation in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol.43, No.4, Oct.,1994, pp.886-893.
3 中国国际法学会主编.中国国际法年刊(1988年)[C].北京：法律出版社,1988：286.
4 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Part XVII, Final Provisions, Article 308.
5 中国国际法学会主编.中国国际法年刊(1990年)[C].北京：法律出版社,1990：340.
6 D. H. Anderson, Further Efforts to Ensure Universal Participation in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol.43,No.4,Oct.,1994,pp.886-893.李红云.国际海底与海洋法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：153.
7 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Final Act, annexl, Resolution 1.
8 Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, Official Records, Volume 13, pp.90-92.
9 转引自李红云.国际海底与海洋法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：53.
10 Concluding Remarks of the Secretary-General at the Informal Consultations on Law of the Sea, Available at: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_part_xi.htm.
11 金永明.国际海底区域的法律地位与资源开发制度研究[D].上海：华东政法学院,2005：94.
12 李红云.国际海底与海洋法[M].北京：现代出版社,1997：156.
13 Report of the Secretary-General, see document A/48/950, p.2. Available at: http://daccess-ods.un.org/TMP/4643593.72854233.html
14 D. H. Anderson, Further Efforts to Ensure Universal Participation in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol.43, No.4, Oct.,1994, pp.886-893.
15 Concluding Remarks of the Secretary-General at the Informal Consultations on Law of the Sea, Available at: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_part_xi.htm
16 Informal Consultations, see document A/48/950, Available at: http://daccess-ods.un.org/TMP/4643593.72854233.html
17 Informal Consultations, see document A/48/950, Available at: http://daccess-ods.un.org/TMP/4643593.72854233.html
18 陈德恭.现代国际海洋法[M].北京：海洋出版社,2009：429.19 GA Res.48/263, July 28,1994.
20 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Annex IV, Article.11, para.3.
21 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 1, para.14.
22 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex II, Section 1, para.2.
23 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 2, para.l.
24 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 2, para.2.
25 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 2, para.5.
26 傅崐成等译.弗吉尼亚大学海洋法论文三十年精选集[C].厦门：厦门大学出版社,第一卷,2010：315.
27 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 3, para.1-2.
28 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 3, para.4-6.
29 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 4.
30 Informal Consultations, see document A/48/950, Available at http://daccess-ods.un.org/TMP/4643593.72854233.html
31 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 5, para.1-2.
32 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 7, para.l.
33 Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Annex Ⅱ, Section 8, para.l.
34 李红云.国际海底与海洋法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：147.
35 李红云.国际海底与海洋法[M].北京：现代出版社,1996：83.
36 Bernard H. Oxman, The 1994 Agreement and the Convention, The American Journal of International Law, Vol.88, No.4, Oct.,1994, p.692.
37 William J. Clinton, Letter of Transmittal to the Senate, Oct.7,1994, International Legal Materials, Vol.34,1995, p.1396.
38 "National Security Decision Memorandum 225, Washington, July 16,1973", FRUS, 1973-1976, Volume E-3, Documents on Global Issues, Doc.5.
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