智力障碍者自尊与社会比较的研究
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摘要
智力障碍者是社会中的弱势群体,他们因自身所存在的缺陷而经常遭遇各种困难和阻碍。随着智力障碍者的生活质量和心理健康日益得到重视,他们的自尊和社会比较因其与各种心理疾病的密切关系而逐渐引起了研究者的兴趣和关注
本研究通过探讨智力障碍者的自尊和社会比较的特点以及彼此关系,旨在进一步了解其内在机制,进而找到合适的干预方法,以达到提高智力障碍者生活质量的目的。
本研究以来自于上海阳光之家和初职校的21名智力障碍者为研究对象,采取问卷法、访谈法和实验法,对智力障碍者的自尊和社会比较的特点以及相互关系进行了探讨。研究发现：(1)智力障碍者的自尊水平偏低,他们对自我的评价比正常人更加消极。不同性别的智力障碍者的自尊没有显示出显著性差异,但安置在不同机构的智力障碍者的自尊存在差异,其中来自阳光之家的智力障碍者自尊水平高于来自初等职业技术学校的智力障碍者；(2)智力障碍者进行社会比较的倾向适中,即不经常做比较也不完全不做比较；(3)智力障碍者偏好上行社会比较,即和比自己强的对象进行比较；(4)智力障碍者对社会比较对象的评价受对象的类型影响,他们倾向于对老师和比自己强的同学给出较高的评价,而对比自己差的同学给出较低的评价；(5)智力障碍者对社会比较对象的评价还受自尊变化的影响,当自尊降低时智力障碍者对比自己差的同学的评价会变得更低；(6)智力障碍者具有稳定的上行社会比较倾向,即无论自尊是否降低他们都倾向于和比自己强的对象进行比较；(7)智力障碍者进行社会比较后所产生的情绪反应,往往积极的情绪反应多于消极的情绪反应。
最后,本研究总结了以上的研究结果,并指出智力障碍者的自尊和社会比较同时受到自我增强和自我保护的影响,而本研究中的对象受到自我增强的影响更大,这可能是因为其生活学习的环境具有安全的特性所导致的。
Nowadays researchers have paid more and more attention to the psychological health and quality of life of people with intellectual disability, who are the weak group in society and faced with a variety of difficulties and obstacles in their lives due to their deficit. Since self-esteem and social comparison have been proven to be closely related to psychological problems in people with intellectual disability, self-esteem and social comparison and their relationships have caught more and more researchers' eyes.
This study focuses on the characteristics of self-esteem, social comparison, and their relationship in people with intellectual disability, in order to explore the factors that influenced these characteristics, work out appropriate intervention methods to change the self-esteem and social comparison in people with intellectual disability, and improve their quality of life in the end.
This study examines the characteristics of self-esteem, social comparison, and their relationship in 21 individuals with intellectual disability from the Sun House and a secondary technical school in Shanghai by questionnaire, interview and experiment. The results showed that:(1) the level of self-esteem in people with intellectual disability is relatively lower and their self evaluation is more negative than nondisabled people. Gender difference in self-esteem in people with intellectual disability was not found while participants from the Sun House show higher level of self-esteem than those from the school; (2) people with intellectual disability showed moderate social comparison orientation in this study, and that means they compare themselves with others neither frequently nor barely; (3) people with intellectual disability seemed to prefer upward social comparisons; (4) the evaluation of the comparison targets of people with intellectual disability is influenced by who the target is. Individuals with intellectual disability prefer giving higher evaluations to their teachers and more talent peers and lower evaluations to less talent peers; (5) the evaluation is also influenced by self-esteem. People with intellectual disability gave even lower evaluations to their less talent peers when their self-esteem is threatened; (6) Whether self-esteem changes or not, individuals with intellectual disability hold their preferences to the upward social comparison; (7) Among the emotions appear after the comparisons, positive emotions are significantly more than negative ones.
At the end of this study, a summary has been made and the influences made by self-enhancement and self-protection on self-esteem and social comparison in people with intellectual disability have been discussed. Intellectual disabled participants seem to prefer self-enhancement due to the safe conditions they have.
本研究通过探讨智力障碍者的自尊和社会比较的特点以及彼此关系,旨在进一步了解其内在机制,进而找到合适的干预方法,以达到提高智力障碍者生活质量的目的。
本研究以来自于上海阳光之家和初职校的21名智力障碍者为研究对象,采取问卷法、访谈法和实验法,对智力障碍者的自尊和社会比较的特点以及相互关系进行了探讨。研究发现：(1)智力障碍者的自尊水平偏低,他们对自我的评价比正常人更加消极。不同性别的智力障碍者的自尊没有显示出显著性差异,但安置在不同机构的智力障碍者的自尊存在差异,其中来自阳光之家的智力障碍者自尊水平高于来自初等职业技术学校的智力障碍者；(2)智力障碍者进行社会比较的倾向适中,即不经常做比较也不完全不做比较；(3)智力障碍者偏好上行社会比较,即和比自己强的对象进行比较；(4)智力障碍者对社会比较对象的评价受对象的类型影响,他们倾向于对老师和比自己强的同学给出较高的评价,而对比自己差的同学给出较低的评价；(5)智力障碍者对社会比较对象的评价还受自尊变化的影响,当自尊降低时智力障碍者对比自己差的同学的评价会变得更低；(6)智力障碍者具有稳定的上行社会比较倾向,即无论自尊是否降低他们都倾向于和比自己强的对象进行比较；(7)智力障碍者进行社会比较后所产生的情绪反应,往往积极的情绪反应多于消极的情绪反应。
最后,本研究总结了以上的研究结果,并指出智力障碍者的自尊和社会比较同时受到自我增强和自我保护的影响,而本研究中的对象受到自我增强的影响更大,这可能是因为其生活学习的环境具有安全的特性所导致的。
Nowadays researchers have paid more and more attention to the psychological health and quality of life of people with intellectual disability, who are the weak group in society and faced with a variety of difficulties and obstacles in their lives due to their deficit. Since self-esteem and social comparison have been proven to be closely related to psychological problems in people with intellectual disability, self-esteem and social comparison and their relationships have caught more and more researchers' eyes.
This study focuses on the characteristics of self-esteem, social comparison, and their relationship in people with intellectual disability, in order to explore the factors that influenced these characteristics, work out appropriate intervention methods to change the self-esteem and social comparison in people with intellectual disability, and improve their quality of life in the end.
This study examines the characteristics of self-esteem, social comparison, and their relationship in 21 individuals with intellectual disability from the Sun House and a secondary technical school in Shanghai by questionnaire, interview and experiment. The results showed that:(1) the level of self-esteem in people with intellectual disability is relatively lower and their self evaluation is more negative than nondisabled people. Gender difference in self-esteem in people with intellectual disability was not found while participants from the Sun House show higher level of self-esteem than those from the school; (2) people with intellectual disability showed moderate social comparison orientation in this study, and that means they compare themselves with others neither frequently nor barely; (3) people with intellectual disability seemed to prefer upward social comparisons; (4) the evaluation of the comparison targets of people with intellectual disability is influenced by who the target is. Individuals with intellectual disability prefer giving higher evaluations to their teachers and more talent peers and lower evaluations to less talent peers; (5) the evaluation is also influenced by self-esteem. People with intellectual disability gave even lower evaluations to their less talent peers when their self-esteem is threatened; (6) Whether self-esteem changes or not, individuals with intellectual disability hold their preferences to the upward social comparison; (7) Among the emotions appear after the comparisons, positive emotions are significantly more than negative ones.
At the end of this study, a summary has been made and the influences made by self-enhancement and self-protection on self-esteem and social comparison in people with intellectual disability have been discussed. Intellectual disabled participants seem to prefer self-enhancement due to the safe conditions they have.
引文
[1]Alicke M.D. (2000). Evaluating Social Comparison Targets. Handbook of Social Comparison, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York:271-293.
[2]Alicke M.D., LoSchiavo F.M., Zerbst J.I.,& Zhang S. (1997). The person who outperforms me is a genius:Esteem maintenance in upward social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,73:781-789.
[3]Baumeister R.F., Tice D.M.,& Hutton D.G (1989). Self-presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 57:547-579.
[4]Beach S.R.H., and Tesser A. (2000). Self-evaluation Maintenance and evolution. Handbook of Social Comparison, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York:123-140.
[5]Brooks R.B. (1992). Self-esteem during the school years:Its normal development and hazardous decline. Pediatr Clin North Am.39:517-550.
[6]Butzer B., Kuiper A.N. (2006). Relationships between the frequency of social comparisons and self-concept clarity intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety, and depression. Personality and Individual Differences,41:167-176.
[7]Buunk P. B., Collins R.L., Taylor E.S.,& VanYperen W.N. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison:either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,59(6)1238-1249.
[8]Collins R.L. (1996). For better or worse:the impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin,119(1):51-69.
[9]Cooney G., Jahoda A., Gumley A.,& Knott F. (2006). Young people with intellectual disabilities attending mainstream and segregated schooling perceived stigma, social comparison and future aspiration[J]. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,50(6):432-444.
[10]Coopersmith S. (1967).The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. Calif WH Freeman, San Francisco.
[11]Corrigan W. P., Watson C. A.,& Baar L. (2006). The self-stigma of mental illness implications for self-esteem and self-efficacy. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,25(9):875-884.
[12]Crocker J.& Major B. (1989). Social stigma and self-Esteem:the self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review,96 (4):608-630.
[13]Dagnan D.,& Sandhu S. (1999). Social comparison, self-esteem and depression in people with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,43(5): 372-379.
[14]Dixon R., Marsh W. H.,& Williamson A. (2000). Stigma theory and social comparison theory:what can they tell us about the self concept of adults with mild intellectual disabilities. Self-Concept Theory, Rsearch and Practice Advances for the New Millennium. Collected Papers of the Inaugural Self-Concept Enhancement and Learning Facilitation (SELF) Research Centre International Conference, Sydney, Australia, October 5-6:451-457.
[15]Facchini R. L.(1996). Self esteem in young adults with mild mental retardation. Dissertation Abstracts International:Section B:The Sciences and Engineering, 56(10-B):5793.
[16]Festinger L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7:117-140.
[17]Garaigordobil M.,& Perez J. (2007). Self-concept, self-esteem and psychopathological symptoms in persons with intellectual disability. The Spanish Journal of Psychology,10(1):141-150.
[18]Gibbons F. X.,& Buunk A. P. (2006). Social comparison orientation:A new perspective on those who do, and those who don't compare with others. In S. Guimond (Ed.),Social Comparison and Social Psychology:Understanding Cognition, Intergroup Relations and Culture. Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.
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[20]Gibbons X. F., Buunk P. B. (1999). Individual differences in social comparisons: development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,76(1):129-142.
[21]Glenn S.& Cunningham C. (2004). Self-awareness in young adults with down syndrome:Ⅰ. awareness of down syndrome and disability. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education,51(4):335-361.
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[23]Goffman E. (1986). Stigma:notes on the management of spoiled identity. Touchstone, New York.
[24]James.W
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[27]Martin R.C., Thompson D.R.,& Chan D.S. (2006). An examination of the psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) in Chinese acute coronary syndrome (ACS) patients. Psychology, Health and Medicine,11(4): 507-512.
[28]Orth U., Robin W.R.,& Roberts W. B. (2008). Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,95(3):695-708.
[29]Paterson L. (2007). Stigma, social comparison and psychological distress in adults with a learning disability. Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Edinburgh.
[30]Rosenberg, F. (1995). Global self-esteem and specific. self-esteem:Different concepts, different outcomes. American Sociological Review,60:141-158.
[31]Schmitt D. P.,& Brekke J. S. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations:exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. J Pers Soc Psycho,89 (4):623-642.
[32]Sheeran P., Abrams D.,& Orbell S. (1995). Unemployment,self-Esteem, and depression:a social comparison theory approach. Basic and Applied Social Psychology,77(1&2):65-82.
[33]Smith R.H. (2000). Assimilative and contrastive emotional reactions to upward and downward social comparisons. Handbook of Social Comparison, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York:173-200.
[34]Suls J.,& Wheeler L. (2000). Handbook of Social Comparison. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.
[35]Sze, S.& Valentin, S. (2007). Self-concept and children with disablities. Education,127 (4),552-557.
[36]Szivos-Bach S. E. (1993). Social comparisons, stigma and mainstreaming The self esteem of young adults with a mild mental handicap. Mental Handicap Research, 6(3):217-236.
[37]Tallat G, Kamal A.,& Mccarthy S. (2009). Depression as a moderator in the relationship between direction of social comparison and self Esteem. European Psychiatry,24(Supplement 1):S331.
[38]Tice D.M. (1993). The social motivations of people with low self-esteem. Self-Esteem:the Puzzle of Low Self-regard, Plenum Press, New York:37-51.
[39]Wills T.A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin,90(2):245-271.
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[2]Alicke M.D., LoSchiavo F.M., Zerbst J.I.,& Zhang S. (1997). The person who outperforms me is a genius:Esteem maintenance in upward social comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,73:781-789.
[3]Baumeister R.F., Tice D.M.,& Hutton D.G (1989). Self-presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 57:547-579.
[4]Beach S.R.H., and Tesser A. (2000). Self-evaluation Maintenance and evolution. Handbook of Social Comparison, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York:123-140.
[5]Brooks R.B. (1992). Self-esteem during the school years:Its normal development and hazardous decline. Pediatr Clin North Am.39:517-550.
[6]Butzer B., Kuiper A.N. (2006). Relationships between the frequency of social comparisons and self-concept clarity intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety, and depression. Personality and Individual Differences,41:167-176.
[7]Buunk P. B., Collins R.L., Taylor E.S.,& VanYperen W.N. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison:either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,59(6)1238-1249.
[8]Collins R.L. (1996). For better or worse:the impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin,119(1):51-69.
[9]Cooney G., Jahoda A., Gumley A.,& Knott F. (2006). Young people with intellectual disabilities attending mainstream and segregated schooling perceived stigma, social comparison and future aspiration[J]. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,50(6):432-444.
[10]Coopersmith S. (1967).The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. Calif WH Freeman, San Francisco.
[11]Corrigan W. P., Watson C. A.,& Baar L. (2006). The self-stigma of mental illness implications for self-esteem and self-efficacy. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,25(9):875-884.
[12]Crocker J.& Major B. (1989). Social stigma and self-Esteem:the self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review,96 (4):608-630.
[13]Dagnan D.,& Sandhu S. (1999). Social comparison, self-esteem and depression in people with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,43(5): 372-379.
[14]Dixon R., Marsh W. H.,& Williamson A. (2000). Stigma theory and social comparison theory:what can they tell us about the self concept of adults with mild intellectual disabilities. Self-Concept Theory, Rsearch and Practice Advances for the New Millennium. Collected Papers of the Inaugural Self-Concept Enhancement and Learning Facilitation (SELF) Research Centre International Conference, Sydney, Australia, October 5-6:451-457.
[15]Facchini R. L.(1996). Self esteem in young adults with mild mental retardation. Dissertation Abstracts International:Section B:The Sciences and Engineering, 56(10-B):5793.
[16]Festinger L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7:117-140.
[17]Garaigordobil M.,& Perez J. (2007). Self-concept, self-esteem and psychopathological symptoms in persons with intellectual disability. The Spanish Journal of Psychology,10(1):141-150.
[18]Gibbons F. X.,& Buunk A. P. (2006). Social comparison orientation:A new perspective on those who do, and those who don't compare with others. In S. Guimond (Ed.),Social Comparison and Social Psychology:Understanding Cognition, Intergroup Relations and Culture. Cambridge, UK:Cambridge University Press.
[19]Gibbons F.X. (1985). Stigma Perception Social Comparison among Mentally Retarded Persons. American Journal of Mental Deficiency,90(1):98-106.
[20]Gibbons X. F., Buunk P. B. (1999). Individual differences in social comparisons: development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,76(1):129-142.
[21]Glenn S.& Cunningham C. (2004). Self-awareness in young adults with down syndrome:Ⅰ. awareness of down syndrome and disability. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education,51(4):335-361.
[22]Glenn S.& Cunningham C. (2004). Self-awareness in young adults with down syndrome:Ⅱ. Self-understanding. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education,51(4):363-381.
[23]Goffman E. (1986). Stigma:notes on the management of spoiled identity. Touchstone, New York.
[24]James.W
[25]Li, Eria Ping-Ying. (2006). Exploring the self-concepts of persons with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities,10(1),19-34.
[26]Long, C. A. (1997). The development of self-esteem in young adolescents with mild mental retardation. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A:Humanities and Social Sciences,57(9-A):3892.
[27]Martin R.C., Thompson D.R.,& Chan D.S. (2006). An examination of the psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) in Chinese acute coronary syndrome (ACS) patients. Psychology, Health and Medicine,11(4): 507-512.
[28]Orth U., Robin W.R.,& Roberts W. B. (2008). Low self-esteem prospectively predicts depression in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,95(3):695-708.
[29]Paterson L. (2007). Stigma, social comparison and psychological distress in adults with a learning disability. Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Edinburgh.
[30]Rosenberg, F. (1995). Global self-esteem and specific. self-esteem:Different concepts, different outcomes. American Sociological Review,60:141-158.
[31]Schmitt D. P.,& Brekke J. S. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in 53 nations:exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. J Pers Soc Psycho,89 (4):623-642.
[32]Sheeran P., Abrams D.,& Orbell S. (1995). Unemployment,self-Esteem, and depression:a social comparison theory approach. Basic and Applied Social Psychology,77(1&2):65-82.
[33]Smith R.H. (2000). Assimilative and contrastive emotional reactions to upward and downward social comparisons. Handbook of Social Comparison, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York:173-200.
[34]Suls J.,& Wheeler L. (2000). Handbook of Social Comparison. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York.
[35]Sze, S.& Valentin, S. (2007). Self-concept and children with disablities. Education,127 (4),552-557.
[36]Szivos-Bach S. E. (1993). Social comparisons, stigma and mainstreaming The self esteem of young adults with a mild mental handicap. Mental Handicap Research, 6(3):217-236.
[37]Tallat G, Kamal A.,& Mccarthy S. (2009). Depression as a moderator in the relationship between direction of social comparison and self Esteem. European Psychiatry,24(Supplement 1):S331.
[38]Tice D.M. (1993). The social motivations of people with low self-esteem. Self-Esteem:the Puzzle of Low Self-regard, Plenum Press, New York:37-51.
[39]Wills T.A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin,90(2):245-271.
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