美国小规模学校研究
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摘要
学校规模是与学校培养效率、培养质量密切相关的一个量化指标。恰当规模的确定一般受到两个因素的制约：一是以教育质量为主的依据，侧重追求受教育者理想的学习效果和身心发展结果；一是以教育效率为主的依据，侧重追求理想的经济效益。恰当规模正是对两者交汇点的把握。然而，实践中往往会偏重某一方面。在一个国家教育发展的不同阶段，对教育质量与教育效率侧重的不同，产生不同的规模需求。
本文以美国小规模学校在不同历史时期教育改革中的命运为视角，考察了美国中小学尤其是中学规模的变迁，由此来分析学校规模的重要意义、变化的基本规律及其影响的有限性。
除引言和结语外，本文分为三个部分：
第一部分：关于历史上自发形成的小规模学校。包括它们形成的原因与特点，以及在变化了的社会要求下的衰落。
第二部分：主要论及对小规模学校的自觉追求。这种自觉追求兴起于70年代中期并持续到现在，对规模上的新要求反映了外部社会条件的变化和内部教育变革的要求。此期对小规模学校的追求已经超出了历史上的小规模学校的含义，达到了对历史上小规模学校的否定之否定阶段。该部分分析了新的小规模学校产生的社会背景与原因，特点与分类，以及这些小规模学校所表现出来的优势与问题。
第三部分：通过对美国小规模学校在历史上的起伏的个案分析，引出几点思考，涉及规模的重要性，规模的变化的规律，以及规模影响的有限性。
School size is a very important quantity norm closely-related to quality and efficiency of the school. Decision of appropriate school size is limited by two elements: one is on the basis of education quality which lays emphasis on seeking student's ideal learning effect and results in development of body and mind; the other is on the basis of education efficiency which lays emphasis on pursuing ideal economic returns. Appropriate school size is just to the assurance of the two joint. However, in general practice, there is particular stress on a certain aspect. Different scale demand exists in different stages of a nation's educational development.
This paper has investigated the changes of American high and primary school size in the visual angle of small-scale school destiny during the reform of different historical periods of school, and then analyzes important meaning, appropriateness and limit of influence of school size.
This thesis has three parts besides the preface and conclusion.
The first part is about small-scale schools which are formed spontaneously in history .It is included and the reasons they formed, the characteristics and the decline in the changed society.
The second part touches upon the conscientious pursuit of the small-school which rose in the middle period of the seventies in 20th century and sustained to the present. The pursuit to the small-school has already gone beyond the meaning of the small-school in history and has reached the stage of the negation of negation to the small-scale school in history. This part analyzes the social background and the reasons of small-school's rejuvenation, the characteristic and classification of the new small-school and the advantages and questions the small-school has shown.
Through analyzing about the case of American small-school wave in history, the third part draws some thinking that involves the importance, appropriateness and limit of influence of school size.
本文以美国小规模学校在不同历史时期教育改革中的命运为视角，考察了美国中小学尤其是中学规模的变迁，由此来分析学校规模的重要意义、变化的基本规律及其影响的有限性。
除引言和结语外，本文分为三个部分：
第一部分：关于历史上自发形成的小规模学校。包括它们形成的原因与特点，以及在变化了的社会要求下的衰落。
第二部分：主要论及对小规模学校的自觉追求。这种自觉追求兴起于70年代中期并持续到现在，对规模上的新要求反映了外部社会条件的变化和内部教育变革的要求。此期对小规模学校的追求已经超出了历史上的小规模学校的含义，达到了对历史上小规模学校的否定之否定阶段。该部分分析了新的小规模学校产生的社会背景与原因，特点与分类，以及这些小规模学校所表现出来的优势与问题。
第三部分：通过对美国小规模学校在历史上的起伏的个案分析，引出几点思考，涉及规模的重要性，规模的变化的规律，以及规模影响的有限性。
School size is a very important quantity norm closely-related to quality and efficiency of the school. Decision of appropriate school size is limited by two elements: one is on the basis of education quality which lays emphasis on seeking student's ideal learning effect and results in development of body and mind; the other is on the basis of education efficiency which lays emphasis on pursuing ideal economic returns. Appropriate school size is just to the assurance of the two joint. However, in general practice, there is particular stress on a certain aspect. Different scale demand exists in different stages of a nation's educational development.
This paper has investigated the changes of American high and primary school size in the visual angle of small-scale school destiny during the reform of different historical periods of school, and then analyzes important meaning, appropriateness and limit of influence of school size.
This thesis has three parts besides the preface and conclusion.
The first part is about small-scale schools which are formed spontaneously in history .It is included and the reasons they formed, the characteristics and the decline in the changed society.
The second part touches upon the conscientious pursuit of the small-school which rose in the middle period of the seventies in 20th century and sustained to the present. The pursuit to the small-school has already gone beyond the meaning of the small-school in history and has reached the stage of the negation of negation to the small-scale school in history. This part analyzes the social background and the reasons of small-school's rejuvenation, the characteristic and classification of the new small-school and the advantages and questions the small-school has shown.
Through analyzing about the case of American small-school wave in history, the third part draws some thinking that involves the importance, appropriateness and limit of influence of school size.
引文
1．张友伦、李剑鸣主编：《美国历史上的社会运动和政府改革》，天津教育出版社 1992年版。
2．黄兆群著：《熔炉下的火焰：美国移民、民族和种族》，东方出版社1994年版。
3．(美)劳伦斯A．克雷明著，洪成文、丁邦平等译：《美国教育史—建国初期的历程：1783—1876》，北京师范大学出版社2002年版。
4．(美)劳伦斯A．克雷明著，单中惠、马晓斌译：《学校的变革》，上海教育出版社1994年版。
5．滕大春著：《美国教育史》，人民教育出版社1994年版。
6．杨孔炽、徐宜安著：《美国公立中学发展研究》，湖北人民出版社1996年版。
7．袒波克著：《美国史纲》上册，三联书店1972年版。
8．王旭著：《美国城市史》，中国社会科学出版社2000年版。
9．朱世达：《当代美国文化与社会》，中国社会科学出版社2000年版。
10．翁文艳著：《教育公平与学校选择制度》，北京师范大学出版社2003年版。
11．(美)弗．斯卡皮蒂著，刘泰星、张世灏译：《美国社会问题》，中国社会科学出版社1986年版。
12．史静寰主编：《当代美国教育》，社会科学出版社2001年版。
13．梁建锋著：《美国教育》，中国科学技术大学出版社2002版。
14．科南特著，陈友松主译：《科南特教育论著选》，人民教育出版社1984版。
15．靳希斌编著：《教育经济学》，人民教育出版社1997年版。
16. Raymond C. Hummel & John M. Nagle. Urban Education in America: Problems &Prospects, New York, Oxford University Press, 1973.
17. Editor By Evans Clinchy. Creating New Schools: How Small Schools Are
Changing American Education, Teachers College Of Columbia University, New York,2000.
18. Edited by B.E Dward McClellan and William J. Reese, The Social History Of American Education, University of Illinois Press, 1988.
19. R. Kenneth Godwin and Frank R. Kemerer., School Choice Tradeoffs: Liberty, Equity, And Diversity, University of Texas Press, Austin, 2002.
1．柳海民：《近十年来美国教育经费投入的研究》，《比较教育研究》，1994．6。
2．劳伦斯．帕克(Lowrance Parker)(邵燕楠、李军译)：《美国学校中的少数民族学生—美国教育政策及其研究的概述与分析》，《西南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》，1999．6。
3．季平博士论文：《美国公立学校发展的历史、分析与启示》，北京师范大学，2001。
4．余海波：《当前美国多元文化教育兴起的原因》，《中国民族教育》，2000．3。
5．张晋安：《美国教育统计》，《世界教育信息》，2000．4。
6．陈月茹：《美国小班化教学研究述论》，《山东师范大学学报(人文社科版)》，2002．1。
7．和学新：《班级规模与学校规模对学校教育成效的影响》，《教育发展研究》，2001．1。
8．陈鸿璠：《1993～2000年的美国教育政策》，《石油教育》，2001．5。
9．赵登明、Mharris、刘可敬：《文化同化的失败与多元文化的兴起——美国多元文化教育运动分析》，《西北师大学报(社会科学版)》，2001．6。
10．卢海弘：《班级规模变小，学生成绩更好?——美国对缩小班级规模与学生成绩之关系的理论与实验研究述评》，《比较教育》，2001．10。
11．彭伟强：《美国多元办学模式及启示》，《教育科学研究》，2001．10。
12．高向斌：《美国多元文化教育初探》，《比教育研究》，2002．4。
13．韩伏彬，董建梅：《美国特许学校的基本特色》，《丌放教育研究》2002．5。
14．叶志伟硕士论文：《1964—1968年美国城市种族暴力冲突及其原因》，东北师范大学，2002。
15．陈奕平：《美国老年人口变动特征及其影响分析》，《人口学刊》，2003．3。
16．马健生、鲍枫，《缩小学校规模：美国教育改革的新动向》，《比较教育研究》，2003．5。
17．耿申：《学校适宜规模及相关设施标准》，教育科学研究，2003．5。
18．刘海涛、边红彦：《美国教育行政演进概览与启示》，《河北工程技术职业学院学报》，2003．9。
19．方吉正：学校规模在教育品质的效应探讨，http://www.socialwork.com.hk/artical/educate/gb12.htm
20．张俊均择译自Education World：小学校就是好学校?《中文网路咨询站．文教新潮季刊》2000年12月。http://www.tw.org/newwaves/54/2-6.html
21．周立平摘译自纽约时报．2004．1．19：美国的一人一校，《中文网路咨询站·美国教育快讯》，http://www.tw.org/edunews/express_13.html#9j
22．刘仁庆：小校规划—美国高中改革的趋势，《中文网路咨询站·文教新潮季刊》2000年9月。http://www.tw.org/newwaves/53/2-1.html
23. Beth Spence, Small Schools: Why they provide the best education for low-income children, based on the research of Dr. Craig Howley and Dr. Robert Bickel. A Challenge West Virginia document. http://www.wvcovenanthouse.org/challengewv/
24. Daniel L.Duke, Sara Trautter, Reducing the Negative Effects of Large Schools, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, 2001 .p.1 http://www.edfacilities.org
25. Hampel. Robert L, Historical Perspectives On Small Schools, Phi Delta Kappan, Jan2002, Vol. 83 Issue 5, p357。http: //search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=5842094&db=aph
26. Joe Agron, Size Matters, American School & University. April 2003 http://asumag.com/ar/university_size_matters/
27. Kathleen Cotton, School Size, School Climate. and Student Performance, Produced by ERIC, May 1996. http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/10/c020.html
28. Leanna Stiefel, Parice Iatarola, Norm Frucher, Robert Berne, The Effects of Size of Student Body on School Costs and Performance in New York City High Schools, [R] New York University, Institute for Education and Social Policy, 1998. http://www.nyu.edu/iesp/publications/effects/effects.pdf
29. Linda Jacobson, Survey Finds Mixed Views On Smaller Schools, education week on the web,2001. http://www.edweek.com/ew/newstory.cfm?slug=05public.h21 &keywords=smaller%20schools
30. National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. (1996). What matters most:Teaching for America's Future. New York. http://www.teachingquality.org/resources/pdfs/What_Matters_Most.pdf
31. Nathan, J. & Febey, K., Smaller, safer, saner, successful schools. Washington D.C.: National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities and Minneapolis, MN: The Center For School Change, Humphrey Institute of The University Of Minnesota, 2001. http://www.edfacilities.org/pubs/saneschools.pdf
32. Patricia A. Wasley, Small classes, Small school: The Time Is Now. Educational Leadership/February 2002 http://www.ERIC.org
33. Public Agenda, Teachers, Parents Find Smaller Schools Appealing but See Other Education Reforms As More Pressing, Sept. 26, 2001. http://www.publicagenda.org/press/press_release_detail.cfm?list=36
34. Raywid & Mary Anne, the Policy Environments of Small Schools and Schools-Within-Schools, Educational Leadership, Feb2002, Vol. 59 Issue 5, p47, 5p. http://search.epnet.com/direct.asp?an=6503371 &db=aph
35. Steven Bingler, Barbara M.Dianond, Bobbie Hill, Dollars & Sense. The Cost Effectiveness of Small Schools, Ohio: Knowledge Works Foundation, 2002. http://www.dollarsandsense.org
36. Tom Gregory, Small is Too Big: Achieving a Critical Anti-Mass in the High School, P.3. a Position Paper Prepared for the Hubert H. Humphrey Institute
for Public Affairs and the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1992. http://130.111.64.3:86/search/o?SEARCH=ED361159
37. Williams, Davant T., The Dimensions of Education: Recent Research on School Size. Working Paper Series. U.S.: South Carolina 1990-12-00 http://www.edrs.com
38. Wasley, P. A., Fine, M., King, S. P., et al, Small schools: Great strides, a study of new small schools in Chicago. New York: The Bank Street College of Education, Publications Office, 2000. http://www.bankstreet.edu:8080/publications/2002/06/26
39．美国教育统计中心(NCES：National Center Education Statistics)http://nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2003/charts/chart30. asp
40．美国教育统计中心(NCES): Table A-4: Percent of public elementary and secondary students, by school size and by state: School year 2000-01.http://www.NCES.ed.gov
41. 美国教育统计中心(NCES) : Contexts of Elementary and Secondary Education: Overcrowding in Schools. Table 45-2 Percentage distribution of public schools reporting that they are underenrolled, at capacity, or overcrowded, by selected school characteristics: 1999. http://www.NCES.ed.gov
42. 美国教育统计中心(NCES): Cassandra Rowand, How Old are America's Public Schools ? http ://nces.ed. gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=1999048
43. http://www. gatesfoundation.org/education/(比尔．梅林达盖茨基金会网站)
2．黄兆群著：《熔炉下的火焰：美国移民、民族和种族》，东方出版社1994年版。
3．(美)劳伦斯A．克雷明著，洪成文、丁邦平等译：《美国教育史—建国初期的历程：1783—1876》，北京师范大学出版社2002年版。
4．(美)劳伦斯A．克雷明著，单中惠、马晓斌译：《学校的变革》，上海教育出版社1994年版。
5．滕大春著：《美国教育史》，人民教育出版社1994年版。
6．杨孔炽、徐宜安著：《美国公立中学发展研究》，湖北人民出版社1996年版。
7．袒波克著：《美国史纲》上册，三联书店1972年版。
8．王旭著：《美国城市史》，中国社会科学出版社2000年版。
9．朱世达：《当代美国文化与社会》，中国社会科学出版社2000年版。
10．翁文艳著：《教育公平与学校选择制度》，北京师范大学出版社2003年版。
11．(美)弗．斯卡皮蒂著，刘泰星、张世灏译：《美国社会问题》，中国社会科学出版社1986年版。
12．史静寰主编：《当代美国教育》，社会科学出版社2001年版。
13．梁建锋著：《美国教育》，中国科学技术大学出版社2002版。
14．科南特著，陈友松主译：《科南特教育论著选》，人民教育出版社1984版。
15．靳希斌编著：《教育经济学》，人民教育出版社1997年版。
16. Raymond C. Hummel & John M. Nagle. Urban Education in America: Problems &Prospects, New York, Oxford University Press, 1973.
17. Editor By Evans Clinchy. Creating New Schools: How Small Schools Are
Changing American Education, Teachers College Of Columbia University, New York,2000.
18. Edited by B.E Dward McClellan and William J. Reese, The Social History Of American Education, University of Illinois Press, 1988.
19. R. Kenneth Godwin and Frank R. Kemerer., School Choice Tradeoffs: Liberty, Equity, And Diversity, University of Texas Press, Austin, 2002.
1．柳海民：《近十年来美国教育经费投入的研究》，《比较教育研究》，1994．6。
2．劳伦斯．帕克(Lowrance Parker)(邵燕楠、李军译)：《美国学校中的少数民族学生—美国教育政策及其研究的概述与分析》，《西南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》，1999．6。
3．季平博士论文：《美国公立学校发展的历史、分析与启示》，北京师范大学，2001。
4．余海波：《当前美国多元文化教育兴起的原因》，《中国民族教育》，2000．3。
5．张晋安：《美国教育统计》，《世界教育信息》，2000．4。
6．陈月茹：《美国小班化教学研究述论》，《山东师范大学学报(人文社科版)》，2002．1。
7．和学新：《班级规模与学校规模对学校教育成效的影响》，《教育发展研究》，2001．1。
8．陈鸿璠：《1993～2000年的美国教育政策》，《石油教育》，2001．5。
9．赵登明、Mharris、刘可敬：《文化同化的失败与多元文化的兴起——美国多元文化教育运动分析》，《西北师大学报(社会科学版)》，2001．6。
10．卢海弘：《班级规模变小，学生成绩更好?——美国对缩小班级规模与学生成绩之关系的理论与实验研究述评》，《比较教育》，2001．10。
11．彭伟强：《美国多元办学模式及启示》，《教育科学研究》，2001．10。
12．高向斌：《美国多元文化教育初探》，《比教育研究》，2002．4。
13．韩伏彬，董建梅：《美国特许学校的基本特色》，《丌放教育研究》2002．5。
14．叶志伟硕士论文：《1964—1968年美国城市种族暴力冲突及其原因》，东北师范大学，2002。
15．陈奕平：《美国老年人口变动特征及其影响分析》，《人口学刊》，2003．3。
16．马健生、鲍枫，《缩小学校规模：美国教育改革的新动向》，《比较教育研究》，2003．5。
17．耿申：《学校适宜规模及相关设施标准》，教育科学研究，2003．5。
18．刘海涛、边红彦：《美国教育行政演进概览与启示》，《河北工程技术职业学院学报》，2003．9。
19．方吉正：学校规模在教育品质的效应探讨，http://www.socialwork.com.hk/artical/educate/gb12.htm
20．张俊均择译自Education World：小学校就是好学校?《中文网路咨询站．文教新潮季刊》2000年12月。http://www.tw.org/newwaves/54/2-6.html
21．周立平摘译自纽约时报．2004．1．19：美国的一人一校，《中文网路咨询站·美国教育快讯》，http://www.tw.org/edunews/express_13.html#9j
22．刘仁庆：小校规划—美国高中改革的趋势，《中文网路咨询站·文教新潮季刊》2000年9月。http://www.tw.org/newwaves/53/2-1.html
23. Beth Spence, Small Schools: Why they provide the best education for low-income children, based on the research of Dr. Craig Howley and Dr. Robert Bickel. A Challenge West Virginia document. http://www.wvcovenanthouse.org/challengewv/
24. Daniel L.Duke, Sara Trautter, Reducing the Negative Effects of Large Schools, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities, 2001 .p.1 http://www.edfacilities.org
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39．美国教育统计中心(NCES：National Center Education Statistics)http://nces. ed. gov/programs/coe/2003/charts/chart30. asp
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41. 美国教育统计中心(NCES) : Contexts of Elementary and Secondary Education: Overcrowding in Schools. Table 45-2 Percentage distribution of public schools reporting that they are underenrolled, at capacity, or overcrowded, by selected school characteristics: 1999. http://www.NCES.ed.gov
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43. http://www. gatesfoundation.org/education/(比尔．梅林达盖茨基金会网站)