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可持续发展战略下中国税制绿化研究
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摘要
寻求有效的环境规制手段是可持续发展战略下政府公共管理的重要课题。绿色税收,作为一种环境规制的经济手段,可以将环境和资源使用中产生的外部成本内部化,弥补市场制度的缺陷,体现“污染者付费”原则,逐渐成为促进可持续发展的重要方式之一。二十世纪七十年代以来,经济与合作发展组织成员国纷纷推行绿色税收政策,并结合已有税种的结构调整,逐步进行了综合性的绿色税制改革,取得了明显的环境效果和一定程度的经济效应。目前我国税制的整体绿化水平还相对较低,绿色税费种类较少,调节手段单一,调节范围狭窄,在税费总收入中的比重相对偏小,其作为环境规制手段的重要作用还没有得到充分发挥。借鉴国外税制绿化的经验,对可持续发展战略下中国税制绿化的现状、条件、效应和路径进行研究,不仅能够弥补现有理论研究的不足,还可以为我国税制优化变迁中绿色化变革提供前瞻性思路和政策参考。
     本文以我国税收制度绿色化为研究对象,通过对我国税制绿化的实证分析和理论分析来研究税制绿化的环境效应、经济效应和发展路径等。除导论和文献综述外,本文可分为三部分。本文首先对我国税制绿化现状进行了实证研究,分析了我国绿色税费的作用、特点和不足,评价了税制绿化程度并分析了原因,对现有绿色税费的环境效果和经济效应进行了回归检验。研究表明,我国税制绿化水平较低,环境调节作用有限,对经济发展和税制优化的作用不明显。
     基于经验研究成果,结下来的理论研究部分首先以外部性理论和公共物品理论为基础,阐述了可持续发展战略下环境资源外部性等特征及绿色税收的规制原理,通过局部均衡分析和一般均衡分析,对绿色税收的税率设定和所造成的福利变化效应进行了理论分析。然后结合国际税制绿化研究,对税制绿化的主要理论——“双重红利”学说进行了深入探讨,对“双重红利”产生的条件和效应机理进行阐述和模型分析。其次,在上述研究基础上,从我国税收制度变迁的角度,理论上分析了税制绿化在我国税收制度发展中的作用,研究了税制绿化和税制优化的关系,分析了绿色税收对税种结构的影响。
     在理论研究的基础上,第三部分考察了OECD国家税制绿化的历史经验、环境效果和经济效应,并以此为借鉴对比,分析中国实行税制绿化改革的影响。针对转轨时期我国税制绿化的条件特征,提出了税制绿化的制度创新对策。
     本文共分七章。第一章导论就研究缘起、研究意义和本文的结构安排进行说明。第二章对环境资源的特征和绿色税的规制特点进行分析,并对绿色税收的经济学研究脉络和相关研究文献进行了梳理,讨论了绿色税的理论源头、微观理论
    进展和宏观分析成果。重点对绿色税收在就业、分配、竞争力等方面的效应研究进行总结。第三章考察可持续发展战略下我国环境和资源发展态势,并对我国绿色税费现状进行了描述。在此基础上,分析我国税制绿化的主要问题及其原因,并对中国当前绿化效果进行分析,以实证结果为基础考察绿色税费对环境规制、经济发展等领域的实际影响,从而为下文的理论分析奠定基础。第四章理论上阐释绿色税对外部性的调节原理,通过对绿色税收在完全竞争条件下的局部均衡和一般均衡分析,对绿色税收的理论税率及其对其他经济变量的附加效应作了进一步的探讨。在此基础上,对西方综合性绿色税收改革的理论基石——“双重红利”学说的发展过程、效应机理进行了分析,并对学说争论双方的观点进行了总结。第五章对绿色税制改革过程的一些深层次问题进行了理论分析,从绿色税收在整个税收制度变迁中的优化作用角度分析,探讨绿色税在税制优化过程中的作用。第六章从绿色税收的产生背景、变迁过程、现状和实施的环境效果和非环境效应对OECD国家的绿色税改革进行分析,重点对“双重红利”进行实证分析和国际竞争力和分配效应分析,为我国税制绿化提供借鉴。第七章针对我国市场机制不完善、转轨时期的行业垄断、监测条件不完备的情况,对市场结构不完善、信息不完备、不完备检测情况下的条件进行了理论分析,然后通过对比OECD国家和中国税制绿化的现实条件差异,分析中国绿色税收制度创新的效应,最后对我国现行税制的绿化调整方案进行了探讨,并提出了税制绿化的前瞻性思路和制度创新对策。
To seek the effective means of environmental regulation is the important subject of government' s public management under the sustainable development strategy. As an economic means of environmental regulation, green taxes has grown into a key method for promoting sustainable development, because it may well internalize the external costs produced during the consumption of environmental resources, so as to make up for the disadvantages of marketing system and to demonstrate the "polluter pays principle" . Ever since 1970s, the member states of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) have resorted to green tax system and gradually undergone comprehensive reforms of tax system accompanied by the adjustment of their original tax systems. Consequently, apparent effects on environment and economy have been achieved. Currently, the overall green level of our state' s tax system is rather low. With less variety of green tax, rather simple adjustment means and narrow adjustment scale, green tax accounts for a relatively small proportion in the revenue, and thus its key role as an environment regulation measure has not yet been well demonstrated. Therefore, a probe into the current situation of China green tax system with the reference of foreign counterparts' experience will provide a forecasting vision and a policy reference for the optimization of China green tax system reform, and will make up for the deficiency of current theories as well.
    Based on practical and theoretical analyses, this thesis is to probe into our state' s green tax system reform and research on its environmental effects, economic effectiveness and develop route of green taxes system reform. Besides the introduction and literature summary, this thesis consists of three parts. The first chapter conducts an empirical research on the status of China green tax system reform, analyzing its function, feature and deficiency, evaluating the degree of green tax system and analyzing the reason. Among other things, a regression test is conducted on the environmental and economic effect of the green tax in China. It seems that the degree of our green tax system reform is rather low and the function of the environmental adjustment is
    rather limited, and that the effect on economy development and tax system optimization is not distinct.
    According to practical analyses, the following theoretical research studies the externality feature of environment resources and the regulation principium of green taxes on the basis of externality and public articles theories. By partial equilibrium and general equilibrium evaluation, a theoretical analysis is made on the effect of welfare changes caused by tax setting. With the reference of global studies on green tax system, the author probes into the "double dividend" and analyzes the conditions and mechanism of it. Additionally, this part studies the function of green tax system reform in tax system development and the relationship between tax system greening and tax system optimizing, and analyzes green tax influence over tax construction.
    The third chapter examines the past experiences of system greening on the bases of theoretical researches, environmental and economic effect of green tax system adopted by member states of OECD; analyzes the influence of China's green tax system reform, take warning from these. The author puts forward some creative countermeasures towards China green tax system reform directed against the features of the transformation period.
    This thesis consists of seven parts. The first part explains the origin and the significance of the research, and introduces the structure of the thesis. The second part analyzes the characteristic of the environmental resource and the regulation of green tax. It also analyzes the economic research skeleton of the green tax and relevant document and discusses the theoretical origin of green tax, the development of microeconomic and the production of macroeconomic. The keystone of this part is the summing-up of researching effects on employment, allocation, competition and so on. The third part reviews the development situation of China's environment and resource under the strategy of sustainable development, and it describes the actuality of China's taxes and expense. On this base the thesis analyzes the main problems and causes of China's green taxes and the effects of recent tax reformation. It reviews the actual effects on environment regulation and economic development on the
    base of empirical results. The fourth part expounds the green tax adjust principle on exteriority and probes into affixation effects on other economic variables and the theoretical tax rate. Furthermore, it analyzes the development process and the effect mechanism "double dividend" theory, which is the theoretical foundation stone of west competitive green tax reform and it sums up the different points of view as well. The fifth part does some theoretical analysis on more fundamental problems in the process of tax reform. From the view of the optimization effect in the tax system transition, it discusses the green tax effect in optimization process of green tax. The sixth part analyzes the tax system reform of OECD countries from the background of green tax, the process and actuality of system transition, and the environment and non-environmental effects. Especially, it emphasizes the "double dividends" effects and international competition and allocation effects. The seventh part analyzes the situation of the imperfectness of market mechanism, trade monopolies in transition period, monitoring condition、 market structure、 information, and detection. Then it compares the realization condition in OECD countries with China and analyzes the effect on China' s green tax system innovation. Finally it discusses the blue print of China' s green tax system reform and puts forward prospective train of thought and countermeasure of institutional innovation to tax system greening.
引文
1 引自斯蒂格利茨著.郭庆旺等译.公共部门经济学.中国人民大学出版社.2005。
    2 参见《中国环境与发展评论》,第58页,社会科学文献出版社,2004。
    3 本文中的绿色税(收)和环境税(收)具有同样的涵义,在有些地方使用环境税是因为保留所引用文献的原貌。
    4 参见《国际税收辞汇》(第二版)国际财政文献局。
    5 参见《环境税的新发展:中国与OECD国家的比较》,第10页,中国环境科学出版社,2000。
    6 我国于2006年4月1日开始实行新的消费税,大排量汽车的税率提高,增加对燃油类和一次性筷子等木制品的征税。
    7 关于“双重红利”这个概念,有些国内学者将其译为“双赢效应”。
    8 关于“双重红利”含义存在分歧,本文在第四章论述。
    9 OECD国家有时称为环境税改革(Enviromental Tax Reform)。
    1 关于物品分类的详细分析参见《当代西方财政学》,刘宇飞著,北京大学出版社,2002年版,P93~101。
    2 在实践过程中,排污权交易作为一种降低成本的环境规制工具得以发展,较绿色税的运用更早和更普遍一些。
    3 参考 J.M. Buchanan and G. Tullock, Polluter's Profits and Political Response:Direct Control versus Taxes. The American Economic Review, vol 23, p144。
    4 英文称为Bootleggers and Baptists theory,直接翻译为“罪人与教徒理论”,为了便于理解,本文将其称为“正反方理论”。该理论认为,环境保护团体是“教徒”(Baptists),企业则是“罪人”(Bootleggers),两者虽然目的不同,但是可能会对某一政策方案都表示支持。
    5 参考Oates,1995,第920页。
    1 数据来源:www.cei.gov.cn。
    2 关于中国的绿色税制状况,部分内容参考“绿色税的新发展:中国与OECD比较(杨金田、葛察忠主编,北京,中国环境科学出版社,2000.10,第49-66页)。
    3 资料来源:2005年度注册会计师全国统一考试辅导教材 《税法》。
    4 郝如玉 王国华:《中国新税制》,经济科学出版社,1994年版,第99页。
    5 资料来源:国家税务总局计划统计司编,简明税收统计资料;国家税务总局网站的税收收入统计。
    6 资料来源:国家税务总局计划统计司编,简明税收统计资料;国家税务总局网站的税收收入统计。
    7 数据资料来自国家税务总局的税收收入统计。
    8 数据资料来源于1994-2004年的中国环境统计公报。
    9 四小快是指:(1)对缴纳排污费后仍未达到排放标准的单位,从开征第三年起,每年提高征收标准百分之五;(2)《环境保护法(试行)》公布以后,新建、改建、扩建的工程项目和挖潜、革新、改造的工程项目排放污染物超过标准的,应当加倍收费;(3)排污费按月按季征收,排污单位逾期不交的,每天增收滞纳金千分之一;(4)排污单位违反环保法规的罚款。
    10 本节参考了樊丽明等著“中国工业化进程中的税制绿化”一文。
    11 武亚军,2005:国家税务总局,2005;国家统计局,2003。
    12 数据来源 www.cei.gov.cn 中国经济信息网。
    13 资料来源:葛察忠,2001,中国绿色税的研究与实践,上海环境科学,第8期。
    14 数据来源:www.cei.gov.cn。
    1 参考前页对外部性特征的描述。
    2 只要产权界定清楚,资源有效配置与初始产权安排无关。
    3 其他市场结构将在第7章中给予论述。
    4 在这样的假设条件下,所求解出的局部最大值就是整体最大值。
    5 关于双重红利的理论研究过程评述,部分参考了洪东炜(2004),李涵茵(2002)的论文。
    6 Bovenberg、Mooij原文中Tax-interaction effect,武亚军、宣晓伟2002译为“税收相互作用效应”,洪东炜(2004)译为“税赋交互效果”;revenue-recycling effect武亚军、宣晓伟2002译为“收入返回作用效应”,洪东炜(2004)译为收入循环效果。
    7 这方面的文献综述结合Pearce(1991)、Goulder(1995)、武亚军、宣晓伟2002与洪东炜(2004)。
    8 具体可以参见Jaeger,William K.2004。
    9 关于该模型具体内容可以参考Bovenberg and Moooij(1994)的模型、伯纳德.萨拉尼(2002):《税收经济学》关于绿色税的一节。
    1 参见:道格拉斯·C·诺思,《经济史中的结构与变迁》,上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,第225—226页,1994。
    2 如在我国交通运输业属于营业税征税范围,其中增值税纳税人的运费既要负担增值税,又要缴纳营业税,并且在计算销项税额时不能完全抵扣。
    3 主要反映在内外资企业实行两套不同的所得税制和财产税制,关税和进口环节对外资企业实行优惠政策:对外资企业不征收城市维护建设税、耕地占用税和固定资产投资方向调节税;对国有和集体企业不征收契税;原税制中的优惠政策大多保留。
    4 参见诺思,《经济史中的结构与变迁》,“译者的话”,第15—16页,上海三联书店,1994。
    5 参见卢现祥《西方新制度经济学》,第107页,中国发展出版社,2003。
    6 参见:R·科斯,A·阿尔钦,D·诺斯,《财产权利与制度变迁》第274页,上海人民出版社,1994。
    7 本文在前面一节已经对此做了介绍,在此就不赘述。
    8 “循环经济”一词是美国经济学家K·波尔丁(Kenneth Boulding)于1966年在提出生态经济时谈到的,并启发了20世纪60年代末开始的关于资源与绿色的国际经济研究。
    9 减量化原则是指,减少进入生产和消费流程的物质量,从源头节约资源,减少污染物排放。
    10 其他投资的折旧通常为10年。
    11 也称“Schumpte—Hicks命题”,参见:张宇燕、何帆,《由财政压力引起的制度变迁》,载盛洪、张宇燕主编,《市场逻辑与制度变迁》,中国财政经济出版社,1998。
    12 本文在前面的有关章节已经详细介绍了近年来我国绿色恶化的现象,与缺乏良好的税制不无关系。
    13 参见前文有关绿色税的有效性,静态效率和动态效率分析。
    14 一般来说,税制优化包括税制结构、税负结构和征管这三个方面,我们在这里主要讨论的是前两者。
    15 他们还因为在税制优化理论方面的卓越贡献而获得了1996年的诺贝尔经济学奖。
    16 参见R.Lipsey.和K.Lancaster,The General theory of second best.Review of Economic Studies,VOL 24,11-32,1956。
    17 本文本来想在理论分析基础上作中国的数值模拟,但由于国内还无法收集到完整的数据,因此数值模拟难度很大,仅用美国数据作了简要说明。
    18 这里的无效和有效是针对绿色质量而言的,如果税收对绿色忽视则为无效,反之为有效。
    19 这可能是政治因素的影响,从而税制不是最优的。
    20 参见Carlo Carraro and Marzio. Galeotti, 1997, Economic growth, international competitiveness and environmental protection: R&D and innovation strategies with the WARM model, Energy Economics, 19, 2-28。
    21 参见牛文元,绿色GDP与中国绿色会计制度,会计研究,2002,1。
    1 资料来源:Paul Ekins,1999。
    2 Ekins认为,荷兰的燃料税、废物税、铀税、地下水开采费,英国的道路燃料税,挪威的拥堵费,英国和美国的CFC税等均属于收入取得型税收。
    3 资料来源:参见何建坤《利用环境税费政策,促进节能和可再生能源发展》(PPT)清华大学核能与新能源技术研究院,2005年11月(网上资料)。
    4 参见何建坤在“促进清洁能源开发的税收与财政政策能源基础的国际论坛”上的发言《利用环境税费政策,促进节能和可再生能源发展》(PPT)清华大学核能与新能源技术研究院,2005年11月于北京(网上资料)。
    5 参见曲福田等《可持续发展与经济政策》一文第5页。
    6 参考资料来源:欧洲环境局《环境税的实施和效果》,中国环境出版社,2000。
    7 所得税数据引自《入盟后爱沙尼亚关于税收政策的争论及变化趋势》一文,来源于中国驻爱沙尼亚大使馆网站。
    8 资料来源:Study on the Relationship Between Environmental(Energy)Taxation and Employment Creation; C.J. Heady etc, 2000, p. 25。
    9 资料来源:C.J. Heady etc2000, "Study on the Relationship between Environmental/Energy Taxation and Employment Creation", p. 35。
    10 Meta分析是一种对多个同类研究结果进行合并汇总的分析方法。
    11 参考OECD《环境税的实施战略》一书第89-99页,中国环境科学出版社,1996年12月第1版。
    12 依据Christainsen and Tietenberg(1985)研究,认定环境政策对企业造成的成本负荷而构成生产力及所得成长的限制。
    13 不同环境政策强度将导致污染密集型产业产生区域移置现象,如从OECD国家转移至发展中国家。
    14 参见经济合作与发展组织的《环境税的实施战略》一书第61页,中国环境科学出版社,1996年12月第1版。
    15 参见杨金田、葛察中等编的《环境税的新发展:中国与OECD比较》一书第1页,中国环境科学出版社,2000年第1版。
    16 参见Joaquim Oliveira-Martins, The Costs of Reducing CO, Emission: A Comparison of Carbon Tax with DREEN, OECD, 1992, Paris。
    17 杨金田等《环境税的新发展:中国与OECD比较》第27、38页,中国环境科学出版社2000年第1版。
    1 完全垄断和寡头垄断不过是垄断竞争的垄断程度不同而已。
    2 文中污染税和庇古税可互换使用,不影响结论。
    3 这在现实经济中经常发生。
    4 利用简单的排列组合即可得这8种结果。
    5 当然这也可以看作是信息不完备的一种表现。
    6 包括罚金和补缴的污染税。
    7 可以参考引论中对绿色税收内涵的阐述。
    8 当然该产品需与污染是直接相关的。
    9 参见Environmental Tax in OECD Countries. Head of Publication Service OECD, 1996。
    10 Lynn Price在“促进清洁能源开发的税收与财政政策能源基础的国际论坛”上的发言《环境税收政策的国际经验》(PPT),劳伦斯.伯克利国家实验室能源分析部环境能源技术处,2005年11月于北京(网上资料)。
    11 参见胡秀莲在“促进清洁能源开发的税收与财政政策能源基础的国际论坛”上的发言《中长期能源税、碳税的政策设计研究》(PPT),能源研究所课题组,2005年11月于北京(网上资料)。
    12 资料来源:引自胡秀莲《中长期能源税、碳税的政策设计研究》(PPT),能源研究所课题组(网上资料)。
    13 资料来源:引自胡秀莲《中长期能源税、碳税的政策设计研究》(PPT),能源研究所课题组(网上资料)。
    14 资料来源:同上
    15 深入了解参见兰天《贸易与跨国界环境污染》一书第317-329页,经济管理出版社,2004年第1版。
    16 胡鞍钢《中国国情与绿色发展》(PPT),中国科学院/清华大学国情研究中心,2004年10月22日(网上资料)。
    17 参见刘普照《宏观税负与经济增长相关性研究》,经济科学出版社,2004年6月,第94页。
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