碳补偿视角的森林旅游利益相关者决策行为研究
|
摘要
在全球气候变化的现实及政治博弈、环境及能源问题等背景下,森林碳汇的价值逐渐得到重视并通过市场补偿等多种形式体现出来,这将改变造林再造林、森林保护和管理方式等中国林业建设水平及发展方向。本文以三爪仑国家森林公园为研究对象,从碳补偿角度出发,运用低碳经济学及环境经济学等相关理论,建立森林碳汇和旅游碳足迹评估体系,并在游客、农户、当地政府等利益相关者意愿调查的基础上,构建碳汇管理决策行为模型,探讨森林公园利益相关者决策行为模式及其影响因素,分析森林公园碳补偿的动力机制,并提出碳补偿的可行途径,为森林公园的森林经营管理、社区参与、森林旅游可持续发展提供智力支持和决策借鉴,从而实现森林公园的经济、社会、环境效益统一,并最终达到其综合协调管理的目标。这不仅有利于探讨全球气候变化下森林公园经营管理新路径,有助于深化对森林生态旅游和森林经营管理理论的研究,而且为实践生态经济发展模式的课题探讨提供新思路,因而具有重要的理论和现实意义。主要研究内容和结论如下：
(1)三爪仑森林公园碳汇潜力研究
森林碳汇及其价值的测算可为森林碳补偿及管理提供依据。本文主要采用IPCC等方法分别估算各种植被的生物量,再根据生物量中碳元素含量推算碳储量及碳汇通过对研究区1999-2019年森林碳汇及其价值估算研究,结果表明：研究区的森林碳汇量和经济价值都很大,增长趋势明显。地类间的碳汇能力差异大,乔木林单位年增碳汇最多,为竹林的近60倍,乔木中混交类的碳汇能力是国外松的4倍多；林龄组间的碳汇能力差异大,过熟林是幼龄林的5倍。
(2)三爪仑森林公园旅游碳足迹研究
基于终端消费视角,从旅游六要素构建旅游产品层次的旅游碳足迹模型,测算出三爪仑森林公园旅游碳足迹。结果显示,2011年三爪仑旅游碳足迹总量为51233.65t,其中游览、住宿、餐饮、交通、购物、娱乐的碳足迹所占比重分别为7.55%、11.49%、7.62%、59%和5.28%；平均旅游碳足迹为36.66kg/人·次。
(3)游客碳补偿行为研究
在旅游碳足迹研究的基础上,通过问卷调查法和相关性分析、因子分析和多元回归分析等统计分析方法,探讨森林公园游客的碳补偿态度、动机、行为及其影响因素。研究表明：影响游客碳补偿决策行为的因素主要包括环境焦虑、参与动机及参与态度三个一级因子以及压力惧怕、制度焦虑、生境焦虑等七个二级因子；建立了游客碳补偿决策行为预测模型；分析并构建模型预测三种机制下碳补偿意愿强度；游客的年龄、职业和城乡差别会对其碳补偿参与行为产生显著影响。这些研究为游客碳补偿管理决策提供可靠依据。
(4)农户碳汇管理决策行为研究
通过问卷调查,应用有限理性模型和多元回归模型等方法,探讨了三爪仑农户的森林碳汇管理态度、动机、行为及其影响因素。结论为：农户对自然生态环境较关注;但大多数农户更在乎木材等实用价值胜于碳汇等附属价值；农户参与森林碳汇管理行为主要受补偿态度、未来信心、舆论态度等六个因素影响；农户碳汇管理决策模型可对农户参与概率进行预测：参与意愿强度主要受碳汇认知、收益态度等五个因素影响；据此构建了森林碳汇管理意愿强度预测模型。农户愿意参与的森林碳汇管理措施包括不移除林下枯死物、进行防火、林分抚育、管护、延长轮伐间隔期、减少森林砍伐和利用和增加生态公益林以增加生物多样性等。当前农户碳汇管理意愿强度不高,碳补偿对参与人数影响有限,但对提高碳汇管理意愿强度效果明显
(5)政府碳汇管理决策行为研究
通过问卷调查,应用一般统计分析方法,探讨地方政府的碳汇管理态度、动机、行为及其影响因素。结论为：地方政府对生态环境关注度和森林碳汇认知度非常高,参与组织农户森林碳汇管理的意愿较强；主要偏向于组织日常看管、防火和补植等森林经营管理活动。影响因素中,政绩因素能激励管理者理智地推进组织森林碳汇管理,经济因素是影响参与组织管理的重要考量。
最后,根据上述研究,从旅游碳汇子市场、旅游碳汇基金、碳补偿门票等旅游碳补偿多样化手段,林业碳汇管理措施、政府制度性支持模式及社会支持网络体系等方面提出森林公园的碳汇管理对策及建议。
In the context of the reality of global climate change and the political game, and the issues on the environment and energy, the value of the forest carbon sink is taken seriously gradually and reflected in various forms like market compensation, which will change the level of China's forestry construction and development direction of the afforestation and reforestation, forest protection and management,etc. With Sanzhualun National Forest Park as a case, from the carbon offset perspective, the study, adopting low-carbon economic theory, environmental economics and other related theories, establishes forest carbon sink and travel carbon footprint evaluation system, and based on the willingness surveys of stakeholders concerning visitors, householders,etc, builds carbon-oriented forest management(COFM) decision models, explores decision-making(DM) patterns of forest Park stakeholders and its influencing factors, analyzes the dynamic mechanism of forest park carbon offset, proposes feasible ways in COFM, provides intellectual supports and DM references for forest management, community participation and sustainable development of forest tourism in order to achieve the integration of forest Park's economic, social, and environmental benefits, ultimately accomplishing comprehensive coordination of management. This is not only beneficial to explore the new path of the forest park operation and management in the global climate change, helpful to deepen the study of forest eco-tourism and forest management theory and offers new ideas for practicing the subject exploration of eco-econornic development model and thus has important theoretical and practical significance. The main contents and results are as follows:
(1)The research of carbon sequestration potential in Sanzhualun.
Eestimation of the carbon sequestration and their value can provide the basis for compensation and COFM. This thesis adopts the IPCC and other methods to estimate the biomass of each forest vegetation, and then calculates the carbon storage and carbon sequestration. Estimation study of forest carbon sinks and the value in the study area showed in Sanzhualun the amount of forest carbon sinks and economic value are both great with the obvious growing trend. Carbon sink capacity varies greatly between forest types. Carbon sinks of arbo forestry units increase most in a year, nearly60times more than that of bamboo,and the carbon sink capacity of the mixed class in arbo forestry is four times more than the foreign pine trees; Forest carbon sink capacity has large differences among forestry age groups, and the over-mature forest is five times as great as the young forest in carbon sink capacity.
(2)The Estimates of tourist carbon footprint(TCF).
Based on the terminal consumer perspective, from six elements the TCF model of the travel product level is built, and the TCF of Sanzhualun Forest Park is estimated. The results showed that the total TCF was51233.65t in2011in Sanzhualun, including tours, accommodation, catering, transport, shopping, entertainment of7.55%,11.49%,7.62%,59%and5.28%; and the average TCFwas36.66kg/p.
(3)The research on visitors'carbon offset behaviors.
On the basis, through questionnaires and correlation analysis, factor analysis and multiple regression analysis and other statistical analysis methods the carbon offsets attitude of the forest visitors, motivation, behavior and its influencing factors are explored. Results are:The main factors affecting the DM behavior of visitors carbon offsets include the first-level ones namely environmental anxiety, participation motivation and attitude as well as seven second-level ones such as pressure fear, etc. The prediction model of carbon compensation DM is established; The model predicting carbon offset willingness strength in three mechanisms is analyzed and built; The age, occupation of visitors and urban-rural discrepancy has a significant impact on its carbon offset participation. These studies provide a reliable basis for carbon offset management decisions.
(4)Study on COFM decision-making behavior of householders.
By questionnaire, the finite rational model and multiple regression model, the forest carbon sink management attitude of Sanzhualun householders, motivation, behavior and its influencing factors are explored. Resultls are:householders are more concerned about the natural environment but most householders care more about the practical value of the timber than ancillary value like carbon sinks; The householders involved in COFM are mainly affected by six factors such as the compensation attitude, public opinion,etc.The farmer COFM decision-making model can predict the participation probability of householders; Participation willingness is mainly affected by the five factors like carbon sink cognition,etc; According to this the wish strength of COFM prediction model is constructed. Measures for householders to be willing to participate in COFM include non-removing the understory dead matter, fireproof, cut the miscellaneous, management and protection, extending the rotation interval, reducing deforestation and utilizing and increasing ecological forests to increase biodiversity. The current willingness strength of householders'COFM is not high, the carbon sink compensation has an limited impact on the number of participants, but enhances obviously wish intensity of COFM.
(5) Study on the government COFM decision-making behavior.
Through questionnaires, application of general statistical analysis methods, the local government's COFM attitude, motivation, behavior and its influencing factors are explored. Results are:local governments have much attention and high cognition concerning the ecological environment and forest carbon sink, strongly willing to participate in the COFM, mainly tending to organize daily custody, fire proof, replanting and so on. In Influencing factors, the political performance ones can motivate managers to promote rationally the organization of COFM, and economic factors are important considerations affecting the participation in the organization and management.
Based on above, Forest Park's COFM countermeasures and suggestions are proposed, ranging from the travel carbon sink sub market, travel carbon sink fund, carbon offset tickets and varieties of means of travel carbon sequestration compensation, COFM measures to government policy support patterns and social support network systems, etc.
(1)三爪仑森林公园碳汇潜力研究
森林碳汇及其价值的测算可为森林碳补偿及管理提供依据。本文主要采用IPCC等方法分别估算各种植被的生物量,再根据生物量中碳元素含量推算碳储量及碳汇通过对研究区1999-2019年森林碳汇及其价值估算研究,结果表明：研究区的森林碳汇量和经济价值都很大,增长趋势明显。地类间的碳汇能力差异大,乔木林单位年增碳汇最多,为竹林的近60倍,乔木中混交类的碳汇能力是国外松的4倍多；林龄组间的碳汇能力差异大,过熟林是幼龄林的5倍。
(2)三爪仑森林公园旅游碳足迹研究
基于终端消费视角,从旅游六要素构建旅游产品层次的旅游碳足迹模型,测算出三爪仑森林公园旅游碳足迹。结果显示,2011年三爪仑旅游碳足迹总量为51233.65t,其中游览、住宿、餐饮、交通、购物、娱乐的碳足迹所占比重分别为7.55%、11.49%、7.62%、59%和5.28%；平均旅游碳足迹为36.66kg/人·次。
(3)游客碳补偿行为研究
在旅游碳足迹研究的基础上,通过问卷调查法和相关性分析、因子分析和多元回归分析等统计分析方法,探讨森林公园游客的碳补偿态度、动机、行为及其影响因素。研究表明：影响游客碳补偿决策行为的因素主要包括环境焦虑、参与动机及参与态度三个一级因子以及压力惧怕、制度焦虑、生境焦虑等七个二级因子；建立了游客碳补偿决策行为预测模型；分析并构建模型预测三种机制下碳补偿意愿强度；游客的年龄、职业和城乡差别会对其碳补偿参与行为产生显著影响。这些研究为游客碳补偿管理决策提供可靠依据。
(4)农户碳汇管理决策行为研究
通过问卷调查,应用有限理性模型和多元回归模型等方法,探讨了三爪仑农户的森林碳汇管理态度、动机、行为及其影响因素。结论为：农户对自然生态环境较关注;但大多数农户更在乎木材等实用价值胜于碳汇等附属价值；农户参与森林碳汇管理行为主要受补偿态度、未来信心、舆论态度等六个因素影响；农户碳汇管理决策模型可对农户参与概率进行预测：参与意愿强度主要受碳汇认知、收益态度等五个因素影响；据此构建了森林碳汇管理意愿强度预测模型。农户愿意参与的森林碳汇管理措施包括不移除林下枯死物、进行防火、林分抚育、管护、延长轮伐间隔期、减少森林砍伐和利用和增加生态公益林以增加生物多样性等。当前农户碳汇管理意愿强度不高,碳补偿对参与人数影响有限,但对提高碳汇管理意愿强度效果明显
(5)政府碳汇管理决策行为研究
通过问卷调查,应用一般统计分析方法,探讨地方政府的碳汇管理态度、动机、行为及其影响因素。结论为：地方政府对生态环境关注度和森林碳汇认知度非常高,参与组织农户森林碳汇管理的意愿较强；主要偏向于组织日常看管、防火和补植等森林经营管理活动。影响因素中,政绩因素能激励管理者理智地推进组织森林碳汇管理,经济因素是影响参与组织管理的重要考量。
最后,根据上述研究,从旅游碳汇子市场、旅游碳汇基金、碳补偿门票等旅游碳补偿多样化手段,林业碳汇管理措施、政府制度性支持模式及社会支持网络体系等方面提出森林公园的碳汇管理对策及建议。
In the context of the reality of global climate change and the political game, and the issues on the environment and energy, the value of the forest carbon sink is taken seriously gradually and reflected in various forms like market compensation, which will change the level of China's forestry construction and development direction of the afforestation and reforestation, forest protection and management,etc. With Sanzhualun National Forest Park as a case, from the carbon offset perspective, the study, adopting low-carbon economic theory, environmental economics and other related theories, establishes forest carbon sink and travel carbon footprint evaluation system, and based on the willingness surveys of stakeholders concerning visitors, householders,etc, builds carbon-oriented forest management(COFM) decision models, explores decision-making(DM) patterns of forest Park stakeholders and its influencing factors, analyzes the dynamic mechanism of forest park carbon offset, proposes feasible ways in COFM, provides intellectual supports and DM references for forest management, community participation and sustainable development of forest tourism in order to achieve the integration of forest Park's economic, social, and environmental benefits, ultimately accomplishing comprehensive coordination of management. This is not only beneficial to explore the new path of the forest park operation and management in the global climate change, helpful to deepen the study of forest eco-tourism and forest management theory and offers new ideas for practicing the subject exploration of eco-econornic development model and thus has important theoretical and practical significance. The main contents and results are as follows:
(1)The research of carbon sequestration potential in Sanzhualun.
Eestimation of the carbon sequestration and their value can provide the basis for compensation and COFM. This thesis adopts the IPCC and other methods to estimate the biomass of each forest vegetation, and then calculates the carbon storage and carbon sequestration. Estimation study of forest carbon sinks and the value in the study area showed in Sanzhualun the amount of forest carbon sinks and economic value are both great with the obvious growing trend. Carbon sink capacity varies greatly between forest types. Carbon sinks of arbo forestry units increase most in a year, nearly60times more than that of bamboo,and the carbon sink capacity of the mixed class in arbo forestry is four times more than the foreign pine trees; Forest carbon sink capacity has large differences among forestry age groups, and the over-mature forest is five times as great as the young forest in carbon sink capacity.
(2)The Estimates of tourist carbon footprint(TCF).
Based on the terminal consumer perspective, from six elements the TCF model of the travel product level is built, and the TCF of Sanzhualun Forest Park is estimated. The results showed that the total TCF was51233.65t in2011in Sanzhualun, including tours, accommodation, catering, transport, shopping, entertainment of7.55%,11.49%,7.62%,59%and5.28%; and the average TCFwas36.66kg/p.
(3)The research on visitors'carbon offset behaviors.
On the basis, through questionnaires and correlation analysis, factor analysis and multiple regression analysis and other statistical analysis methods the carbon offsets attitude of the forest visitors, motivation, behavior and its influencing factors are explored. Results are:The main factors affecting the DM behavior of visitors carbon offsets include the first-level ones namely environmental anxiety, participation motivation and attitude as well as seven second-level ones such as pressure fear, etc. The prediction model of carbon compensation DM is established; The model predicting carbon offset willingness strength in three mechanisms is analyzed and built; The age, occupation of visitors and urban-rural discrepancy has a significant impact on its carbon offset participation. These studies provide a reliable basis for carbon offset management decisions.
(4)Study on COFM decision-making behavior of householders.
By questionnaire, the finite rational model and multiple regression model, the forest carbon sink management attitude of Sanzhualun householders, motivation, behavior and its influencing factors are explored. Resultls are:householders are more concerned about the natural environment but most householders care more about the practical value of the timber than ancillary value like carbon sinks; The householders involved in COFM are mainly affected by six factors such as the compensation attitude, public opinion,etc.The farmer COFM decision-making model can predict the participation probability of householders; Participation willingness is mainly affected by the five factors like carbon sink cognition,etc; According to this the wish strength of COFM prediction model is constructed. Measures for householders to be willing to participate in COFM include non-removing the understory dead matter, fireproof, cut the miscellaneous, management and protection, extending the rotation interval, reducing deforestation and utilizing and increasing ecological forests to increase biodiversity. The current willingness strength of householders'COFM is not high, the carbon sink compensation has an limited impact on the number of participants, but enhances obviously wish intensity of COFM.
(5) Study on the government COFM decision-making behavior.
Through questionnaires, application of general statistical analysis methods, the local government's COFM attitude, motivation, behavior and its influencing factors are explored. Results are:local governments have much attention and high cognition concerning the ecological environment and forest carbon sink, strongly willing to participate in the COFM, mainly tending to organize daily custody, fire proof, replanting and so on. In Influencing factors, the political performance ones can motivate managers to promote rationally the organization of COFM, and economic factors are important considerations affecting the participation in the organization and management.
Based on above, Forest Park's COFM countermeasures and suggestions are proposed, ranging from the travel carbon sink sub market, travel carbon sink fund, carbon offset tickets and varieties of means of travel carbon sequestration compensation, COFM measures to government policy support patterns and social support network systems, etc.
引文
[1]International Energy Agency. (2011) CO2 Emissions From Fuel Comustion Highlights, Luxembourg, Imprimerie Centrale, October Edion:134
[2]昶旭整理.《达沃斯宣言》——气候变化与旅游：应对全球性的挑战[J].旅游研究与信息.2007.10(5)：2
[3]IPCC. Climate Change 2007:Mitigation Contribution of Working Group Ⅲ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[R].UK.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007.
[4]陈根长.林业的历史性转变与碳交换机制的建立[J].林业经济问题,2005,2：1-7,38
[5]何英,张小全,刘云仙.中国森林碳汇交易市场现状与潜力[J].林业科学,2007,07：106-111.
[6]Murray B C.Sohngen B.Sommer AJ et al(2005) Greenhouse gas mitigation potential in U.S. forestry and agriculture, EPA 430-R-05-006. US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Atmospheric Programs, Washington, DC.
[7]Samuel P. Price, Mark A. Bradford & Mark S. Ash ton. (2012)Characterizing Organic Carbon Stocks and Flows in Forest SoilsfMJ. Managing Forest Carbon in a Changing Climate, Part Ⅰ, Pages 7-30
[8]A.A.Kimaro.M.E. Isaac and S.A.O.Chamshama,(2012)Carbon Pools in Tree Biomass and Soils Under Rotational Woodlot Systems in Eastern Tanzania[M]Advances in Agroforestiy, I, Volume 8, Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems, Part 1, Pages 129-143
[9]K.D Slochnannl,N.M Anderson, K.E Skog,et al.(2012) Estimates of carbon stored in harvested wood products from the United States forest service northern region,1906-2010[J]. Carbon Balance and Management,7:1
[10]Ranjith P. Udawatta and Shibu Jose.(2012) Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Practices in Temperate North America Advances in Agroforestry,1, Volume 8, Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems, Part Ⅰ, Pages 17-42
[11]Jagdish Kishwan, Rajiv Pandey and V. K. Dadhwal.(2011) Emission Removal Capability of India s Forest and Tree Cover:[J] Small-Scale Forestry, Online FirstTM,12 April
[12]Bienabe E, Hearne R R. Public preferences for biodiversity conservation and scenic beauty with in a framework of environmental sendees payments[J]. Forest Policy and Economics,2006, (9):335-348.
[13]Samuel P. Price, Mark A. Bradford & Mark S. Ashton. (2012)Characterizing Organic Carbon Stocks and Flows in Forest Soils[M]. Managing Forest Carbon in a Changing Climate, Part 1, Pages 7-30
[14]George Kindermann, Michael Obersteiner, Ewald Rametsleiner.et al. (2006) Predicting the deforestation-trend under different carbon-prices[J]. Carbon Balance and Management, Volume 1, Number 1,15
[15]Jung, M.(2005)The role of forestry projects in the clean development mechanism[J]. Environmental Science& Policy,8(2):87-104.
[16]May P H. Boyd E, Viega F, et al.(2004)Local sustainable development effects of forest projects in Brazil and Bolivia:A view from the field[M].London:International Institute for Environment and Development,97-114.
[17]Adam G Bumpus, Diana M Liverman.(2007)Accumulation by Decarbonization and the Governance of Carbon Offsets[J].Economic Geography,84(2):127-155.
[18]Holmlund,B.,Kolm,A.(2007)Environmental Tax Reform in a Small Open Ecomomy with Structural Unemployment [J]. International Tax and Public Finance,7(3):315-333.
[19]Wissema,W.W.,Gellink,R.B.AGE(2007)Analysis of the Impact of a Carbon Energy Tax on the Irish Economy[J]. Ecological Economics,61(4):671-683.
[20]Lee C F, Lin S J, Lewis C. (2008) Analysis of the Impacts of Combining Carbon Taxation and Emission Trading on Different Industry Sectors [J]. Energy Policy,36:722-729-
[21]Silvia Tiezzi. (2005)The welfare effects and the distributive impact of carbon taxation on Italian households[J]. Energy Policy,33(12):1597-1612.
[22]S.Giblin, A.McNabola.(2009)Modeling the impacts of a carbon emission-differentiated vehicle tax system on CO2 emissions intensity from new vehicle purchases in Ireland[J]. Energy Policy,37 (4):1404-1411.
[23]Flows N., Vlachou A. (2005)Energy Demand and Energy-Related CO2 Emission in Greek Manufacturing:Assessing the Impact of a Carbon Tax [J]. Energy Economics,27(3):387-413.
[24]Emanuele Masselti.(2011) Carbon tax scenarios for China and India:exploring politically feasible mitigation goals[J].International Environmental Agreements:Politics, Law and Economics, Vol. Ⅱ,No.3.Pages 209-227
[25]Shree Raj Shakya, S. Kumar & Ram M. Shrestha. (2012) Co-benefits of a carbon tax in Nepal [J].Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Volume 17, Number 1, Pages 77-101
[26]Abiodun Oluwafemi Oluwadare. (2011)Climate Change Policies and Issues:A Tool for Increased Wood Production in Developing Countries[M]. Climate Change Management,,The Economic. Social and Political Elements of Climate Change,Part3.Pages373-383
[27]Diaz D, Chamley S, Gosnell H (2009) Engaging western landowners in climate change mitigation:A guide to carbon-oriented forest and range management and carbon market opportunities. General technical report PNW-GTR-801. US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
[28]Fletcher L S, Kittredge D, Stevens T (2009) Forest landowners'willingness to sell carbon credits:a pilot study. North JAppl For 26(1):35-37.
[29]Grossman G (2009) Accessing the US carbon market through sustainable forest management. In:Proceedings of the annual payments for ecosystem services meeting. Northwest Environmental Business Council, Portland, Oregon, USA
[30]Hamilton K, Peters-Stanley M, Marcello T (2010b) Building bridges:state of the voluntary carbon markets 2010. Ecosystem Marketplace, Bloomberg New Energy Finance, Washington, DC
[31]Stavins R,RichardsK (2005)The cost of U.S. forest-based carbon sequestration. Pew Centeron Global Climate Change:52
[32]PlantingaA, MauldinT, MillerD (l999)An econometric analysis of the costs of sequestering carbonin forests. Am J Agric Econ 81:812-824
[33]Axel Miehaclowa, Frank Jotzo.(2005) Transaction costs, institutional rigidities and the size of the clean development mechanism[J].EnergyPoliey,33:511-523.
[34]林德荣.森林碳汇服务市场化研究[D].中国林业科学研究院,2005
[35]Promode Kant.(2004)The Real Costs of Carbon Sink Projects in Tropical Ecosystems of India.an Analysis of Their Profitability[C].International Workshop on EETFGP.3;
[36]Susan Charnley, David Diaz and Hannah Gosnell,(2010) Mitigating Climate Change Through Small-Scale Forestry in the USA:Opportunities and Challenges Small-Scale Forestry. Volume 9, Number 4, Pages 445-462
[37]Daigneaull F. Fawcett A (2009) Memorandum on updated forestry and agriculture marginal abatement costcurves, March 31,2009. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Atmospheric Programs, Climate Change Division, Washington, DC
[38]US Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)(2009) Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990-2007, EPA 430-R-09-004. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
[39]J. Winsten, S. Walker, S. Brown.et al (2011)Estimating carbon supply curves from afforestation of agricultural land in the Northeastern U.S.[J].Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol.16, No 8, Pages 925-942
[40]吴庆标,王效科,段晓男,等,中国森林生态系统植被固碳现状和潜力[J].生态学报,2008,2(2)：217-224
[41]方精云,陈安平.中国森林植被碳库的动态变化及其意义[J].植物学报,2001,43(9)：967-973
[42]王效科,冯宗炜,欧阳志云.中国森林生态系统的植物碳储量和碳密度研究.应用生态学报,2001,12(1)：13～16.
[43]顾凯平,张坤,张丽霞.森林碳汇计量方法的研究[J].南京林业大学学报(自然科学版),2008,32(5)：105-110
[44]李秀娟,周涛,何学兆.NPP增长驱动下的中国森林生态系统碳汇[J].自然资源学报,2009,24(3)：491-497.
[45]马晓哲,王铮.中国分省区森林碳汇量的一个估计[J].科学通报,2011(6)：433-439
[46]张颖,吴丽莉,苏帆,等.我国森林碳汇核算的计量模型研究[J].北京林业大学学报,2010,5(2)：194-200
[47]谢立红,张荣涛.黑龙江省森林碳汇估算及潜力分析[J].国土与自然资源研究,2011,04：88-89.
[48]张晓静,曾以禹.构建我国林业碳汇交易市场管理机制几点思考[J].林业经济,2012,08：66-71.
[49]张忠华,李昭昭.吉林省森林碳储量估计及碳汇价值分析[J].中国城市经济,2011,18：267+270.
[50]李长胜,李顺龙.黑龙江省国有林区森林碳汇及经济评价[J].中国林业经济,2012,04：40-43.
[51]黄小辉,唐小荐,邵呈龙,朱小龙,刘芸.重庆市森林植被碳储量及其地理分布格局[J].西南师范大学学报(自然科学版),2012,01：82-87.
[52]黄敏,廖为明,王立国,等.江西森林碳储量空间分布特征及其价值分析[J].商业研究,2010,12：179-182.
[53]彭诗言.生态补偿机制的国际比较[J].特区经济,2009,05：23-24.
[54]于金娜,姚顺波.基于碳汇效益视角的最优退耕还林补贴标准研究[J].中国人口：资源与环境,2012,07：34-39.
[55]谭秋成.关于生态补偿标准和机制[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2009,06：1-6.
[56]李晓光,苗鸿,郑华,欧阳志云.生态补偿标准确定的主要方法及其应用[J].生态学报,2009,08：4431-4440.
[57]李芬,李文华,甄霖,等.森林生态系统补偿标准的方法探讨一以海南省为例[J].自然资源学报,2010,05：735-745.
[58]雍慧,熊峰,潘磊,王晓荣,王尊一.生态公益林补偿标准确定的问题、方法与建议[J].湖北林业科技,2011,06：46-50.
[59]祁爽.对适度提高森林生态效益补偿标准的建议——以辽宁省为例[J].山东林业科技,2012,03：131-132.
[60]戴广翠,张蕾,李志勇,蒲少华,谭著明,张翼.壶瓶山自然保护区生态补偿标准的调查研究[J].湖南林业科技,2012,04：4-9+40.
[61]戴广翠,闫春丽,缪光平,等.关于完善森林生态效益补偿政策的几点建议[J].林业经济,2008,(12)：16-19+43.
[62]武曙红,张小全,宋维明.国际自愿碳汇市场的补偿标准[J].林业科学,2009,3(3)：134-139
[63]潘家华,陈迎.碳预算方案：一个公平的可持续的国际气候框架[J].中国社会科学,2009,(5).
[64]王淑芳.碳税对我国的影响及其政策响应[J].生态经济,2005,(10).
[65]刘洁,李文.征收碳税对中国经济影响的实证[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2011,9：99-104
[66]张志新,李亚.征收碳税对中国经济增长与行业发展的影响[J].中南财经政法大学学报,201],6：44-49
[67]高鹏飞,陈文颖.碳税与碳排放[J].清华大学学报(自然科学版),2002,(10).
[68]张明文,张金良,谭忠富,王东海.碳税对经济增长、能源消费与收入分配的影响分析[J].技术经济,2009,06：48-51+95.
[69]朱广芹,韩浩.基于区域碳汇交易的森林生态效益补偿模式[J].东北林业大学学报,2010.10(10)：109-111.
[70]刘明明.论碳排放权交易制度的核心要素[J].企业经济,2012,08：10-14.
[71]魏东,岳杰,王璟珉.碳排放权交易风险管理的识别、评估与应对[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2012,08：28-32.
[72]袭亮,赵群.构建黄三角高效生态经济区水污染物排放权交易体系[J].统计与决策,2012,09：164-166.
[73]张志勋.论我国碳排放权交易体系的构建[J].企业经济,2012,06：178-181.
[74]刘佳宁.中国发展碳排放权交易市场核心机制设计研究[J].经济问题,2012,07：62-65+105.
[75]党建民,张新润.我国碳排放权交易市场构建条件分析[J].开发研究,2012,03：81-84.
[76]范进,赵定涛,郭韬.基于消费者视角的碳排放权交易机制研究[J].中国软科学,2012,06：24-32
[77]纪玉山,李通.关于建立我国碳排放权交易市场的对策[J].经济纵横,,2012,07：44-47.
[78]张浩,郑莉琼,杨晓峰,胡文,杨佐忠.构建我国森林碳汇市场初探[J].四川林业科技,2011,05：91-94.
[79]赵猛,潘武林,刘静.中国未来林业碳汇市场价格机制设计浅析[J].中国农学通报,2011,31：79-81.
[80]肖艳,李晓雪.我国森林碳汇市场培育的路径选择[J].世界林业研究,2012,01：55-59.
[81]郑海鹰,金笙.北京市森林碳汇市场构建研究[J].经济研究导刊,2012,09：125-128.
[82]刘丛丛,王文英.我国森林碳汇市场构建的研究[J].中国林业经济,2012,03：23-25.
[83]李淑霞,周志国.森林碳汇市场的运行机制研究[J].北京林业大学学报(社会科学版),2010,02：88-93.
[84]陈叙图,李怒云,高岚,何宇.美国林业碳汇市场现状及发展趋势[J].林业经济,2009,07：76-80.
[85]彭喜阳,左旦平.关于建立我国森林碳汇市场体系基本框架的设想[J].生态经济,2009,08：184-187.
[86]胡品平,徐正春,刘成香.森林碳汇服务的经济学分析一基于产权角度看森林碳汇服务交易[J].中国林业经济,2007,02：34-37.
[87]李怒云,王春峰,陈叙图.简论国际碳和中国林业碳汇交易市场[J].中国发展,2008,(03)：9-12.
[88]张晓静,曾以禹.构建我国林业碳汇交易市场管理机制几点思考[J].林业经济,2012,08：66-71.
[89]王枫,沈月琴,孙玉贵.基于成本利润率的碳汇交易价格研究一以浙江省杉木林经营为例[J].林业经济问题,2012,02：104-108.
[90]武曙红.CDM林业碳汇市场前景及碳信用的交易策略[J].林业科学,2010,11：152-157.
[91]武曙红,宋维明,森林管理项目纳入我国碳补偿自愿市场必要性分析[J]林业经济,2008(12)：53-56
[92]国家林业局经济发展研究中心林业与气候变化研究室.“森林碳汇在森林可持续经营中的作用”会议综述[J].林业经济.2008,8：125-128
[93]李怒云,章升东,宋维明.中国林业碳汇管理现状与展望[J].绿色中国.2005,(06)：23-26.
[94]李文华,李芬,李世东,等.森林生态效益补偿的研究现状与展望[J].自然资源学报,2006,21(5)：677-688.
[95]试论森林对环境的服务功能及其作用机理,绿色大世界[EB/OL].2012-3-15. http://hi.baidu.com/%C2%CC%C9%AB%B4%F3%CA%C0%BD%E707/blog/item/53a8e41e55d0c8f71ad5765e. html.
[96]耿闻,孙静,林业局、旅游局联合召开全国森林旅游工作会议,[EB/OL].2012-3-15. http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2011-11/19/content 1998116.htm.
[97]汪安佑,雷涯邻,沙景华.资源环境经济学[M].地质出版社,2005,9.
[98]陈美球,洪土林,许兵杰.试析农户耕地保护的外部性[J].江西农业大学学报,2010,03：71-75.
[99]萨缪尔森,诺德豪斯.经济学[M].北京：华夏出版社,1999.
[100]沈满洪,何灵巧.外部性的分类及外部性理论的演化[J].浙江大学学报(人文社科版),2002,01：152-160.
[101]夏梦.基于外部性理论的旅游可持续发展研究[D].：南京师范大学,2006.
[102]杨建州,周慧蓉,张春霞,谢志忠.外部性理论在森林环境资源定价中的应用[J].生态经济,2006,02：32-34.
[103]Samuelson P A. (1954)The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure[J]. Review of Economics and Statistics,36(4): 387-389
[104]秦颖.论公共产品的本质——兼论公共产品理论的局限性[J].经济学家,2006,03：77-82.
[105]郭淳凡,李定安.基于公共产品理论的资源类景区产品经济属性研究[J].财贸经济,2007,S1：119-122+129.
[106]何承耕.自然资源和环境价值理论研究述评[J].福建地理,2001,04：1-5.
[107]蔡剑辉.西方环境价值理论的研究进展——森林环境价值评估的理论与方法研究(1)[J].林业经济问题,2003,04：191-194+199.
[108]曹建华.森林资源环境价值核算评价研究综述[J].江西林业科技,2002,05：36-39+28.
[109]贾生华,陈宏辉.利益相关者的界定方法述评[J].外国经济与管理,2002,05：13-18.
1110]Freeman R E. Strategic Management:Astakeholder ApproachfM].Boston:Pitman Publishing Ine.1984.
[111]付俊文,赵红.利益相关者理论综述[J].首都经济贸易大学学报,2006,02：16-21.
[112]陈贵松.森林公园利益相关者共同治理研究[D].北京林业大学,2010.
[113]Sheehan L R.Ritchie J R. (2005)Destination Stakeholders:Exploring Identity and Salience[J]. Annals of Tourism Research,22(3):711-734.
[114]Sautter E T.Leisen B. (1999) Managing Stakeholders:A Tourism Planning Model[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2):312-328.
[115]SwardbrookSustainable tourism management[M]. CABI.Publishing,1999.
[116]刘静艳.从系统学角度透视生态旅游利益相关者结构关系[J].旅游学刊,2006,05：17-21.
[117]Robert W. M, Charles R.G, etc. Tourism-Pricinples, Practices, Philosophies[M]. Wiley & Sons. Inc.1995.
[118]郭亚军.旅游者决策行为研究[D].：西北大学,2010
[119]Um,S.& Crompton.J. L. (1999)Attitude Determinants in Tourism Destination Choice[J]. Annals of Tourism Research,17(3):432-448.
[120]Seddighi,H.R.& Theoeharous.A.L. (2002)A model of tourism destination choice:A theoretical and empirical analysis[J]. Tourism Management,23(5):475-487.
[121]Beerli A, Martin J D.(2004)Tourists, characteristics and the perceived image of tourist destinations:a quantitative analysis a case study of Lanzarote,SPain[J]. Tour Management,25(5):23-36.
[122]Terry Lam, Cathy H.C.Hsu. (2006)Predieting behavioral intention of choosing a travel destination[J]. Tourism Management.27:589-599.
[123]吴必虎,唐俊雅,黄安民等.中国城市居民旅游目的地选择行为研究[J].地理学报.1997,52(2)：97-103.
[124]郭亚军,张红芳.旅游者决策行为研究[J].旅游科学,2002,(4)：24-27.
[125]杨琳.旅游决策过程中的口传验机[D].浙江大学旅游管理硕士学位论文.2002,12.
[126]王林.论旅游决策风险的成因及对策[J].中国地质大学学报(社会科学版),2001,(1)：29-31.
[127]陈奉伟.森林公园游客环境态度与行为研究[D].：中南林业科技大学,2009.
[128]李燕琴.生态旅游者与一般游客行为特征的比较——以北京市百花山自然保护区为例[J].经济地理,2007,04：665-671.
[129]韩明漠.农村社会学[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2001.
[130]卜范达,韩喜平.“农户经营”内涵的探析[J].当代经济研究,2003,(9)：37-41.
[131]廖文梅.集体林权制度配套改革中农户决策行为研究[D].：江西农业大学,2011.
[132]陈美球,肖鹤亮,何维佳等.耕地流转农户行为影响因素的实证分析一基于江西省1396户农户耕地流转行为现状的调研.自然资源学报[J].2008,23(03)：369-374.
[133]李彧挥,方苑,陈亮.林农流转出林地意愿的影响因素分析——以湖南省安化县为例[J].江汉论坛,2012,02：14-19.
[134]田少静,翟印礼.林农林地流转决策行为影响因素的实证分析——以辽宁省为例[J].林业经济问题,2011.02：127-130.
[135]谢屹,温亚利,公培臣.集体林权制度改革中农户流转收益合理性分析[J].林业科学,2009,(1O)：134-140
[136]刘珉.林权制度改革对林农生产性投资的影响——基于河南平原地区的数据[J].林业经济,2012,06：3-6+19.
[137]张广胜,罗金.集体林权制度改革中采伐限额与林农生产决策[J].林业经济,2010,12：51-55.
[138]谢彦明,支玲.林农林业投资行为影响因素分析及政策启示——以景谷县197户林农为例[J].林业经济问题,2011.01：24-27.
[139]孟全省,邹润玲,邓慧婷,等.影响林农参与林权抵押贷款意愿因素分析—以陕西省宁陕县为例[J].林业经济,2010,11：40-43.
[140]金满涛.林农行为视角下政策性森林保险的经济分析[J].新疆财经大学学报,2010,(2)36-39.54.
[141]廖文梅,彭泰中,曹建华.农户参与森林保险意愿的实证分析—以江西为例[J].林业科学,2011,05：117-123.
[142]乔羽.集体林权制度改革后林农合作组织研究[D].：北京林业大学,2012.
[143]黄丽萍.影响林农参与专业合作经济组织的因素分析—基于农户的视角[J].西北农林科技大学学报(社会科学版),2012,05：73-78.
[144]李丽,高鑫,程云行.林农参与林业专业合作社的意愿与调查分析[J].林业经济问题,2011,02：106-109.
[145]苏芳,尚海洋,聂华林.农户参与生态补偿行为意愿影响因素分析[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2011,04：119-125.
[146]冉瑞平.西南地区林业生态环境保护与建设中的林农行为分析—来自四川邓峡市的调查[J].农业经济问题,2006,(9)：41-45.
[147]黄斌.采伐限额管理制度约束条件下的农户森林经营行为研究[D].：福建农林大学,2010.
[148]马莹.基于利益相关者视角的政府主导型流域生态补偿制度研究[J].经济体制改革,2010,05：52-56.
[149]吴楚材,吴章文.江西靖安三爪仑国家森林公园总体规划设计[M].北京,中国林业出版社,1999,7.
[150]李海奎,雷渊才.中国森林植被生物量和碳储量评估[M].中国林业出版社.北京,2010,03
[151]尉海东,马祥庆.中亚热带不同发育阶段杉木人工林生态系统碳贮量研究[J].江西农业大学学报,2006,02：239-243+267.
[152]何宗明,李丽红,王义祥,等.33年生福建柏人工林碳库与碳吸存[J].山地学报,2003,03：298-303.
[153]黎曦,鲍雪芳,王福升.赣南毛竹生物量研究[J].安徽林业科技,2007,z1：9-11.
[154]周国模,刘恩斌,施拥军,等.基于最小尺度的浙江省毛竹生物量精确估算[J].林业科学,2011,01：1-5.
[155]刘存琦.灌木植物量测定技术的研究[J]·草业学报,1994,3(4)：61-65
[156]卢振龙,龚孝生.灌木生物量测定的研究进展[J].林业调查规划,2009,04：37-40+45.
[157]胡会峰,王志恒,刘国华,等.中国主要灌丛植被碳储量[J].植物生态学报,2006,30(4)539～544.
[158]黄玫,季劲钧,曹明奎,等.中国区域植被地上与地下生物量模拟[J].生态学报,2006,12：4156-4163.
[159]李克让,王绍强,曹明奎.中国植被和土壤碳贮量,中国科学(D)辑,2003,33(1)：72～80.
[160]方楷,杨清培,赵广东,杨光耀,施建敏,郭起荣.江西主要竹类植物碳密度的时空差异分析[J].江西科学,2010,04：449-452
[161]Baldo. G..L, Marino M, Montani M, Ryding S.O. The Carbon Footprint Measurement Toolkit for the EU Ecolabel, Int J Life Cycle Assess,2009,14:591-596
[162]Weber C L, Matthews H S, Quantifying the Global and Distributional Aspects of American Household Carbon Footprinl[J].Ecological Economics,2008,66:379-391.
[163JKenn yT, Gray N F. A Preliminary Survey of Household and Personal Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Ireland [J]. Environment International,2009,35(2):259-272.
[164]R.J.Barthelmie, S.D.Morris & P.Schechter. (2008)Carbon neutral-Biggar:calculating the community carbon footprint and renewable energy options for footprint reduction [J]. Sustainability Science, Volume 3(2)10。
[165]郭运功,汪冬冬,林逢春.上海市能源利用碳排放足迹研究[J].中国人口资源与环境,2010.2：103-108；
[166]李鹏,黄继华,莫延芬,杨桂华.昆明市四星级酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算与分析[J].旅游学刊,2010,3：27-34.
[167]樊杰,李平星,梁育填.个人终端消费导向的碳足迹研究框架——支撑我国环境外交的碳排放研究新思路[J].地球科学进展,2010,1(])：61-68
[168]王立国,廖为明,黄敏,等.基于终端消费的旅游碳足迹测算—以江西省为例[J].生态经济,2011,05：121-124+168
[169]魏一鸣,刘兰翠,范英等.中国能源报告2008：碳排放研究[M].科学出版社(北京),2008,1(5).
[170]三爪仑官方网站[EB/OL]. http://www.sanzhualun.com/2012-8-16,
[171]中科院可持续发展战略研究组.2009中国可持续发展战略报告—探索中国特色的低碳道路[M].科学出版社(北京),2009,1(3)：
[172]World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).Tourism Market Trends[R],2006 Edition-Annex3.
[173]王怀探,罗芬,钟勇德.游客碳足迹[M].北京,中国林业出版社2011,11.
[174]陈胜可.SPSS统计分析：从入门到精通[M].清华大学出版社,2010(8)
[]75]李怒云,章升东,宋维明.中国林业碳汇管理现状与展望[J].绿色中国,2005,06：23-26.
[176]李光兵.国外两种农户经济行为理论及其启示[J].农村经济与社会,1992,06：52-57.
[177]孙晓伟.论有限理性与农户发展农业循环经济的行为选择[J].林业经济,2010,08：100-104.
[178]曹光乔,周力,易中郭,等.农业机械购置补贴对农户购机行为的影响—基于江苏省水稻植业的实证分析[J].中国农村经济,2010,(06)：38-.45.
[179]侯元兆,吴水荣.森林生态服务价值评价与补偿研究综述[J].世界林业研究,2005,03：1-5.
[180]马莹,毛程连.流域生态补偿的经济内涵及政府功能定位[J].商业研究,2010,08：127-131.
[181]毛显强,钟瑜,张胜.生态补偿的理论探讨[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2002,04：40-43.
[182]欧阳勋志,廖为明,彭世揆.天然阔叶林景观质量评价及其垂直结构优化技术[J].应用生态学报,2007,06：1388-1392.
[183]郑海霞,张陆彪.流域生态服务补偿定量标准研究[J].环境保护,2006,(1)：42.46.
[184]每日经济新闻,李怒云：企业参与林业碳汇我国碳市场可期,http://www.ditan360.com/Zhiku/Info-114149.html, 2012-9-414:13:25
[185]Wang, Guangyu, J.L Jnnes, S.W. Wu.etc. National Park Development in China:conservation or commercialization? [J]. Ambio, published online:2011.10.
[186]石培华,冯凌,吴普.旅游业节能减排与低碳发展——政策技术体系与实践工作指南[M].中国旅游出版社,北京.2010,7.
[187]蔡萌,汪宇明.低碳旅游：一种新的旅游发展方式[J],旅游学刊．2010,1：13-17.
[188]马勇,陈小连.低碳旅游发展模式与实践创新[M].科学出版社,北京,2011,12.
[189]彭春凝.论生态补偿机制中的政府干预[J].西南民族大学学报(人文社科版),2007,07：105-109.
[2]昶旭整理.《达沃斯宣言》——气候变化与旅游：应对全球性的挑战[J].旅游研究与信息.2007.10(5)：2
[3]IPCC. Climate Change 2007:Mitigation Contribution of Working Group Ⅲ to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[R].UK.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2007.
[4]陈根长.林业的历史性转变与碳交换机制的建立[J].林业经济问题,2005,2：1-7,38
[5]何英,张小全,刘云仙.中国森林碳汇交易市场现状与潜力[J].林业科学,2007,07：106-111.
[6]Murray B C.Sohngen B.Sommer AJ et al(2005) Greenhouse gas mitigation potential in U.S. forestry and agriculture, EPA 430-R-05-006. US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Atmospheric Programs, Washington, DC.
[7]Samuel P. Price, Mark A. Bradford & Mark S. Ash ton. (2012)Characterizing Organic Carbon Stocks and Flows in Forest SoilsfMJ. Managing Forest Carbon in a Changing Climate, Part Ⅰ, Pages 7-30
[8]A.A.Kimaro.M.E. Isaac and S.A.O.Chamshama,(2012)Carbon Pools in Tree Biomass and Soils Under Rotational Woodlot Systems in Eastern Tanzania[M]Advances in Agroforestiy, I, Volume 8, Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems, Part 1, Pages 129-143
[9]K.D Slochnannl,N.M Anderson, K.E Skog,et al.(2012) Estimates of carbon stored in harvested wood products from the United States forest service northern region,1906-2010[J]. Carbon Balance and Management,7:1
[10]Ranjith P. Udawatta and Shibu Jose.(2012) Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Practices in Temperate North America Advances in Agroforestry,1, Volume 8, Carbon Sequestration Potential of Agroforestry Systems, Part Ⅰ, Pages 17-42
[11]Jagdish Kishwan, Rajiv Pandey and V. K. Dadhwal.(2011) Emission Removal Capability of India s Forest and Tree Cover:[J] Small-Scale Forestry, Online FirstTM,12 April
[12]Bienabe E, Hearne R R. Public preferences for biodiversity conservation and scenic beauty with in a framework of environmental sendees payments[J]. Forest Policy and Economics,2006, (9):335-348.
[13]Samuel P. Price, Mark A. Bradford & Mark S. Ashton. (2012)Characterizing Organic Carbon Stocks and Flows in Forest Soils[M]. Managing Forest Carbon in a Changing Climate, Part 1, Pages 7-30
[14]George Kindermann, Michael Obersteiner, Ewald Rametsleiner.et al. (2006) Predicting the deforestation-trend under different carbon-prices[J]. Carbon Balance and Management, Volume 1, Number 1,15
[15]Jung, M.(2005)The role of forestry projects in the clean development mechanism[J]. Environmental Science& Policy,8(2):87-104.
[16]May P H. Boyd E, Viega F, et al.(2004)Local sustainable development effects of forest projects in Brazil and Bolivia:A view from the field[M].London:International Institute for Environment and Development,97-114.
[17]Adam G Bumpus, Diana M Liverman.(2007)Accumulation by Decarbonization and the Governance of Carbon Offsets[J].Economic Geography,84(2):127-155.
[18]Holmlund,B.,Kolm,A.(2007)Environmental Tax Reform in a Small Open Ecomomy with Structural Unemployment [J]. International Tax and Public Finance,7(3):315-333.
[19]Wissema,W.W.,Gellink,R.B.AGE(2007)Analysis of the Impact of a Carbon Energy Tax on the Irish Economy[J]. Ecological Economics,61(4):671-683.
[20]Lee C F, Lin S J, Lewis C. (2008) Analysis of the Impacts of Combining Carbon Taxation and Emission Trading on Different Industry Sectors [J]. Energy Policy,36:722-729-
[21]Silvia Tiezzi. (2005)The welfare effects and the distributive impact of carbon taxation on Italian households[J]. Energy Policy,33(12):1597-1612.
[22]S.Giblin, A.McNabola.(2009)Modeling the impacts of a carbon emission-differentiated vehicle tax system on CO2 emissions intensity from new vehicle purchases in Ireland[J]. Energy Policy,37 (4):1404-1411.
[23]Flows N., Vlachou A. (2005)Energy Demand and Energy-Related CO2 Emission in Greek Manufacturing:Assessing the Impact of a Carbon Tax [J]. Energy Economics,27(3):387-413.
[24]Emanuele Masselti.(2011) Carbon tax scenarios for China and India:exploring politically feasible mitigation goals[J].International Environmental Agreements:Politics, Law and Economics, Vol. Ⅱ,No.3.Pages 209-227
[25]Shree Raj Shakya, S. Kumar & Ram M. Shrestha. (2012) Co-benefits of a carbon tax in Nepal [J].Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Volume 17, Number 1, Pages 77-101
[26]Abiodun Oluwafemi Oluwadare. (2011)Climate Change Policies and Issues:A Tool for Increased Wood Production in Developing Countries[M]. Climate Change Management,,The Economic. Social and Political Elements of Climate Change,Part3.Pages373-383
[27]Diaz D, Chamley S, Gosnell H (2009) Engaging western landowners in climate change mitigation:A guide to carbon-oriented forest and range management and carbon market opportunities. General technical report PNW-GTR-801. US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR.
[28]Fletcher L S, Kittredge D, Stevens T (2009) Forest landowners'willingness to sell carbon credits:a pilot study. North JAppl For 26(1):35-37.
[29]Grossman G (2009) Accessing the US carbon market through sustainable forest management. In:Proceedings of the annual payments for ecosystem services meeting. Northwest Environmental Business Council, Portland, Oregon, USA
[30]Hamilton K, Peters-Stanley M, Marcello T (2010b) Building bridges:state of the voluntary carbon markets 2010. Ecosystem Marketplace, Bloomberg New Energy Finance, Washington, DC
[31]Stavins R,RichardsK (2005)The cost of U.S. forest-based carbon sequestration. Pew Centeron Global Climate Change:52
[32]PlantingaA, MauldinT, MillerD (l999)An econometric analysis of the costs of sequestering carbonin forests. Am J Agric Econ 81:812-824
[33]Axel Miehaclowa, Frank Jotzo.(2005) Transaction costs, institutional rigidities and the size of the clean development mechanism[J].EnergyPoliey,33:511-523.
[34]林德荣.森林碳汇服务市场化研究[D].中国林业科学研究院,2005
[35]Promode Kant.(2004)The Real Costs of Carbon Sink Projects in Tropical Ecosystems of India.an Analysis of Their Profitability[C].International Workshop on EETFGP.3;
[36]Susan Charnley, David Diaz and Hannah Gosnell,(2010) Mitigating Climate Change Through Small-Scale Forestry in the USA:Opportunities and Challenges Small-Scale Forestry. Volume 9, Number 4, Pages 445-462
[37]Daigneaull F. Fawcett A (2009) Memorandum on updated forestry and agriculture marginal abatement costcurves, March 31,2009. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Atmospheric Programs, Climate Change Division, Washington, DC
[38]US Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)(2009) Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990-2007, EPA 430-R-09-004. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
[39]J. Winsten, S. Walker, S. Brown.et al (2011)Estimating carbon supply curves from afforestation of agricultural land in the Northeastern U.S.[J].Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol.16, No 8, Pages 925-942
[40]吴庆标,王效科,段晓男,等,中国森林生态系统植被固碳现状和潜力[J].生态学报,2008,2(2)：217-224
[41]方精云,陈安平.中国森林植被碳库的动态变化及其意义[J].植物学报,2001,43(9)：967-973
[42]王效科,冯宗炜,欧阳志云.中国森林生态系统的植物碳储量和碳密度研究.应用生态学报,2001,12(1)：13～16.
[43]顾凯平,张坤,张丽霞.森林碳汇计量方法的研究[J].南京林业大学学报(自然科学版),2008,32(5)：105-110
[44]李秀娟,周涛,何学兆.NPP增长驱动下的中国森林生态系统碳汇[J].自然资源学报,2009,24(3)：491-497.
[45]马晓哲,王铮.中国分省区森林碳汇量的一个估计[J].科学通报,2011(6)：433-439
[46]张颖,吴丽莉,苏帆,等.我国森林碳汇核算的计量模型研究[J].北京林业大学学报,2010,5(2)：194-200
[47]谢立红,张荣涛.黑龙江省森林碳汇估算及潜力分析[J].国土与自然资源研究,2011,04：88-89.
[48]张晓静,曾以禹.构建我国林业碳汇交易市场管理机制几点思考[J].林业经济,2012,08：66-71.
[49]张忠华,李昭昭.吉林省森林碳储量估计及碳汇价值分析[J].中国城市经济,2011,18：267+270.
[50]李长胜,李顺龙.黑龙江省国有林区森林碳汇及经济评价[J].中国林业经济,2012,04：40-43.
[51]黄小辉,唐小荐,邵呈龙,朱小龙,刘芸.重庆市森林植被碳储量及其地理分布格局[J].西南师范大学学报(自然科学版),2012,01：82-87.
[52]黄敏,廖为明,王立国,等.江西森林碳储量空间分布特征及其价值分析[J].商业研究,2010,12：179-182.
[53]彭诗言.生态补偿机制的国际比较[J].特区经济,2009,05：23-24.
[54]于金娜,姚顺波.基于碳汇效益视角的最优退耕还林补贴标准研究[J].中国人口：资源与环境,2012,07：34-39.
[55]谭秋成.关于生态补偿标准和机制[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2009,06：1-6.
[56]李晓光,苗鸿,郑华,欧阳志云.生态补偿标准确定的主要方法及其应用[J].生态学报,2009,08：4431-4440.
[57]李芬,李文华,甄霖,等.森林生态系统补偿标准的方法探讨一以海南省为例[J].自然资源学报,2010,05：735-745.
[58]雍慧,熊峰,潘磊,王晓荣,王尊一.生态公益林补偿标准确定的问题、方法与建议[J].湖北林业科技,2011,06：46-50.
[59]祁爽.对适度提高森林生态效益补偿标准的建议——以辽宁省为例[J].山东林业科技,2012,03：131-132.
[60]戴广翠,张蕾,李志勇,蒲少华,谭著明,张翼.壶瓶山自然保护区生态补偿标准的调查研究[J].湖南林业科技,2012,04：4-9+40.
[61]戴广翠,闫春丽,缪光平,等.关于完善森林生态效益补偿政策的几点建议[J].林业经济,2008,(12)：16-19+43.
[62]武曙红,张小全,宋维明.国际自愿碳汇市场的补偿标准[J].林业科学,2009,3(3)：134-139
[63]潘家华,陈迎.碳预算方案：一个公平的可持续的国际气候框架[J].中国社会科学,2009,(5).
[64]王淑芳.碳税对我国的影响及其政策响应[J].生态经济,2005,(10).
[65]刘洁,李文.征收碳税对中国经济影响的实证[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2011,9：99-104
[66]张志新,李亚.征收碳税对中国经济增长与行业发展的影响[J].中南财经政法大学学报,201],6：44-49
[67]高鹏飞,陈文颖.碳税与碳排放[J].清华大学学报(自然科学版),2002,(10).
[68]张明文,张金良,谭忠富,王东海.碳税对经济增长、能源消费与收入分配的影响分析[J].技术经济,2009,06：48-51+95.
[69]朱广芹,韩浩.基于区域碳汇交易的森林生态效益补偿模式[J].东北林业大学学报,2010.10(10)：109-111.
[70]刘明明.论碳排放权交易制度的核心要素[J].企业经济,2012,08：10-14.
[71]魏东,岳杰,王璟珉.碳排放权交易风险管理的识别、评估与应对[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2012,08：28-32.
[72]袭亮,赵群.构建黄三角高效生态经济区水污染物排放权交易体系[J].统计与决策,2012,09：164-166.
[73]张志勋.论我国碳排放权交易体系的构建[J].企业经济,2012,06：178-181.
[74]刘佳宁.中国发展碳排放权交易市场核心机制设计研究[J].经济问题,2012,07：62-65+105.
[75]党建民,张新润.我国碳排放权交易市场构建条件分析[J].开发研究,2012,03：81-84.
[76]范进,赵定涛,郭韬.基于消费者视角的碳排放权交易机制研究[J].中国软科学,2012,06：24-32
[77]纪玉山,李通.关于建立我国碳排放权交易市场的对策[J].经济纵横,,2012,07：44-47.
[78]张浩,郑莉琼,杨晓峰,胡文,杨佐忠.构建我国森林碳汇市场初探[J].四川林业科技,2011,05：91-94.
[79]赵猛,潘武林,刘静.中国未来林业碳汇市场价格机制设计浅析[J].中国农学通报,2011,31：79-81.
[80]肖艳,李晓雪.我国森林碳汇市场培育的路径选择[J].世界林业研究,2012,01：55-59.
[81]郑海鹰,金笙.北京市森林碳汇市场构建研究[J].经济研究导刊,2012,09：125-128.
[82]刘丛丛,王文英.我国森林碳汇市场构建的研究[J].中国林业经济,2012,03：23-25.
[83]李淑霞,周志国.森林碳汇市场的运行机制研究[J].北京林业大学学报(社会科学版),2010,02：88-93.
[84]陈叙图,李怒云,高岚,何宇.美国林业碳汇市场现状及发展趋势[J].林业经济,2009,07：76-80.
[85]彭喜阳,左旦平.关于建立我国森林碳汇市场体系基本框架的设想[J].生态经济,2009,08：184-187.
[86]胡品平,徐正春,刘成香.森林碳汇服务的经济学分析一基于产权角度看森林碳汇服务交易[J].中国林业经济,2007,02：34-37.
[87]李怒云,王春峰,陈叙图.简论国际碳和中国林业碳汇交易市场[J].中国发展,2008,(03)：9-12.
[88]张晓静,曾以禹.构建我国林业碳汇交易市场管理机制几点思考[J].林业经济,2012,08：66-71.
[89]王枫,沈月琴,孙玉贵.基于成本利润率的碳汇交易价格研究一以浙江省杉木林经营为例[J].林业经济问题,2012,02：104-108.
[90]武曙红.CDM林业碳汇市场前景及碳信用的交易策略[J].林业科学,2010,11：152-157.
[91]武曙红,宋维明,森林管理项目纳入我国碳补偿自愿市场必要性分析[J]林业经济,2008(12)：53-56
[92]国家林业局经济发展研究中心林业与气候变化研究室.“森林碳汇在森林可持续经营中的作用”会议综述[J].林业经济.2008,8：125-128
[93]李怒云,章升东,宋维明.中国林业碳汇管理现状与展望[J].绿色中国.2005,(06)：23-26.
[94]李文华,李芬,李世东,等.森林生态效益补偿的研究现状与展望[J].自然资源学报,2006,21(5)：677-688.
[95]试论森林对环境的服务功能及其作用机理,绿色大世界[EB/OL].2012-3-15. http://hi.baidu.com/%C2%CC%C9%AB%B4%F3%CA%C0%BD%E707/blog/item/53a8e41e55d0c8f71ad5765e. html.
[96]耿闻,孙静,林业局、旅游局联合召开全国森林旅游工作会议,[EB/OL].2012-3-15. http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2011-11/19/content 1998116.htm.
[97]汪安佑,雷涯邻,沙景华.资源环境经济学[M].地质出版社,2005,9.
[98]陈美球,洪土林,许兵杰.试析农户耕地保护的外部性[J].江西农业大学学报,2010,03：71-75.
[99]萨缪尔森,诺德豪斯.经济学[M].北京：华夏出版社,1999.
[100]沈满洪,何灵巧.外部性的分类及外部性理论的演化[J].浙江大学学报(人文社科版),2002,01：152-160.
[101]夏梦.基于外部性理论的旅游可持续发展研究[D].：南京师范大学,2006.
[102]杨建州,周慧蓉,张春霞,谢志忠.外部性理论在森林环境资源定价中的应用[J].生态经济,2006,02：32-34.
[103]Samuelson P A. (1954)The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure[J]. Review of Economics and Statistics,36(4): 387-389
[104]秦颖.论公共产品的本质——兼论公共产品理论的局限性[J].经济学家,2006,03：77-82.
[105]郭淳凡,李定安.基于公共产品理论的资源类景区产品经济属性研究[J].财贸经济,2007,S1：119-122+129.
[106]何承耕.自然资源和环境价值理论研究述评[J].福建地理,2001,04：1-5.
[107]蔡剑辉.西方环境价值理论的研究进展——森林环境价值评估的理论与方法研究(1)[J].林业经济问题,2003,04：191-194+199.
[108]曹建华.森林资源环境价值核算评价研究综述[J].江西林业科技,2002,05：36-39+28.
[109]贾生华,陈宏辉.利益相关者的界定方法述评[J].外国经济与管理,2002,05：13-18.
1110]Freeman R E. Strategic Management:Astakeholder ApproachfM].Boston:Pitman Publishing Ine.1984.
[111]付俊文,赵红.利益相关者理论综述[J].首都经济贸易大学学报,2006,02：16-21.
[112]陈贵松.森林公园利益相关者共同治理研究[D].北京林业大学,2010.
[113]Sheehan L R.Ritchie J R. (2005)Destination Stakeholders:Exploring Identity and Salience[J]. Annals of Tourism Research,22(3):711-734.
[114]Sautter E T.Leisen B. (1999) Managing Stakeholders:A Tourism Planning Model[J]. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(2):312-328.
[115]SwardbrookSustainable tourism management[M]. CABI.Publishing,1999.
[116]刘静艳.从系统学角度透视生态旅游利益相关者结构关系[J].旅游学刊,2006,05：17-21.
[117]Robert W. M, Charles R.G, etc. Tourism-Pricinples, Practices, Philosophies[M]. Wiley & Sons. Inc.1995.
[118]郭亚军.旅游者决策行为研究[D].：西北大学,2010
[119]Um,S.& Crompton.J. L. (1999)Attitude Determinants in Tourism Destination Choice[J]. Annals of Tourism Research,17(3):432-448.
[120]Seddighi,H.R.& Theoeharous.A.L. (2002)A model of tourism destination choice:A theoretical and empirical analysis[J]. Tourism Management,23(5):475-487.
[121]Beerli A, Martin J D.(2004)Tourists, characteristics and the perceived image of tourist destinations:a quantitative analysis a case study of Lanzarote,SPain[J]. Tour Management,25(5):23-36.
[122]Terry Lam, Cathy H.C.Hsu. (2006)Predieting behavioral intention of choosing a travel destination[J]. Tourism Management.27:589-599.
[123]吴必虎,唐俊雅,黄安民等.中国城市居民旅游目的地选择行为研究[J].地理学报.1997,52(2)：97-103.
[124]郭亚军,张红芳.旅游者决策行为研究[J].旅游科学,2002,(4)：24-27.
[125]杨琳.旅游决策过程中的口传验机[D].浙江大学旅游管理硕士学位论文.2002,12.
[126]王林.论旅游决策风险的成因及对策[J].中国地质大学学报(社会科学版),2001,(1)：29-31.
[127]陈奉伟.森林公园游客环境态度与行为研究[D].：中南林业科技大学,2009.
[128]李燕琴.生态旅游者与一般游客行为特征的比较——以北京市百花山自然保护区为例[J].经济地理,2007,04：665-671.
[129]韩明漠.农村社会学[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2001.
[130]卜范达,韩喜平.“农户经营”内涵的探析[J].当代经济研究,2003,(9)：37-41.
[131]廖文梅.集体林权制度配套改革中农户决策行为研究[D].：江西农业大学,2011.
[132]陈美球,肖鹤亮,何维佳等.耕地流转农户行为影响因素的实证分析一基于江西省1396户农户耕地流转行为现状的调研.自然资源学报[J].2008,23(03)：369-374.
[133]李彧挥,方苑,陈亮.林农流转出林地意愿的影响因素分析——以湖南省安化县为例[J].江汉论坛,2012,02：14-19.
[134]田少静,翟印礼.林农林地流转决策行为影响因素的实证分析——以辽宁省为例[J].林业经济问题,2011.02：127-130.
[135]谢屹,温亚利,公培臣.集体林权制度改革中农户流转收益合理性分析[J].林业科学,2009,(1O)：134-140
[136]刘珉.林权制度改革对林农生产性投资的影响——基于河南平原地区的数据[J].林业经济,2012,06：3-6+19.
[137]张广胜,罗金.集体林权制度改革中采伐限额与林农生产决策[J].林业经济,2010,12：51-55.
[138]谢彦明,支玲.林农林业投资行为影响因素分析及政策启示——以景谷县197户林农为例[J].林业经济问题,2011.01：24-27.
[139]孟全省,邹润玲,邓慧婷,等.影响林农参与林权抵押贷款意愿因素分析—以陕西省宁陕县为例[J].林业经济,2010,11：40-43.
[140]金满涛.林农行为视角下政策性森林保险的经济分析[J].新疆财经大学学报,2010,(2)36-39.54.
[141]廖文梅,彭泰中,曹建华.农户参与森林保险意愿的实证分析—以江西为例[J].林业科学,2011,05：117-123.
[142]乔羽.集体林权制度改革后林农合作组织研究[D].：北京林业大学,2012.
[143]黄丽萍.影响林农参与专业合作经济组织的因素分析—基于农户的视角[J].西北农林科技大学学报(社会科学版),2012,05：73-78.
[144]李丽,高鑫,程云行.林农参与林业专业合作社的意愿与调查分析[J].林业经济问题,2011,02：106-109.
[145]苏芳,尚海洋,聂华林.农户参与生态补偿行为意愿影响因素分析[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2011,04：119-125.
[146]冉瑞平.西南地区林业生态环境保护与建设中的林农行为分析—来自四川邓峡市的调查[J].农业经济问题,2006,(9)：41-45.
[147]黄斌.采伐限额管理制度约束条件下的农户森林经营行为研究[D].：福建农林大学,2010.
[148]马莹.基于利益相关者视角的政府主导型流域生态补偿制度研究[J].经济体制改革,2010,05：52-56.
[149]吴楚材,吴章文.江西靖安三爪仑国家森林公园总体规划设计[M].北京,中国林业出版社,1999,7.
[150]李海奎,雷渊才.中国森林植被生物量和碳储量评估[M].中国林业出版社.北京,2010,03
[151]尉海东,马祥庆.中亚热带不同发育阶段杉木人工林生态系统碳贮量研究[J].江西农业大学学报,2006,02：239-243+267.
[152]何宗明,李丽红,王义祥,等.33年生福建柏人工林碳库与碳吸存[J].山地学报,2003,03：298-303.
[153]黎曦,鲍雪芳,王福升.赣南毛竹生物量研究[J].安徽林业科技,2007,z1：9-11.
[154]周国模,刘恩斌,施拥军,等.基于最小尺度的浙江省毛竹生物量精确估算[J].林业科学,2011,01：1-5.
[155]刘存琦.灌木植物量测定技术的研究[J]·草业学报,1994,3(4)：61-65
[156]卢振龙,龚孝生.灌木生物量测定的研究进展[J].林业调查规划,2009,04：37-40+45.
[157]胡会峰,王志恒,刘国华,等.中国主要灌丛植被碳储量[J].植物生态学报,2006,30(4)539～544.
[158]黄玫,季劲钧,曹明奎,等.中国区域植被地上与地下生物量模拟[J].生态学报,2006,12：4156-4163.
[159]李克让,王绍强,曹明奎.中国植被和土壤碳贮量,中国科学(D)辑,2003,33(1)：72～80.
[160]方楷,杨清培,赵广东,杨光耀,施建敏,郭起荣.江西主要竹类植物碳密度的时空差异分析[J].江西科学,2010,04：449-452
[161]Baldo. G..L, Marino M, Montani M, Ryding S.O. The Carbon Footprint Measurement Toolkit for the EU Ecolabel, Int J Life Cycle Assess,2009,14:591-596
[162]Weber C L, Matthews H S, Quantifying the Global and Distributional Aspects of American Household Carbon Footprinl[J].Ecological Economics,2008,66:379-391.
[163JKenn yT, Gray N F. A Preliminary Survey of Household and Personal Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Ireland [J]. Environment International,2009,35(2):259-272.
[164]R.J.Barthelmie, S.D.Morris & P.Schechter. (2008)Carbon neutral-Biggar:calculating the community carbon footprint and renewable energy options for footprint reduction [J]. Sustainability Science, Volume 3(2)10。
[165]郭运功,汪冬冬,林逢春.上海市能源利用碳排放足迹研究[J].中国人口资源与环境,2010.2：103-108；
[166]李鹏,黄继华,莫延芬,杨桂华.昆明市四星级酒店住宿产品碳足迹计算与分析[J].旅游学刊,2010,3：27-34.
[167]樊杰,李平星,梁育填.个人终端消费导向的碳足迹研究框架——支撑我国环境外交的碳排放研究新思路[J].地球科学进展,2010,1(])：61-68
[168]王立国,廖为明,黄敏,等.基于终端消费的旅游碳足迹测算—以江西省为例[J].生态经济,2011,05：121-124+168
[169]魏一鸣,刘兰翠,范英等.中国能源报告2008：碳排放研究[M].科学出版社(北京),2008,1(5).
[170]三爪仑官方网站[EB/OL]. http://www.sanzhualun.com/2012-8-16,
[171]中科院可持续发展战略研究组.2009中国可持续发展战略报告—探索中国特色的低碳道路[M].科学出版社(北京),2009,1(3)：
[172]World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).Tourism Market Trends[R],2006 Edition-Annex3.
[173]王怀探,罗芬,钟勇德.游客碳足迹[M].北京,中国林业出版社2011,11.
[174]陈胜可.SPSS统计分析：从入门到精通[M].清华大学出版社,2010(8)
[]75]李怒云,章升东,宋维明.中国林业碳汇管理现状与展望[J].绿色中国,2005,06：23-26.
[176]李光兵.国外两种农户经济行为理论及其启示[J].农村经济与社会,1992,06：52-57.
[177]孙晓伟.论有限理性与农户发展农业循环经济的行为选择[J].林业经济,2010,08：100-104.
[178]曹光乔,周力,易中郭,等.农业机械购置补贴对农户购机行为的影响—基于江苏省水稻植业的实证分析[J].中国农村经济,2010,(06)：38-.45.
[179]侯元兆,吴水荣.森林生态服务价值评价与补偿研究综述[J].世界林业研究,2005,03：1-5.
[180]马莹,毛程连.流域生态补偿的经济内涵及政府功能定位[J].商业研究,2010,08：127-131.
[181]毛显强,钟瑜,张胜.生态补偿的理论探讨[J].中国人口.资源与环境,2002,04：40-43.
[182]欧阳勋志,廖为明,彭世揆.天然阔叶林景观质量评价及其垂直结构优化技术[J].应用生态学报,2007,06：1388-1392.
[183]郑海霞,张陆彪.流域生态服务补偿定量标准研究[J].环境保护,2006,(1)：42.46.
[184]每日经济新闻,李怒云：企业参与林业碳汇我国碳市场可期,http://www.ditan360.com/Zhiku/Info-114149.html, 2012-9-414:13:25
[185]Wang, Guangyu, J.L Jnnes, S.W. Wu.etc. National Park Development in China:conservation or commercialization? [J]. Ambio, published online:2011.10.
[186]石培华,冯凌,吴普.旅游业节能减排与低碳发展——政策技术体系与实践工作指南[M].中国旅游出版社,北京.2010,7.
[187]蔡萌,汪宇明.低碳旅游：一种新的旅游发展方式[J],旅游学刊．2010,1：13-17.
[188]马勇,陈小连.低碳旅游发展模式与实践创新[M].科学出版社,北京,2011,12.
[189]彭春凝.论生态补偿机制中的政府干预[J].西南民族大学学报(人文社科版),2007,07：105-109.