宗教非政府组织与国家安全
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摘要
近年来,国家安全中宗教的作用渐渐凸显,除了宗教极端主义或恐怖主义造、成的暴力冲突以外,一些活跃在国际社会各个领域、具有公民社会性质的宗教非政府组织也迅速崛起,并且在国家的社会、政治中发挥着越来越重要的作用。在不同的国内外政治环境下,宗教非政府组织对国家安全的影响是不同的,在欧美等发达国家,我们很少听说政府将宗教非政府组织当做“安全威胁”看待,而在亚非拉等种族、民族、宗教冲突激烈的国家和地区,各类宗教非政府组织的活动常常成为各种社会政治矛盾的催化剂和导火索,构成严重的安全威胁。在历史上和当代的社会主义国家,由于无神论和有神论之间意识形态冲突,无论是国际还是国内的宗教非政府组织,都很容易触动国家有关部门的敏感神经,被视为动摇国家安全的“不稳定因素”。为何宗教非政府组织会给社会主义国家带来安全问题?它们是如何影响社会主义国家安全的?为回答这些问题,本文选取东欧前社会主义国家为案例,考察宗教非政府组织在东欧剧变这一重大历史事件中发挥的作用和影响,以分析它们影响社会主义国家安全的路径和范式,并尝试建构宗教非政府组织与国家安全之间的互动模式。
以巴里.布赞为代表的哥本哈根学派认为,“国家安全”既是客观存在,又是主观概念,“安全问题”是客体事实在主体认知上的反应。“宗教安全问题”亦不例外。这一观点为我们的宗教安全研究提供了新的框架,当前学术界对宗教安全的界定往往是是单向度的,主要是宗教对国家安全的影响,而较少涉及国家对宗教安全的影响,事实上,作为自古以来,宗教与国家(或者政府)间的关系都是在互动中不断变化的,政府、市场、现代化等其他因素对宗教的威胁,亦属于“宗教安全”的组成部分。宗教非政府组织跟公司、社团、慈善机构等世俗社会组织一样,都生存在世俗社会的制度环境中,在与环境的交流互动中不断调适自身,以维持各种日常社会职能,唯一不同的是,它们同时也受到某种宗教权威的影响或感召。宗教团体对外部环境,尤其是政治环境往往相当敏感,当国家政策对它们的生存造成压力时,政教关系的紧张可能使教会成为“异端”,甚至带来政治上的反弹。历史上,中国和东欧的社会主义政权都曾将宗教视为“不稳定因子”或“不安全因素”予以限制,导致政教关系紧张甚至恶化。前东欧社会主义国家一度照搬苏联模式,侵犯本国公民的信仰自由和个人权利,很大程度上是促成了一些教会团体成为80年代末的“和平演变”中反政府中坚力量的重要因素。同为社会主义国家,改革开放以前,中国的宗教管理模式也体现了苏联模式的主要特点,但改革以后,中国的宗教政策方向开始出现转变。当代中国宗教非政府组织发展迅速而类型复杂,对国家安全的影响也是多方面的,时至今日,虽然执政党的宗教理念已大幅度改变,但在实际操作中,有关部门对宗教非政府组织往往还是采取一种“泛安全化”的态度,在相关的法律规范和行政管理上都并不完善。冷战时期东欧诸国在宗教政策上的教训,亦是对当代中国的启示,在处理涉及宗教非政府组织的安全问题时,中国应结合实际情况,施行合理的宗教管理办法,以避免重蹈东欧覆辙。
Religion has long been recognized as one factor,among many,relevant to discussions of security and warmaking,yet religious NGOs,or faith-based organizations'influence on international security and conflict has always been neglect. The faith-based organization(FBOs), which is opposed to a commercial, governmental, or private secular organization,is to a significant degree religious in nature, as FBO leaders and political acitivitists use the power inherent in religious ideology to enhance community coherence that is opposed to the nation's mainline identity,or to challenge the legitimacy of the regime,there is potential for devastation and destruction.In recent years, the world has witnessed the phenomenal growth of NGOs and within the NGOs,the proliferation of faith-based NGOs,it has brought about
However,the faith-based organization should not always be assumed as a destabilization factor,it rather constitute the most active and main component of global civil society. In many countries, faith-based organizations play an indispensable role in social welfare and humanitarian relief work. Since at a given moment any two religious actors might reach diametrically opposed conclusions about the will of God and the path to follow,the faith-based organizations'impact on national security is uncertain,religious organizations can adapt to their environment without eroding continuity with the sacred past because the past is capacious, it is the enviroment that decides the operation of FBOs,since faith-based organizations are sensitive to social unrest and policy changes,FBOs may become authoritarian and conservative under force press, even military.The organization behavior theory suggest that instead of asking how religious institutions are different from secular ones,one can ask whats is share in common.Instead of asking what impact do FBOs make on national security, one can ask how do they influence each other during the interaction.
The paper tries to investigate the relation between religious and politics in socialist state, I choose the ex-socialist countries in Eastern Europe and modern China as cases, because both of their religion policies have been deeply affected by "soviet model".The experience of the Eastern Europe could be a lession for China:the normalization of relations between state and religion is significant for the state security, and it calls for clear and difinite laws and regulations relates to faith-based organization.
以巴里.布赞为代表的哥本哈根学派认为,“国家安全”既是客观存在,又是主观概念,“安全问题”是客体事实在主体认知上的反应。“宗教安全问题”亦不例外。这一观点为我们的宗教安全研究提供了新的框架,当前学术界对宗教安全的界定往往是是单向度的,主要是宗教对国家安全的影响,而较少涉及国家对宗教安全的影响,事实上,作为自古以来,宗教与国家(或者政府)间的关系都是在互动中不断变化的,政府、市场、现代化等其他因素对宗教的威胁,亦属于“宗教安全”的组成部分。宗教非政府组织跟公司、社团、慈善机构等世俗社会组织一样,都生存在世俗社会的制度环境中,在与环境的交流互动中不断调适自身,以维持各种日常社会职能,唯一不同的是,它们同时也受到某种宗教权威的影响或感召。宗教团体对外部环境,尤其是政治环境往往相当敏感,当国家政策对它们的生存造成压力时,政教关系的紧张可能使教会成为“异端”,甚至带来政治上的反弹。历史上,中国和东欧的社会主义政权都曾将宗教视为“不稳定因子”或“不安全因素”予以限制,导致政教关系紧张甚至恶化。前东欧社会主义国家一度照搬苏联模式,侵犯本国公民的信仰自由和个人权利,很大程度上是促成了一些教会团体成为80年代末的“和平演变”中反政府中坚力量的重要因素。同为社会主义国家,改革开放以前,中国的宗教管理模式也体现了苏联模式的主要特点,但改革以后,中国的宗教政策方向开始出现转变。当代中国宗教非政府组织发展迅速而类型复杂,对国家安全的影响也是多方面的,时至今日,虽然执政党的宗教理念已大幅度改变,但在实际操作中,有关部门对宗教非政府组织往往还是采取一种“泛安全化”的态度,在相关的法律规范和行政管理上都并不完善。冷战时期东欧诸国在宗教政策上的教训,亦是对当代中国的启示,在处理涉及宗教非政府组织的安全问题时,中国应结合实际情况,施行合理的宗教管理办法,以避免重蹈东欧覆辙。
Religion has long been recognized as one factor,among many,relevant to discussions of security and warmaking,yet religious NGOs,or faith-based organizations'influence on international security and conflict has always been neglect. The faith-based organization(FBOs), which is opposed to a commercial, governmental, or private secular organization,is to a significant degree religious in nature, as FBO leaders and political acitivitists use the power inherent in religious ideology to enhance community coherence that is opposed to the nation's mainline identity,or to challenge the legitimacy of the regime,there is potential for devastation and destruction.In recent years, the world has witnessed the phenomenal growth of NGOs and within the NGOs,the proliferation of faith-based NGOs,it has brought about
However,the faith-based organization should not always be assumed as a destabilization factor,it rather constitute the most active and main component of global civil society. In many countries, faith-based organizations play an indispensable role in social welfare and humanitarian relief work. Since at a given moment any two religious actors might reach diametrically opposed conclusions about the will of God and the path to follow,the faith-based organizations'impact on national security is uncertain,religious organizations can adapt to their environment without eroding continuity with the sacred past because the past is capacious, it is the enviroment that decides the operation of FBOs,since faith-based organizations are sensitive to social unrest and policy changes,FBOs may become authoritarian and conservative under force press, even military.The organization behavior theory suggest that instead of asking how religious institutions are different from secular ones,one can ask whats is share in common.Instead of asking what impact do FBOs make on national security, one can ask how do they influence each other during the interaction.
The paper tries to investigate the relation between religious and politics in socialist state, I choose the ex-socialist countries in Eastern Europe and modern China as cases, because both of their religion policies have been deeply affected by "soviet model".The experience of the Eastern Europe could be a lession for China:the normalization of relations between state and religion is significant for the state security, and it calls for clear and difinite laws and regulations relates to faith-based organization.
引文
① Appleby,R. Scott.The Ambivalence of The Sacred:Religion,Violence,and Reconciliation[M].New York:Rowman&Littlefield Publication,Inc.,2000:30.
①徐以骅,秦倩.如何界定宗教非政府组织(代序)[A],徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008：1-2.
② Dermerath N.J., Hall,Peter Dobkin.Schmitt,Terry.William,Rhys H.Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1998.
① Kuo,David.Tempting Faith:An Inside Story of Political Seduction[M].New York:Hardcover, 2006.
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③ Bartkowski,John P., Regis,Helen A. Charitable Choice:Religion, Race and Poverty in the Post-welfare Era[M].New York:New York University Press,2003.
①Hearn,Julie.The'Invisible'NGO:US Evangelical Missions in Kenya[J].Journal of Religion in Africa, vol.32,Fasc.1
② Ferris,Elizabeth.Faith-based and Secular humanitarian Organization[J].International Review of the Red Cross,2005(87).
③有关天主教救援服务会的文献,可参见Kauffman,Christopher J.Politics, Programs, and Protests:Catholic Relief Service in Vietnam,1954-1975[J].The Catholic Historical Review, 2005(2).以及Flipse,Scott. The Last Casualty of War:Catholic Relief Service, Humanitarianism, and the War in Vietnam,1967-1968[J].Peace & Change,2002(2).
④有关世界宣明会的文献,可见Whaites, Alan.Pursuing Partnership:World Vision and the Ideology of Development——a Case Study[J].Development in Practice,1999(4).
⑤有关世界基督教协进会的文献,可见Hudson,Darril.The World Council of Churches in International Affairs[M].Leighton,Buzzard:Faith Press for the Royal Institute for International Affairs,1977; Howell,Leon.Acting in Faith:the World Council of Churches since 1975[M].London: World Council of Churches,1982; Williams,George Huntston.The World Council of Churches and Its Vancouver Theme:"Jesus Christ the Life of the World" in Historical Perspective[J].The Harward Theological Review.1983(1).
①见Dicklich,Susan.&Rice,Heather.The Mennonite Central Committee(MCC) and Faith-based NGO aid to Africa[J].Development in Practice,2004(5).
② Buzan,Barry.Waever,Ole.Wilde,Jaap de.Security:A Newramework for Analysis[M]. Boulder & London:Lynne Rienner Publishers.Inc.1998:119.
① Bruce,teve.Politics and Religion[M].MA:Blackwell publishing Inc.,2003.
②911以后,宗教极端主义的研究一时成为热点,相关著作如Bondansky,Yossef.Bin Laden:The Man who Declared War on America[M].Rochlin,CA:Form:Prime Lifstyled,2001; Burke,Jason. Al-Qaeda:The True Story of Radical Islam[M].Harmondsworth:Penguin,2004; Gunaratna, Rohan.Combating Terrirusm[M].Singaore:Times Academic Press,2004; Gerrie ter Haar. and James J. Busuttil.Bridge or Barrier:Religion, Violence and Vision for peace[M],Leiden:Brill Academic Publishers,2005; Howard, Russell D.&Sawyer, Reid.Defeating Terrorism:Shaping the New Security Environment[M].Guilford, Conn.:McGraw-Hill/Dushkin,2004.等。此外还有大量相关论文发表。
③ Haynes,Jeffrey.An Introduction to International Relations and Religion[M].London:Pearson Education Limited,2007:166.
④ Scott Thomas, Religion and International Conflict, in K.R.Dark ed.,Religion and International Relations, NY:PALGRAVE,2000; Catarina Kinnvall.Globalization and Religious Nationalism in Indian:The search for ontological security[M].London and NY:Routledge publisher,2006.
⑤ Scott Thomas, Religion and International Conflict,pp.l-3.
Scott R. Appleby.The Ambivalence of the Sacred:Religion, Violence and Reconciliation[M].Lanham, MD:Rowman&Littlefield publisher Inc.,2000.
⑦ Philip Jenkins, the Politics of Persecuted Religious Minorities, in Robert A. Seiple and Dennis R. Hoover eds., Religion and Security:The New Nexus in International Relations, Rowman&Littlefield Punblisher Inc.,2004.
① Jean Bethke Elshtain,'Military Intervention and Justice as Equal Regard',同上书。Just War, Political Authority, and Humanitarian Intervention,in John D. Carlson and Erik C. Owens eds., The Sacred and the Sovereign:Religion and International Politics, (Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2003).
② Jeffrey Haynes, An Introduction to International Relations and Religion, UK, London:Pearson Education Limited,2007.pp.123-151.
③ Jonathan Luxmoore, Jolanata Babiuch. The Vatican and The Red Flag:the Struggle for the Soul of Eatern Europ [M.London, NY:Geoffrey Chapman,1999.
④艾伦·赫茨克(Allen Hertzke)著,徐以骅、黄凯、吴志浩译：《在华盛顿代表上帝——宗教游说在美国政体中的作用》,上海世纪出版集团,2003年。
⑤ Allen Hertzke.Freeing God's Chilren:the Unlikely:Alliance for Global Human Right[M].Lanham, Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,Inc.,2004.
① Marianne R.Sanua, Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Hanover, London:Brandeis University Press,2007.
①高师宁.宗教参与中国社会生活的一种途径——以天主教‘河北进德公益服务中心’为例[A].2007年复旦大学宗教非政府组织学术研讨会会议论文。
②许桂灵、司徒尚纪.广东民族、宗教非政府组织的发展与管理[J]广东行政学院学报,2007(10).
③朱峰.当代香港基督教福利事业述评[J].福建师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2008(6).
④杨阳.宗教非政府组织与美国对外援助政策[A].载徐以骅编.宗教与美国社会(第二辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2004；郝平.国际发展援助中的宗教非政府组织——以“天主教救济服务会”为中心的研究[A]和朱晓黎.后冷战时期宗教非政府组织与美国对外援助政策——以天主教救援服务会为例[A].载徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008。
①孙炜、刘奕宏.以信仰为基础非营利组织之探讨：美国与台湾经验[A].徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑).北京：时事出版社,2008.
②刘军.英国穆斯林议会’初探[A]同上书,2008.
③李琪.中亚民族国家宗教非政府组织的形成与发展[A].徐以骅、秦倩编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑),北京：时事出版社,2008.
④秦倩.试析美国法下宗教组织的法律形式[A],同上书。
⑤曹俊汉.从宗教在美国宪法上特别的地位看教会团体的运作空间.同上书,第235页。
①白彬.宗教与现代公共治理[J].山西大同大学学报(社会科学版),2008(12)：22.
②刘澎.建立‘宗教特区’,让宗教进入社会服务领域[A]此系作者2008年10月16日在第二届法律与宗教会议上的发言,转自普世社会科学网：http://www.pacilution.com/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=1589
③代表性论著包括王逸舟.全球化时代的国际安全[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1999；蔡拓,全球问题与当代国际关系[M],天津人民出版社,2002年版；陆忠伟主编：非传统安全论[M].时事出版社,2003年版；安尼瓦尔·阿木提.石油与国家安全[M].新疆人民出版社,2003年版；谢晓娟.全球化：文化冲突与文化安全[M].辽宁大学出版社,2007年版；夏保成、刘凤仙.国家安全论[M].长春人民出版社,2008年版等等,以及大量相关论文。
④郑先武.安全共同体理论探微[J].现代国际关系,2004(2)；刘胜湘.西方自由主义国际安全理论及其批评[J].太平洋学报,2005(9)；徐能武.论国际安全机制合法性与有效性的理论基础[J].东南亚纵横,2007(5)；王学军.西方国际关系理论下的国家安全研究[J].亚太安全,2007(9)；吴玉红、郭玉坤.合作安全理论基础探究[J].哈尔滨工业大学学报(社会科学版).2007(3)；潘亚玲.安全化、国际合作与国际规范的动态发展[J]外交评论,2008(6).
⑤巴里·布赞,朱宁译.新安全论[M],浙江人民出版社,2003；罗天虹.哥本哈根学派的安全理论 评析[J].教学与研究,1999(8)；朱宁.安全与非安全化——哥本哈根学派的安全研究[M].世界经济与政治,2003(10)；朱宁.对哥本哈根学派的几点质疑[J],社会观察,2003(4)；高峻.哥本哈根学派复合安全理论的修正与演进[J].教学与研究,2005(10)；郑先武.安全研究：一种‘多元主义视角’——巴瑞·布赞安全研究透析.国际政治研究,2006(4)；李明明.“社会安全理论探析”[J].欧洲研究,2006(5)；田甲.布赞的安全研究与哥本哈根学派的由来[J].国际关系学院学报.2007(5).
①金宜久、吴云贵.伊斯兰与国际热点[M].东方出版社,2001年版；金宜久、吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008.
②中国现代国际关系研究所民族与宗教研究中心：世界宗教问题大聚焦[M].北京：时事出版社,2003.
③张桥贵主编.云南跨境民族宗教社会问题研究[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008.
④徐以骅.当前国际关系中的“宗教回归”(代序)[A].徐以骅.宗教与国际关系(第四辑)(上),北京：时事出版社,2008.
①刘骞.国际安全分析呼唤宗教视角——宗教安全概念的引入尝试[A].徐以骅.宗教与国际关系(第四辑)(上),北京：时事出版社,2008：202.
②徐以骅,刘骞.宗教对国际安全的影响及其对中国的启示[A].金泽,邱永辉主编.中国宗教报告(2008).北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：218.
③徐以骅.章远.试论宗教影响中国国家安全的路径和范式.复旦学报(社会科学版),2009(4).
① 参见Berger,Julia.Religious Non-government Organizations:An Exploratory Analysis[J].Voluntas,2003,14:8-10;Natsios,Andrew S.Faith-Based NGOs and U.S. Foreign Policy[A].in Abrams,Elliot. ed.The Influence of Faith:Religious Group and U.S. Policy[M].Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield Publisher.Inc.2001:190-191;Ferri.Elizabeth.Faith-Based and Humanitarian Organizations[J].International Interview of the Red Cross[J].June2005,87(858):312.
② 参见Jeavons,Thomas H.Identify Characteristics of "Religious" Organization[A], In DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998.
③ 参见Smith, Steven Rathgeb., Sosin, Michael R.,The Variety of Faith-Related Agencies[J].Public Administration Review,Nov.-Doc.2001,61(6).
①李峰.国际社会中的国际宗教非政府组织[N].复旦大学博士后研究工作报告,2009：19-22.
②徐以骅,秦倩.如何界定宗教非政府组织(代序).徐以骅,秦倩.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2009：21.
③李峰：《国际社会中的国际宗教非政府组织》,第22页。
④ Robert Wuthnow, Saving American?Faith-based Service and the Future of Civil Society, Princeon and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2004,p.43.
⑤ Sider,Ronald and Unruh, Heidi Rolland.Typoligy of Religious Characteristic of Social Service and Educational Organizations and Programs[J].Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quaterly 33,,2004(1):112-115;117-118.转引自郝平：“国际发展援助中的宗教非政府组织”,徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编《宗教与美国社会(第五辑)》,第47-48页。
① Davidson, James D., Koch,Jerome,Byond Mutual and Public Benefits[A]. In DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:293-294.
②王名.走向公民社会——我国社会组织发展的历史和趋势[J].吉林大学社会科学学报,2009,43(3)：7.
③李瑛：“多极化时代的安全观：从国家安全到世界安全”,《世界经济与政治》,1998年第5期,第12页。
④ Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration.转引自Roger Carey&Trevor C.Salmon, International Security in the Modern World. NY:St. Martin's Press,1992. p.13.
⑤王逸舟：“论综合安全”,《世界经济与政治》,1998年第4期,第5页。
① Buzan,Barry.,Waever,Ole. Jaap de Wilde.Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder,London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:3-4.
②彼得·卡赞斯坦,罗伯特·基欧汉,斯蒂芬·克拉斯那主编,秦亚青译.世界政治理论的探索与争鸣[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：45.
③ Wolfers, Arnold., Discord and Collaboration:Essays on International Politics[M]. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press,1962:151.
① Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:29.
②朱宁.对哥本哈根学派的几点质疑[J].社会观察,2003(04)：35.
① Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:91.
② Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:119.
①安东尼·史密斯著,叶江译.民族主义——理论,意识形态,历史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：19.
②F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：160.
③ Carnegie Commission on Preventing deadly Conflict[M].New York:Carnegie Corporation of New York,1997:30.转引自F.佩蒂多,P哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：159.
① Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:141.
② Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:142.
① Buzan,Barry.Waever,Ole.Wilde Jaap de.Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. London:Lynne Rienner Publishers,1998:165.
②潘亚玲.安全化、国际合作与国际规范的动态发展[J].外交评论,2008(6)：52.
③“安全化他者”事实上是制造敌人的过程,相关论述可参见尤尔根·哈贝马斯著.曹卫东译.《包容他者》.上海：上海人民出版社,2002年；塞缪尔·亨廷顿著.程克雄译.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战北京[M].新华出版社2005年；安东尼·吉登斯著,胡宗泽、赵力涛译,王铭铭校.民族—国家与暴力[M].上海：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1998年；R.D.Ashmore andD.Wilder,eds.,Social Identity,Intergroup Conflict,and ConflictReduction,[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press.2001等等。
①关于“祛魅”和“世俗化”,马克斯·韦伯的解释是：“我们的时代,是一个理性、理智化得时代,总之是世界祛除巫魅的时代；这个时代的命运,是一切终极而最崇高的价值从公共生活中隐退——或遁入神秘生活的超越领域,或流于直接人际关系的博爱。”(参见彼得·贝格尔著,高师宁译.神圣的帷幕：宗教社会学理论之要素[M].上海人民出版社,1991：16.)然而,20世纪70、80年代除欧洲以外全球宗教复兴的种种现象,却使这一“世俗化”理论受到挑战,彼得·贝格尔也不得不承认：“我们生活在一个世俗化世界里这一设定是虚假的。当今世界除了个别的例外,宗教同过去一样兴旺发达,有些地方甚至有过之而无不及。这就意味着历史学家和社会科学界所说的含糊不清的‘世俗化理论’从根本上来说是错误的......现代化的确招致某些世俗化的结果,但是它同时也唤起了强有力的反世俗化运动。”参见Berger,P.L.The Desecularization of the World:A Global Overview[J].The National Intreret.No.46.(Winter 1996/1997):
②F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：151.
① Jeffrey Haynes.An Introduction to International Relations and Religion[M].England,Edinburgh Gate:Pearson Education Limited,2007:177.
① Alexander Wendt.Constructing International Politics[J].International Security, Summer 1995,20(1):73.
②F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：160.
③ Alexander Wendt.Constructing International Politics[J].International Security,Summer 1995,20(1):74.
④ Otis,Pauletta.Religion and War in the Twebty-first Century[A].in Seiple, Robert A. and Hoover, Dennis R. eds., Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M]. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2004:16.
⑤ Appleby,R.Scott.The Ambivalence of the Sacred:Religion,Violence,and Reconciliation[M]. Lanham, Boulder:Rowman&Littlefield Publishers.Inc.,2000:29.
①哈森克勒夫,福尔克·里森伯格著.宗教的作用何在?——信仰对政治冲突之影响的理论分析[A].载F.佩蒂多,P哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社.2009：162-169.
②Thomas,Scott.Religion and International Conflict[A]. in Dark,K.R.ed.Religion and international Relations[M]. New York:Palgrave,2000:1-2.
① Hurd,Ian.Legitimacy and Authority in the International Politics[J].International Organizations,53(2),1999:381.
②彼得·贝格尔著,高师宁译.神圣的帷幕：宗教社会学理论之要素[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1991：160.
③ Fox,Jonathan., Sandler,Shmuel.,Bring Religion into International Relations[M]. New York:Palgrave,2004:37.
① Thomas,Scott.Religion and International Conflict[A].in Dark,K.R. ed.Religion and International Relations, New York:PALGRAVE,2000:4.
② Ibid.,4.
① Dimaggio,Paul.The Relevance of Organization Theory to the Study[A]. In DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:14.
② Appleby,R.Scott.The Ambivalence of the Sacred:Religion,Violence,and Reconciliation[M]. Lanham, Boulder:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Inc.,2000:58.
③关于美国外交战略中非政府组织的影响,可参见李立凡,刘锦前.美国中亚战略棋盘上的非政府组织.国际问题研究,2005(8).
① Marcel Fafchamps, "Social capital, trust and development, social development strategy,"见世界银行网站：http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/214578-111288861728 1/20549279/Fafchamps3.pdf http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/214578-111288861728 1/20549279/Fafchamps3.pdf
②劳斯特森,奥利·维夫.保卫宗教——宗教指涉对象的安全化[A].载F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：227.
① N.J.Demerath, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, Rhys H.Williams eds., Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1998:381.
① Williams,Rhys H.Organizational Change in Theikigucak Schools:Dilemmas of Ideology and Resource[A] in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization.[M],New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:12.
② Chaves,Mark.Denominations as Dual Structures:An OrganizationalAnalysis[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M]. New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:179-181.
③ Davidson,James D.,Koch,Jerome R.Beyond Mutual and Public Benefits:The Inward and Outward Orientations of Non-Profit Organization[A],in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:293.
① Steven Rathgeb Smith, Michael R.Sosin.The Varieties of faith-related Agencies[J].in Public Administration Review,2001,61(6):651-670.
② Wuthnow,Robert.Saving American?Faith-based Service and the Future of Civil Society[M].Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2004, p.147.
③ Stout,Harry S.,Cormode,D.Scott.Institutions and the Story of American Religion[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M]. New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:66.
① Wuthnow,Robert.Saving American?Faith-based Service and the Future of Civil Society[M].Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2004:158-161.
② Stout,Harry S.,Cormode,D.Scott.Institutions and the Story of American Religion[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:64.
① Stout,Harry S.,Cormode,D.Scott.Institutions and the Story of American Religion[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,1998:73.
② Strict church最早由美国宗教社会学家迪恩·凯利(Dean M.Kelley)提出,他认为理想的“严格教会”具有三种特征：绝对性、一致性和狂热性,相比较为松散的教会组织,“严格教会”通常更强调某种绝对无谬误的权威,要求信徒遵守更严格的教规和特殊的生活方式,更加拒斥世俗社会,离群索居,不问世事。劳伦斯·艾纳孔(Laurence R.Iannaccone)将其简单归纳为“在某种程度上限制非教会活动,以致使进行此种活动的成本大大升高”。参见Innaccone,Laurence R.,Why Strict Church Are Strong[A],in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M], Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,1998:270.
①苏丹政府网站：http://www.sudan.gov.sd/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=313:mr-kamal-abd elatif-addresses-leaders-of-public-service-on-repercussions-of-expelling-some-foreign-ngos-from-darfur-&catid=45:2008-06-06-15-26-14&Itemid=73 (2009-9-20)
① Jenkins, Philip.The Politics of Persecuted Relgious Minorities[A],in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M] Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.2004:34.
② Zald,Mayer N.McCarthy,John D.Religous Group as Crucibles of Social Movements[A].in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M].Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press,1998:25.
①庄辉.从边缘到主流：基督教新右翼适应世俗政治的过程——“道德多数派”与“基督教联盟”之比较研究[A].徐以骅编.《宗教与美国社会(第一辑)》.时事出版社2004：256.
Fowler,Robert Booth,Hertzke,Allen D.,Olson,Laura R.Religion and Politics in American:Faith,Culture,and Strategic Choice[M]. Colorado:Westview Press,1999:145.
③ Zald,Mayer N.McCarthy,John D.Religous Group as Crucibles of Social Movements[A].in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M]. Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.2004:28.
④Ramet,Sabrina Petra.ed.Protastantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:The Communist and Postcommunist Eras[M].Duke University Press,1992:59.
① Morris,A.D.The Origions of The Civil Society Movement:Black Communities Organizing for Change[M].New York:Free Press,1984:139.
① Berger,Peter.Religion and Global Civil Society[A], in Robert A. Seiple, Dennis R. Hoover. Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations [M].NY:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2004:20.
① Berger,Peter.Religion and Global Civil Society[A], in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M], NY:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2004:12.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:1.
① Jowitt,Kenneth.Inclusion and Mobilization in European Leninist Systems[A] in Triska,Jan F. and Cocks,Paul M.eds. Political Development in Eastern Europe[M].New York:Praeger Publisher,1977:93.
②孔田平.东欧剧变后国家与教会关系的变化[J].俄罗斯中亚东欧研究,2004,(4)：24-25.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:124.
② Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:233.
③ Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:109.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:122.
②“认信教会”是纳粹德国时期新教基督徒冒着镇压的风险,脱离被纳粹控制的国家教会而建立的独立教会,二战期间“认信教会”成员与其他地下抵抗组织共同反抗纳粹专制,为教会赢得良好声誉,并在二战结束后重掌权力,使德国教会的“去纳粹化”得以顺利实行。
①“世俗专制主义”一词是由Paul Mojzes提出的,Paul将政教关系模式分为四种类型,教会专制主义(ecclesiastic absolutism)、宗教宽容(religious toleration)、世俗专制主义和多元化自由主义(pluralistic liberty),世俗专制主义即以无神论为统治意识形态,禁止所有宗教的政教模式。参见Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M].New York:Columbia University Press,1992:8.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:295.
② Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:5.
① Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:62.
② Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:219.
① Cipriani,Roberto.Traditions and Transitions:Reflections on the Problems and Prospects for Religions in Eastern and Central Europe[A].in Jr.Swatos,Wiiliam H.ed.Politics and Religion in Central and Eastern Europe:Traditions and Transitions[M].Connecticut:Praeger Publishers,1994:1.
②莫纪宏.我国宗教组织的法律地位[J].金陵法律评论,2009年春季卷：38.
③J.M.英格.宗教的科学研究(下册)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2009：579-584.
① Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:29-30.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:30.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:55.
① Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:116.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:28-29.
① Gautier,Mary L. Church elites and the restoration of civil society in the communist societies of central Europe[J].in Journal of Church & State,1998,40(2)
① Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:92.
②高歌.从莫斯科到布鲁塞尔——东欧政治剧变和国家主权的维护和让渡[J].欧洲研究.2004(2)：64.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.Protestantism and Communism:Patterns of Interaction in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union[A]. in Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Protestantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:The Communist and Postcommunist Eras[M].Duke University Press,1992:4-5.
① Wiilams,Rhys H.,DemerathIII,N.J.Cultural Power:How Underdog Religious and Nonreligious Movements Triumph Against Structural Odds[A].in DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:367.
② Ibid.,369.
① Salomon,Kim.The Peacemovement:A Anti-Establishment Movement[J].Journal of Peace Research,Jun.1986,23 (2):116.
② Russell,Frederick H.The Just War in the Middle Ages[M].Cambrige:Cambrige University Press,1975:263.
③托马斯·阿奎那著.马清槐译.《阿奎那政治著作选》[M].北京：商务印书馆,1963：135-136.
①和平运动的“跨国互动网络”(TIN)一词是由美国学者Welling Hall提出,他认为INGO、NGO和TIN同时存在于全球和平运动中,并共同推进运动发展,TIN相比NGO最大的差别在于TIN是分散性的网络,而NGO通常以某一领导机构为核心。详细参见：Hall,B.Wellng.The Church and the Independent Peace Movement in Eastern Europe[J].Journal of Peace Research,Jun.1986,23(2):194.
① Hall,B.Wellng.The Church and the Independent Peace Movement in Eastern Europe[J].Journal of Peace Research,Jun.1986,23(2):198.
②“欧洲因良心拒服兵役局”(European Bureau for Conscientious Objection,简称EBCO)网站：http://www.ebco-beoc.eu/page/luside/archive/co-history.htm
①C·布雷德利·沙尔夫,秦刚,蔡予民,田国良译.民主德国的政治与变革[M].北京：春秋出版社,1988：172
②Ramet,Sabrina Petra.Protestism in Eastern Germany,1949-1989:A Summing Up[A].in Ramet,Sabrina Petra ed.Protestism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:Communist and Postcommunist Eras,Duke University Press,1992:41.
③ Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:55.
① Klippenstein,Lawrence.Conscientious Objectors in Eastern Europe:The Quest for Free Choice and Alternative Service[A].in Ramet,Sabrina Petra ed.Protestism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:Communist and Postcommunist Eras,Duke University Press,1992:280.
① http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-5158.html
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② Gautier,Mary L. Church elites and the restoration of civil society in the communist societies of central Europe[J].in Journal of Church & State,1998,40(2)
③李华.戈尔巴乔夫反对德国统一立场的软化及其原因[J].历史研究,2005(10)：48.
①Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:67.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia [M].Duke University Press,1998:84.
② Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:84
③自二战结束以来,宗教信徒的数量就开始急剧减少,从东德成立之初教会成员占全国人口的 90%以上,到1990年,只有32%的东德公民承认相信上帝,54%的人宣称自己是无神论者。很多教会人士希望社会主义政权崩溃后,教会能够在新的政治环境中复苏,但事实上未能如此,东德新教人数没有明显增加,教会不得不迅速调适自己适应和接受过去五十年里联邦德国教会所经历过的世俗化浪潮的挑战。参见Pollack,Detlef.The Change in Religion and Church in Eastern Germany:A Rsearch Note[J].Sociology of Religion, (Autumn.2002),63(3):373,386.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religious Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M].New York:Columbia University Press,1992:274.
②范达人.简论波兰的宗教势力[J].俄罗斯研究,1985(5)：52.
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④战后波兰总共经历了三次威胁执政党地位的政治危机：第一次是1956年波兹南事件,第二次是1970年的“十二月事件”,第三次即1980年的“八月事件”,最后一次促发了团结工会的兴 起。
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③徐以骅认为,中国内外政治环境的变化及事件,都会成为影响宗教与中国国家安全关系结构的因素,“宗教与中国国家安全的关系是错综复杂、正反作用交叉的。宗教影响国家安全的组织和思想双重维度和多重范式,也决定了宗教在国家安全考量中主观性和客观性兼具、固态性和流动性并存。概言之,对国家安全而言,宗教是多功能工具。”
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④根据2000年World Values Survey对中国信仰状况的调查,中国大陆自认的宗教信徒占总人口13.7%,无神论者占24%。数据来源：World Values Surveys,People's Republic of China,and other 66 countries:2000; Taiwam:1995,转引自Yang,Fenggang.Religion in China under Communism:A Shortage Economy Explanation[J],Journal of Church and State Advance Access,2009,(19):9-10.
①王作安.我国宗教状况的新变化[Jl.中央社会主义学院学报,2008,153(3)：52.
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①中共中央、国务院关于进一步做好宗教工作若干问题的通知[A].中共中央文献研究室综合研究组,国务院宗教事务局政策法规司编.新时期宗教工作文献选编[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：213-221.
②“三股势力”指打着宗教旗号的极端主义、分裂主义和国际恐怖主义势力。见：王作安.中国的宗教问题和宗教政策[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：266.
③江泽民.一定要做好宗教工作[A].见：中共中央文献研究室综合研究组、国务院宗教事务局政策法规司编.新时期宗教工作文献选编[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：198.
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①世界宣明会网站：http://www.worldvision.cn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=236&Itemid=95 (2009-12-12)
②高师宁.从汶川大地震看宗教在现代社会的作用[J].中国宗教,2008(6)：46.
①云南省政府信息公开门户网站丽江市永胜县政府信息公开门户网站：http://www.ynf.gov.cn/newsview.aspx?id=711008(2009-12-14)
②此分类来自复旦大学秦倩老师2010年1月14日在国际关系与公共事务学院的报告：在华境外宗教非政府组织研究。该研究对现有的中国宗教非政府组织进行了极为详细的界定和分类,即：国际宗教非政府组织、港澳台背景的宗教非政府组织、宗教性本土组织和有官方背景的宗教性非政府组织(GONGO)。
①李峰.国际社会中的国际宗教非政府组织[D].上海：复旦大学,2009：25.
②Voice of Martyr网站：http://www.persecution.com/public/aboutVOM.aspx?clickfrom=bWFpbl9tZW51 (2010-1-11)
①张桥贵主编.云南跨境民族宗教社会问题研究(之一)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：61-62.
②张桥贵主编.云南跨境民族宗教社会问题研究(之一)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：179-182.
①李鹏.进一步重视、关心和做好宗教工作[A].见：中共中央文献研究室综合研究组、国务院宗教事务局政策法规司编.新时期宗教工作文献选编[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：194-195.
①对于E组织的研究材料主要来自于网站和对该组织负责人的访谈,由于保密等缘故本文将隐去该组织的名称,仅以“E组织”代替。
②E组织网站：http://www.eastgates.org/eastgates.html#how (2010-1-28)
① Open Door USA(简称ODU)是一个以“向铁幕国家输送圣经”,“帮助受迫害的基督徒”为目的的美国基督教非政府组织,中国也是他们的输送目的地之一。1985年,该组织即利用海水潮汐,向我国沿海非法投放约100万册《圣经》,这一号称“珍珠港计划”(Project Pearl)的行动曾在美国引起轰动,但实际上这些圣经大部分佚失在途中。80年代末,原ODU组织中的一些成员和一些中国家庭教会转向合法的宣教路径,筹建“E组织”组织。见ODU网站：http://www.opendoorsusa.org/content/view/61/49/(2010-1-28)
② Graham,Ned.Testimony Before the Senate Committee on Finance:US-China Trade Relations and the Impace on Religious Activity in the PRC[R/OL].East Gates Internaional Website: http://www.eastgates.org/papers.html(2010-1-28)
①E组织网站：http://www.eastgates.org/projectlight-2.html (2010-1-30)
②E组织网站：http://www.eastgates.org/faqs.html#8
①见葛纳德在美国参院的听证会发言：Graham,Ned.Testimony Before the Senate Committee on Finance:US-China Trade Relations and the Impace on Religious Activity in the PRC[R/OL].East Gates Internaional Website:http://www.eastgates.org/papers.html (2010-1-28)
① 爱德基金会网站：http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/aboutus/Aboutus-0101lv.aspx (2010/1/31)
①爱德基金会网站：http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/article/view3188.aspx (2010/2/1)
②爱德基金会.2008年度报告[N].2008：5.
③爱德基金会.2008年度报告[N].2008：8.
①爱德基金会.2008年度报告[N].2008：10.
① Smith,Steven Rathgeb.Sosin,Michael R.The Varities of Faith-Related Agencies[J].Public Administration Review.61(6),2001:655.
② Chaves,Mark.Denominations as Dual Structures:An OrganizationalAnalysis[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization.[M],1998:177.
① Smith,Steven Rathgeb.Sosin,Michael R.The Varities of Faith-Related Agencies[J].Public Administration Review.61(6),2001:655..
① Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:1.
② Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:1
①徐以骅,章远：试论宗教影响中国国家安全的路径和范式[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),2009(4)：110.
②Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:9-22.
①事实上,教会团体也有集体行动失效的现象,尤其是自由化的宗教团体更是如此。前文所述的Dean Kelly曾在《为什么保守教会在增长》(Why Conservative Churches Growing)和Laurence R.Iannaccone对于“严格教会”和成员“逃票乘车”问题的探讨,正是解答了宗教动员如何防止集体行动失效的问题。当宗教组织的成员相信他们只有谨遵教义,恪守教规才能获得神明的青睐和救赎时,他们的宗教热情和教会贡献都将大大提升,宗教的集体动员能力也将获得最大效力。但无论如何,宗教非政府组织通过激发信徒集团成员的宗教狂热,有力地阻止了集体行动因利益分配“大锅饭”而失效的现象。
② Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:11.
① Mcduie-Ra,Ducan.Rees,John A.Religious Actors,Civil Society and Develoopment Agenda:The Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion[J].Journal of International Development.J.Int.Dev,2008.
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①徐以骅,秦倩.如何界定宗教非政府组织(代序)[A],徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008：1-2.
② Dermerath N.J., Hall,Peter Dobkin.Schmitt,Terry.William,Rhys H.Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1998.
① Kuo,David.Tempting Faith:An Inside Story of Political Seduction[M].New York:Hardcover, 2006.
② Baggett,Jerome P.Habitat for Humanity:Building Private Homes, Building Public Religion[M].Philadelphia, PA:Temple University Press,2000.
③ Bartkowski,John P., Regis,Helen A. Charitable Choice:Religion, Race and Poverty in the Post-welfare Era[M].New York:New York University Press,2003.
①Hearn,Julie.The'Invisible'NGO:US Evangelical Missions in Kenya[J].Journal of Religion in Africa, vol.32,Fasc.1
② Ferris,Elizabeth.Faith-based and Secular humanitarian Organization[J].International Review of the Red Cross,2005(87).
③有关天主教救援服务会的文献,可参见Kauffman,Christopher J.Politics, Programs, and Protests:Catholic Relief Service in Vietnam,1954-1975[J].The Catholic Historical Review, 2005(2).以及Flipse,Scott. The Last Casualty of War:Catholic Relief Service, Humanitarianism, and the War in Vietnam,1967-1968[J].Peace & Change,2002(2).
④有关世界宣明会的文献,可见Whaites, Alan.Pursuing Partnership:World Vision and the Ideology of Development——a Case Study[J].Development in Practice,1999(4).
⑤有关世界基督教协进会的文献,可见Hudson,Darril.The World Council of Churches in International Affairs[M].Leighton,Buzzard:Faith Press for the Royal Institute for International Affairs,1977; Howell,Leon.Acting in Faith:the World Council of Churches since 1975[M].London: World Council of Churches,1982; Williams,George Huntston.The World Council of Churches and Its Vancouver Theme:"Jesus Christ the Life of the World" in Historical Perspective[J].The Harward Theological Review.1983(1).
①见Dicklich,Susan.&Rice,Heather.The Mennonite Central Committee(MCC) and Faith-based NGO aid to Africa[J].Development in Practice,2004(5).
② Buzan,Barry.Waever,Ole.Wilde,Jaap de.Security:A Newramework for Analysis[M]. Boulder & London:Lynne Rienner Publishers.Inc.1998:119.
① Bruce,teve.Politics and Religion[M].MA:Blackwell publishing Inc.,2003.
②911以后,宗教极端主义的研究一时成为热点,相关著作如Bondansky,Yossef.Bin Laden:The Man who Declared War on America[M].Rochlin,CA:Form:Prime Lifstyled,2001; Burke,Jason. Al-Qaeda:The True Story of Radical Islam[M].Harmondsworth:Penguin,2004; Gunaratna, Rohan.Combating Terrirusm[M].Singaore:Times Academic Press,2004; Gerrie ter Haar. and James J. Busuttil.Bridge or Barrier:Religion, Violence and Vision for peace[M],Leiden:Brill Academic Publishers,2005; Howard, Russell D.&Sawyer, Reid.Defeating Terrorism:Shaping the New Security Environment[M].Guilford, Conn.:McGraw-Hill/Dushkin,2004.等。此外还有大量相关论文发表。
③ Haynes,Jeffrey.An Introduction to International Relations and Religion[M].London:Pearson Education Limited,2007:166.
④ Scott Thomas, Religion and International Conflict, in K.R.Dark ed.,Religion and International Relations, NY:PALGRAVE,2000; Catarina Kinnvall.Globalization and Religious Nationalism in Indian:The search for ontological security[M].London and NY:Routledge publisher,2006.
⑤ Scott Thomas, Religion and International Conflict,pp.l-3.
Scott R. Appleby.The Ambivalence of the Sacred:Religion, Violence and Reconciliation[M].Lanham, MD:Rowman&Littlefield publisher Inc.,2000.
⑦ Philip Jenkins, the Politics of Persecuted Religious Minorities, in Robert A. Seiple and Dennis R. Hoover eds., Religion and Security:The New Nexus in International Relations, Rowman&Littlefield Punblisher Inc.,2004.
① Jean Bethke Elshtain,'Military Intervention and Justice as Equal Regard',同上书。Just War, Political Authority, and Humanitarian Intervention,in John D. Carlson and Erik C. Owens eds., The Sacred and the Sovereign:Religion and International Politics, (Washington,D.C.:Georgetown University Press,2003).
② Jeffrey Haynes, An Introduction to International Relations and Religion, UK, London:Pearson Education Limited,2007.pp.123-151.
③ Jonathan Luxmoore, Jolanata Babiuch. The Vatican and The Red Flag:the Struggle for the Soul of Eatern Europ [M.London, NY:Geoffrey Chapman,1999.
④艾伦·赫茨克(Allen Hertzke)著,徐以骅、黄凯、吴志浩译：《在华盛顿代表上帝——宗教游说在美国政体中的作用》,上海世纪出版集团,2003年。
⑤ Allen Hertzke.Freeing God's Chilren:the Unlikely:Alliance for Global Human Right[M].Lanham, Maryland:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,Inc.,2004.
① Marianne R.Sanua, Let Us Prove Strong:The American Jewish Committee,1945-2006[M]. Hanover, London:Brandeis University Press,2007.
①高师宁.宗教参与中国社会生活的一种途径——以天主教‘河北进德公益服务中心’为例[A].2007年复旦大学宗教非政府组织学术研讨会会议论文。
②许桂灵、司徒尚纪.广东民族、宗教非政府组织的发展与管理[J]广东行政学院学报,2007(10).
③朱峰.当代香港基督教福利事业述评[J].福建师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版).2008(6).
④杨阳.宗教非政府组织与美国对外援助政策[A].载徐以骅编.宗教与美国社会(第二辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2004；郝平.国际发展援助中的宗教非政府组织——以“天主教救济服务会”为中心的研究[A]和朱晓黎.后冷战时期宗教非政府组织与美国对外援助政策——以天主教救援服务会为例[A].载徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2008。
①孙炜、刘奕宏.以信仰为基础非营利组织之探讨：美国与台湾经验[A].徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑).北京：时事出版社,2008.
②刘军.英国穆斯林议会’初探[A]同上书,2008.
③李琪.中亚民族国家宗教非政府组织的形成与发展[A].徐以骅、秦倩编.宗教与美国社会(第五辑),北京：时事出版社,2008.
④秦倩.试析美国法下宗教组织的法律形式[A],同上书。
⑤曹俊汉.从宗教在美国宪法上特别的地位看教会团体的运作空间.同上书,第235页。
①白彬.宗教与现代公共治理[J].山西大同大学学报(社会科学版),2008(12)：22.
②刘澎.建立‘宗教特区’,让宗教进入社会服务领域[A]此系作者2008年10月16日在第二届法律与宗教会议上的发言,转自普世社会科学网：http://www.pacilution.com/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=1589
③代表性论著包括王逸舟.全球化时代的国际安全[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1999；蔡拓,全球问题与当代国际关系[M],天津人民出版社,2002年版；陆忠伟主编：非传统安全论[M].时事出版社,2003年版；安尼瓦尔·阿木提.石油与国家安全[M].新疆人民出版社,2003年版；谢晓娟.全球化：文化冲突与文化安全[M].辽宁大学出版社,2007年版；夏保成、刘凤仙.国家安全论[M].长春人民出版社,2008年版等等,以及大量相关论文。
④郑先武.安全共同体理论探微[J].现代国际关系,2004(2)；刘胜湘.西方自由主义国际安全理论及其批评[J].太平洋学报,2005(9)；徐能武.论国际安全机制合法性与有效性的理论基础[J].东南亚纵横,2007(5)；王学军.西方国际关系理论下的国家安全研究[J].亚太安全,2007(9)；吴玉红、郭玉坤.合作安全理论基础探究[J].哈尔滨工业大学学报(社会科学版).2007(3)；潘亚玲.安全化、国际合作与国际规范的动态发展[J]外交评论,2008(6).
⑤巴里·布赞,朱宁译.新安全论[M],浙江人民出版社,2003；罗天虹.哥本哈根学派的安全理论 评析[J].教学与研究,1999(8)；朱宁.安全与非安全化——哥本哈根学派的安全研究[M].世界经济与政治,2003(10)；朱宁.对哥本哈根学派的几点质疑[J],社会观察,2003(4)；高峻.哥本哈根学派复合安全理论的修正与演进[J].教学与研究,2005(10)；郑先武.安全研究：一种‘多元主义视角’——巴瑞·布赞安全研究透析.国际政治研究,2006(4)；李明明.“社会安全理论探析”[J].欧洲研究,2006(5)；田甲.布赞的安全研究与哥本哈根学派的由来[J].国际关系学院学报.2007(5).
①金宜久、吴云贵.伊斯兰与国际热点[M].东方出版社,2001年版；金宜久、吴云贵.当代宗教与极端主义[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008.
②中国现代国际关系研究所民族与宗教研究中心：世界宗教问题大聚焦[M].北京：时事出版社,2003.
③张桥贵主编.云南跨境民族宗教社会问题研究[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008.
④徐以骅.当前国际关系中的“宗教回归”(代序)[A].徐以骅.宗教与国际关系(第四辑)(上),北京：时事出版社,2008.
①刘骞.国际安全分析呼唤宗教视角——宗教安全概念的引入尝试[A].徐以骅.宗教与国际关系(第四辑)(上),北京：时事出版社,2008：202.
②徐以骅,刘骞.宗教对国际安全的影响及其对中国的启示[A].金泽,邱永辉主编.中国宗教报告(2008).北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：218.
③徐以骅.章远.试论宗教影响中国国家安全的路径和范式.复旦学报(社会科学版),2009(4).
① 参见Berger,Julia.Religious Non-government Organizations:An Exploratory Analysis[J].Voluntas,2003,14:8-10;Natsios,Andrew S.Faith-Based NGOs and U.S. Foreign Policy[A].in Abrams,Elliot. ed.The Influence of Faith:Religious Group and U.S. Policy[M].Maryland:Rowman&Littlefield Publisher.Inc.2001:190-191;Ferri.Elizabeth.Faith-Based and Humanitarian Organizations[J].International Interview of the Red Cross[J].June2005,87(858):312.
② 参见Jeavons,Thomas H.Identify Characteristics of "Religious" Organization[A], In DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998.
③ 参见Smith, Steven Rathgeb., Sosin, Michael R.,The Variety of Faith-Related Agencies[J].Public Administration Review,Nov.-Doc.2001,61(6).
①李峰.国际社会中的国际宗教非政府组织[N].复旦大学博士后研究工作报告,2009：19-22.
②徐以骅,秦倩.如何界定宗教非政府组织(代序).徐以骅,秦倩.宗教与美国社会(第五辑)[M].北京：时事出版社,2009：21.
③李峰：《国际社会中的国际宗教非政府组织》,第22页。
④ Robert Wuthnow, Saving American?Faith-based Service and the Future of Civil Society, Princeon and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2004,p.43.
⑤ Sider,Ronald and Unruh, Heidi Rolland.Typoligy of Religious Characteristic of Social Service and Educational Organizations and Programs[J].Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quaterly 33,,2004(1):112-115;117-118.转引自郝平：“国际发展援助中的宗教非政府组织”,徐以骅、秦倩、范丽珠编《宗教与美国社会(第五辑)》,第47-48页。
① Davidson, James D., Koch,Jerome,Byond Mutual and Public Benefits[A]. In DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:293-294.
②王名.走向公民社会——我国社会组织发展的历史和趋势[J].吉林大学社会科学学报,2009,43(3)：7.
③李瑛：“多极化时代的安全观：从国家安全到世界安全”,《世界经济与政治》,1998年第5期,第12页。
④ Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration.转引自Roger Carey&Trevor C.Salmon, International Security in the Modern World. NY:St. Martin's Press,1992. p.13.
⑤王逸舟：“论综合安全”,《世界经济与政治》,1998年第4期,第5页。
① Buzan,Barry.,Waever,Ole. Jaap de Wilde.Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder,London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:3-4.
②彼得·卡赞斯坦,罗伯特·基欧汉,斯蒂芬·克拉斯那主编,秦亚青译.世界政治理论的探索与争鸣[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：45.
③ Wolfers, Arnold., Discord and Collaboration:Essays on International Politics[M]. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press,1962:151.
① Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:29.
②朱宁.对哥本哈根学派的几点质疑[J].社会观察,2003(04)：35.
① Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:91.
② Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:119.
①安东尼·史密斯著,叶江译.民族主义——理论,意识形态,历史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：19.
②F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：160.
③ Carnegie Commission on Preventing deadly Conflict[M].New York:Carnegie Corporation of New York,1997:30.转引自F.佩蒂多,P哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：159.
① Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:141.
② Buzan,Barry.& Waever, Ole.&Jaap de Wilde, Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. Boulder, London:Lynne Riebber Publishers,1998:142.
① Buzan,Barry.Waever,Ole.Wilde Jaap de.Security:A New Framework for Analysis[M]. London:Lynne Rienner Publishers,1998:165.
②潘亚玲.安全化、国际合作与国际规范的动态发展[J].外交评论,2008(6)：52.
③“安全化他者”事实上是制造敌人的过程,相关论述可参见尤尔根·哈贝马斯著.曹卫东译.《包容他者》.上海：上海人民出版社,2002年；塞缪尔·亨廷顿著.程克雄译.我们是谁?美国国家特性面临的挑战北京[M].新华出版社2005年；安东尼·吉登斯著,胡宗泽、赵力涛译,王铭铭校.民族—国家与暴力[M].上海：生活·读书·新知三联书店,1998年；R.D.Ashmore andD.Wilder,eds.,Social Identity,Intergroup Conflict,and ConflictReduction,[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press.2001等等。
①关于“祛魅”和“世俗化”,马克斯·韦伯的解释是：“我们的时代,是一个理性、理智化得时代,总之是世界祛除巫魅的时代；这个时代的命运,是一切终极而最崇高的价值从公共生活中隐退——或遁入神秘生活的超越领域,或流于直接人际关系的博爱。”(参见彼得·贝格尔著,高师宁译.神圣的帷幕：宗教社会学理论之要素[M].上海人民出版社,1991：16.)然而,20世纪70、80年代除欧洲以外全球宗教复兴的种种现象,却使这一“世俗化”理论受到挑战,彼得·贝格尔也不得不承认：“我们生活在一个世俗化世界里这一设定是虚假的。当今世界除了个别的例外,宗教同过去一样兴旺发达,有些地方甚至有过之而无不及。这就意味着历史学家和社会科学界所说的含糊不清的‘世俗化理论’从根本上来说是错误的......现代化的确招致某些世俗化的结果,但是它同时也唤起了强有力的反世俗化运动。”参见Berger,P.L.The Desecularization of the World:A Global Overview[J].The National Intreret.No.46.(Winter 1996/1997):
②F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：151.
① Jeffrey Haynes.An Introduction to International Relations and Religion[M].England,Edinburgh Gate:Pearson Education Limited,2007:177.
① Alexander Wendt.Constructing International Politics[J].International Security, Summer 1995,20(1):73.
②F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：160.
③ Alexander Wendt.Constructing International Politics[J].International Security,Summer 1995,20(1):74.
④ Otis,Pauletta.Religion and War in the Twebty-first Century[A].in Seiple, Robert A. and Hoover, Dennis R. eds., Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M]. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2004:16.
⑤ Appleby,R.Scott.The Ambivalence of the Sacred:Religion,Violence,and Reconciliation[M]. Lanham, Boulder:Rowman&Littlefield Publishers.Inc.,2000:29.
①哈森克勒夫,福尔克·里森伯格著.宗教的作用何在?——信仰对政治冲突之影响的理论分析[A].载F.佩蒂多,P哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社.2009：162-169.
②Thomas,Scott.Religion and International Conflict[A]. in Dark,K.R.ed.Religion and international Relations[M]. New York:Palgrave,2000:1-2.
① Hurd,Ian.Legitimacy and Authority in the International Politics[J].International Organizations,53(2),1999:381.
②彼得·贝格尔著,高师宁译.神圣的帷幕：宗教社会学理论之要素[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1991：160.
③ Fox,Jonathan., Sandler,Shmuel.,Bring Religion into International Relations[M]. New York:Palgrave,2004:37.
① Thomas,Scott.Religion and International Conflict[A].in Dark,K.R. ed.Religion and International Relations, New York:PALGRAVE,2000:4.
② Ibid.,4.
① Dimaggio,Paul.The Relevance of Organization Theory to the Study[A]. In DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:14.
② Appleby,R.Scott.The Ambivalence of the Sacred:Religion,Violence,and Reconciliation[M]. Lanham, Boulder:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Inc.,2000:58.
③关于美国外交战略中非政府组织的影响,可参见李立凡,刘锦前.美国中亚战略棋盘上的非政府组织.国际问题研究,2005(8).
① Marcel Fafchamps, "Social capital, trust and development, social development strategy,"见世界银行网站：http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/214578-111288861728 1/20549279/Fafchamps3.pdf http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/214578-111288861728 1/20549279/Fafchamps3.pdf
②劳斯特森,奥利·维夫.保卫宗教——宗教指涉对象的安全化[A].载F.佩蒂多,P.哈兹波罗编,张新樟,奚颖瑞,吴斌译.国际关系中的宗教[M].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009：227.
① N.J.Demerath, Peter Dobkin Hall, Terry Schmitt, Rhys H.Williams eds., Sacred Companies: Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1998:381.
① Williams,Rhys H.Organizational Change in Theikigucak Schools:Dilemmas of Ideology and Resource[A] in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization.[M],New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:12.
② Chaves,Mark.Denominations as Dual Structures:An OrganizationalAnalysis[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M]. New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:179-181.
③ Davidson,James D.,Koch,Jerome R.Beyond Mutual and Public Benefits:The Inward and Outward Orientations of Non-Profit Organization[A],in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:293.
① Steven Rathgeb Smith, Michael R.Sosin.The Varieties of faith-related Agencies[J].in Public Administration Review,2001,61(6):651-670.
② Wuthnow,Robert.Saving American?Faith-based Service and the Future of Civil Society[M].Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2004, p.147.
③ Stout,Harry S.,Cormode,D.Scott.Institutions and the Story of American Religion[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M]. New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:66.
① Wuthnow,Robert.Saving American?Faith-based Service and the Future of Civil Society[M].Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,2004:158-161.
② Stout,Harry S.,Cormode,D.Scott.Institutions and the Story of American Religion[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].New York, Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:64.
① Stout,Harry S.,Cormode,D.Scott.Institutions and the Story of American Religion[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M].Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,1998:73.
② Strict church最早由美国宗教社会学家迪恩·凯利(Dean M.Kelley)提出,他认为理想的“严格教会”具有三种特征：绝对性、一致性和狂热性,相比较为松散的教会组织,“严格教会”通常更强调某种绝对无谬误的权威,要求信徒遵守更严格的教规和特殊的生活方式,更加拒斥世俗社会,离群索居,不问世事。劳伦斯·艾纳孔(Laurence R.Iannaccone)将其简单归纳为“在某种程度上限制非教会活动,以致使进行此种活动的成本大大升高”。参见Innaccone,Laurence R.,Why Strict Church Are Strong[A],in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M], Princeton and Oxford:Princeton University Press,1998:270.
①苏丹政府网站：http://www.sudan.gov.sd/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=313:mr-kamal-abd elatif-addresses-leaders-of-public-service-on-repercussions-of-expelling-some-foreign-ngos-from-darfur-&catid=45:2008-06-06-15-26-14&Itemid=73 (2009-9-20)
① Jenkins, Philip.The Politics of Persecuted Relgious Minorities[A],in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M] Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.2004:34.
② Zald,Mayer N.McCarthy,John D.Religous Group as Crucibles of Social Movements[A].in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M].Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press,1998:25.
①庄辉.从边缘到主流：基督教新右翼适应世俗政治的过程——“道德多数派”与“基督教联盟”之比较研究[A].徐以骅编.《宗教与美国社会(第一辑)》.时事出版社2004：256.
Fowler,Robert Booth,Hertzke,Allen D.,Olson,Laura R.Religion and Politics in American:Faith,Culture,and Strategic Choice[M]. Colorado:Westview Press,1999:145.
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④Ramet,Sabrina Petra.ed.Protastantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:The Communist and Postcommunist Eras[M].Duke University Press,1992:59.
① Morris,A.D.The Origions of The Civil Society Movement:Black Communities Organizing for Change[M].New York:Free Press,1984:139.
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① Berger,Peter.Religion and Global Civil Society[A], in Religion & Security:The New Nexus in International Relations[M], NY:Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,2004:12.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:1.
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① Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:124.
② Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:233.
③ Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:109.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:122.
②“认信教会”是纳粹德国时期新教基督徒冒着镇压的风险,脱离被纳粹控制的国家教会而建立的独立教会,二战期间“认信教会”成员与其他地下抵抗组织共同反抗纳粹专制,为教会赢得良好声誉,并在二战结束后重掌权力,使德国教会的“去纳粹化”得以顺利实行。
①“世俗专制主义”一词是由Paul Mojzes提出的,Paul将政教关系模式分为四种类型,教会专制主义(ecclesiastic absolutism)、宗教宽容(religious toleration)、世俗专制主义和多元化自由主义(pluralistic liberty),世俗专制主义即以无神论为统治意识形态,禁止所有宗教的政教模式。参见Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M].New York:Columbia University Press,1992:8.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religous Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1992:295.
② Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:5.
① Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:62.
② Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:219.
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②莫纪宏.我国宗教组织的法律地位[J].金陵法律评论,2009年春季卷：38.
③J.M.英格.宗教的科学研究(下册)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2009：579-584.
① Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:29-30.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:30.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:55.
① Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:116.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungary,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M]. Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:28-29.
① Gautier,Mary L. Church elites and the restoration of civil society in the communist societies of central Europe[J].in Journal of Church & State,1998,40(2)
① Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:92.
②高歌.从莫斯科到布鲁塞尔——东欧政治剧变和国家主权的维护和让渡[J].欧洲研究.2004(2)：64.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.Protestantism and Communism:Patterns of Interaction in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union[A]. in Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Protestantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:The Communist and Postcommunist Eras[M].Duke University Press,1992:4-5.
① Wiilams,Rhys H.,DemerathIII,N.J.Cultural Power:How Underdog Religious and Nonreligious Movements Triumph Against Structural Odds[A].in DemerathⅢ,N.J.,Hall,Peter Dobkin.,Schmitt,Terry.,Williams, Rhys H.eds.Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998:367.
② Ibid.,369.
① Salomon,Kim.The Peacemovement:A Anti-Establishment Movement[J].Journal of Peace Research,Jun.1986,23 (2):116.
② Russell,Frederick H.The Just War in the Middle Ages[M].Cambrige:Cambrige University Press,1975:263.
③托马斯·阿奎那著.马清槐译.《阿奎那政治著作选》[M].北京：商务印书馆,1963：135-136.
①和平运动的“跨国互动网络”(TIN)一词是由美国学者Welling Hall提出,他认为INGO、NGO和TIN同时存在于全球和平运动中,并共同推进运动发展,TIN相比NGO最大的差别在于TIN是分散性的网络,而NGO通常以某一领导机构为核心。详细参见：Hall,B.Wellng.The Church and the Independent Peace Movement in Eastern Europe[J].Journal of Peace Research,Jun.1986,23(2):194.
① Hall,B.Wellng.The Church and the Independent Peace Movement in Eastern Europe[J].Journal of Peace Research,Jun.1986,23(2):198.
②“欧洲因良心拒服兵役局”(European Bureau for Conscientious Objection,简称EBCO)网站：http://www.ebco-beoc.eu/page/luside/archive/co-history.htm
①C·布雷德利·沙尔夫,秦刚,蔡予民,田国良译.民主德国的政治与变革[M].北京：春秋出版社,1988：172
②Ramet,Sabrina Petra.Protestism in Eastern Germany,1949-1989:A Summing Up[A].in Ramet,Sabrina Petra ed.Protestism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:Communist and Postcommunist Eras,Duke University Press,1992:41.
③ Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:55.
① Klippenstein,Lawrence.Conscientious Objectors in Eastern Europe:The Quest for Free Choice and Alternative Service[A].in Ramet,Sabrina Petra ed.Protestism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia:Communist and Postcommunist Eras,Duke University Press,1992:280.
① http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-5158.html
② Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:65.
①Buzan,Barry.Waever,Ole.Wilde,Jaap de.Security:Anew Framework for Analysis[M].London:Lynne Rienner Publishers.Inc.,1998:31.
①http://www.georgefox.edu/academics/undergrad/departments/soc-swk/ree/ALTHAUSE.html
② Gautier,Mary L. Church elites and the restoration of civil society in the communist societies of central Europe[J].in Journal of Church & State,1998,40(2)
③李华.戈尔巴乔夫反对德国统一立场的软化及其原因[J].历史研究,2005(10)：48.
①Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation [M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:67.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia [M].Duke University Press,1998:84.
② Ramet,Sabrina P.ed.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:84
③自二战结束以来,宗教信徒的数量就开始急剧减少,从东德成立之初教会成员占全国人口的 90%以上,到1990年,只有32%的东德公民承认相信上帝,54%的人宣称自己是无神论者。很多教会人士希望社会主义政权崩溃后,教会能够在新的政治环境中复苏,但事实上未能如此,东德新教人数没有明显增加,教会不得不迅速调适自己适应和接受过去五十年里联邦德国教会所经历过的世俗化浪潮的挑战。参见Pollack,Detlef.The Change in Religion and Church in Eastern Germany:A Rsearch Note[J].Sociology of Religion, (Autumn.2002),63(3):373,386.
① Mojzes,Paul.Religious Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M].New York:Columbia University Press,1992:274.
②范达人.简论波兰的宗教势力[J].俄罗斯研究,1985(5)：52.
③ Mocha,Frank ed.American "Polonia" and Poland:A Sequel to Poles in America[M].New York:Columbia Universitu Press,1998:4.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion, Politics,and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M]. Durham&London:Duke University Press,1998,93.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungry,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M].Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:108.
③ Wojzes,Paul.Religious Liberty in Eastern Europe and the USSR:Before and After the Great Transformation[M].New York:Columbia University Press,1992:279.
① Elizabeth Valkenier.The Catholic Church in Commiunist Poland,1945-1955[J].The Review of Politics,1956,18(3):308.
① DemerathⅢ,N.J.Snatchin Defeat form Victory in the Decline of Liberal Protestantism[A],in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization[M],1998:156..
① Michel,Patrick.Religion,Communism,and Democracy in Central Europe:The Polish Case[A].in Swatos,William H.Jr.,ed.Politics and Religion in Central and Eastern Europe:Tranditions and Transitions[M], Westport:Praeger Publiser,1994:120.
① Ramet,Sabrina.Social Currents in Eastern Europe:The Sources and Consequences of the Great Transformation[M].Durham and London:Duke University Press,1995:154.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungry,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M].Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:108.
③ Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungry,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M].Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:77.
① Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungry,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M].Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:82.
② Michel,Patrick.Politics and Religion in Eastern Europe:Catholicism in Hungry,Poland and Czechoslovakia[M].Cambrige:Polity Press,1991:86.
③ Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:101.
④战后波兰总共经历了三次威胁执政党地位的政治危机：第一次是1956年波兹南事件,第二次是1970年的“十二月事件”,第三次即1980年的“八月事件”,最后一次促发了团结工会的兴 起。
①刘祖熙,刘邦义.波兰战后的三次危机[M].北京：世界知识出版社,1992：163.
① Borowik,Irena.The Roman Catholic Church in the Process of Democratic Transformation:The Case of Poland[J].Social Compass,2002,49(2):241.
② Borowik,Irena.The Roman Catholic Church in the Process of Democratic Transformation:The Case of Poland[J].Social Compass,2002,49(2):239.
①波兰宗教势力不断膨胀及政教间激烈斗争[N].国际展望,1983(06)：11.
① Ramet,Sabrina P.Religion,Politics and Social Change in East-Central Europe and Russia[M].Duke University Press,1998:102.
①卓新平.当代中国宗教研究：问题与思路[A].见金泽,邱永辉主编.中国宗教报告(2008)[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：9-10.
②Bays,Daniel H.A Tradition of State Dominance[A].in Kindopp,Jason,Hamrin,Carol Lee.eds.God and Caesar in China:Policy Implications of Church-State Tensions[M].Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2004:26.
③徐以骅认为,中国内外政治环境的变化及事件,都会成为影响宗教与中国国家安全关系结构的因素,“宗教与中国国家安全的关系是错综复杂、正反作用交叉的。宗教影响国家安全的组织和思想双重维度和多重范式,也决定了宗教在国家安全考量中主观性和客观性兼具、固态性和流动性并存。概言之,对国家安全而言,宗教是多功能工具。”
①周恩来.《周恩来选集》(下卷)[Ml.北京：人民出版社,1984：401.
②周恩来.发挥人民民主统一战线积极作用的几个问题[A].见周恩来.《周恩来统一战线文选》,北京：人民出版社,1984：425.
①王作安.我国宗教状况的新变化[J].中央社会主义学院学报,2008,153(3)：51.
②牟钟鉴.中国宗教问题.怎么样怎么看怎么办[J]领导之友,2009(1)：36.
③ Shen,Mingming and Yan,Jie.World Values Survey,China 2007[Sampel Rrport/OnLine],World Values Survey Website,2009-12-1.
④根据2000年World Values Survey对中国信仰状况的调查,中国大陆自认的宗教信徒占总人口13.7%,无神论者占24%。数据来源：World Values Surveys,People's Republic of China,and other 66 countries:2000; Taiwam:1995,转引自Yang,Fenggang.Religion in China under Communism:A Shortage Economy Explanation[J],Journal of Church and State Advance Access,2009,(19):9-10.
①王作安.我国宗教状况的新变化[Jl.中央社会主义学院学报,2008,153(3)：52.
②卓新平.当代中国宗教研究：问题与思路[A].见：卓新平.“全球化”的宗教与当代中国[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008：232.
①中共中央、国务院关于进一步做好宗教工作若干问题的通知[A].中共中央文献研究室综合研究组,国务院宗教事务局政策法规司编.新时期宗教工作文献选编[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：213-221.
②“三股势力”指打着宗教旗号的极端主义、分裂主义和国际恐怖主义势力。见：王作安.中国的宗教问题和宗教政策[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：266.
③江泽民.一定要做好宗教工作[A].见：中共中央文献研究室综合研究组、国务院宗教事务局政策法规司编.新时期宗教工作文献选编[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：198.
① Thomas,Scott M.The Global Resurgence of Religion and The Transformation of International Relations:The Struggle for the Soul of the Twenty-First Century[M].New York:PALGRAVE MACMILLAN,2005:26.
① McCarthy,Susan K.Mao,Metta and Muhammad:Faith-based Civil Society in Contemporary China[A],Paper submited for 2007 annual meeting of the Western Political Science Association,March8-10,Las Vegas.
①世界宣明会网站：http://www.worldvision.cn/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=236&Itemid=95 (2009-12-12)
②高师宁.从汶川大地震看宗教在现代社会的作用[J].中国宗教,2008(6)：46.
①云南省政府信息公开门户网站丽江市永胜县政府信息公开门户网站：http://www.ynf.gov.cn/newsview.aspx?id=711008(2009-12-14)
②此分类来自复旦大学秦倩老师2010年1月14日在国际关系与公共事务学院的报告：在华境外宗教非政府组织研究。该研究对现有的中国宗教非政府组织进行了极为详细的界定和分类,即：国际宗教非政府组织、港澳台背景的宗教非政府组织、宗教性本土组织和有官方背景的宗教性非政府组织(GONGO)。
①李峰.国际社会中的国际宗教非政府组织[D].上海：复旦大学,2009：25.
②Voice of Martyr网站：http://www.persecution.com/public/aboutVOM.aspx?clickfrom=bWFpbl9tZW51 (2010-1-11)
①张桥贵主编.云南跨境民族宗教社会问题研究(之一)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：61-62.
②张桥贵主编.云南跨境民族宗教社会问题研究(之一)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,2008：179-182.
①李鹏.进一步重视、关心和做好宗教工作[A].见：中共中央文献研究室综合研究组、国务院宗教事务局政策法规司编.新时期宗教工作文献选编[M].北京：宗教文化出版社,2003：194-195.
①对于E组织的研究材料主要来自于网站和对该组织负责人的访谈,由于保密等缘故本文将隐去该组织的名称,仅以“E组织”代替。
②E组织网站：http://www.eastgates.org/eastgates.html#how (2010-1-28)
① Open Door USA(简称ODU)是一个以“向铁幕国家输送圣经”,“帮助受迫害的基督徒”为目的的美国基督教非政府组织,中国也是他们的输送目的地之一。1985年,该组织即利用海水潮汐,向我国沿海非法投放约100万册《圣经》,这一号称“珍珠港计划”(Project Pearl)的行动曾在美国引起轰动,但实际上这些圣经大部分佚失在途中。80年代末,原ODU组织中的一些成员和一些中国家庭教会转向合法的宣教路径,筹建“E组织”组织。见ODU网站：http://www.opendoorsusa.org/content/view/61/49/(2010-1-28)
② Graham,Ned.Testimony Before the Senate Committee on Finance:US-China Trade Relations and the Impace on Religious Activity in the PRC[R/OL].East Gates Internaional Website: http://www.eastgates.org/papers.html(2010-1-28)
①E组织网站：http://www.eastgates.org/projectlight-2.html (2010-1-30)
②E组织网站：http://www.eastgates.org/faqs.html#8
①见葛纳德在美国参院的听证会发言：Graham,Ned.Testimony Before the Senate Committee on Finance:US-China Trade Relations and the Impace on Religious Activity in the PRC[R/OL].East Gates Internaional Website:http://www.eastgates.org/papers.html (2010-1-28)
① 爱德基金会网站：http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/aboutus/Aboutus-0101lv.aspx (2010/1/31)
①爱德基金会网站：http://www.amityfoundation.org.cn/article/view3188.aspx (2010/2/1)
②爱德基金会.2008年度报告[N].2008：5.
③爱德基金会.2008年度报告[N].2008：8.
①爱德基金会.2008年度报告[N].2008：10.
① Smith,Steven Rathgeb.Sosin,Michael R.The Varities of Faith-Related Agencies[J].Public Administration Review.61(6),2001:655.
② Chaves,Mark.Denominations as Dual Structures:An OrganizationalAnalysis[A].in Sacred Companies:Organizational Aspects of Religion and Religious Aspects of Organization.[M],1998:177.
① Smith,Steven Rathgeb.Sosin,Michael R.The Varities of Faith-Related Agencies[J].Public Administration Review.61(6),2001:655..
① Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:1.
② Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:1
①徐以骅,章远：试论宗教影响中国国家安全的路径和范式[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),2009(4)：110.
②Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:9-22.
①事实上,教会团体也有集体行动失效的现象,尤其是自由化的宗教团体更是如此。前文所述的Dean Kelly曾在《为什么保守教会在增长》(Why Conservative Churches Growing)和Laurence R.Iannaccone对于“严格教会”和成员“逃票乘车”问题的探讨,正是解答了宗教动员如何防止集体行动失效的问题。当宗教组织的成员相信他们只有谨遵教义,恪守教规才能获得神明的青睐和救赎时,他们的宗教热情和教会贡献都将大大提升,宗教的集体动员能力也将获得最大效力。但无论如何,宗教非政府组织通过激发信徒集团成员的宗教狂热,有力地阻止了集体行动因利益分配“大锅饭”而失效的现象。
② Smith,Christian.Correcting a Curious Neglect,Or Bring Religion Back In[A].in Smith,Christian ed.Disruptive Religion:The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activisim[M].New York:Routledge,1996:11.
① Mcduie-Ra,Ducan.Rees,John A.Religious Actors,Civil Society and Develoopment Agenda:The Dynamics of Inclusion and Exclusion[J].Journal of International Development.J.Int.Dev,2008.
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